Asian Transitions in an Age of global Change Ch. 22
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Columbuss voyages to the Americas (with support of the Spanish
rulers) opened up new worlds to the civilizations of Europe, Asia,
and Africa 1498 de Gamas expedition accomplished goals of all
explorations launched by Europeans Find a sea link between Europe
and Asia Major turning point for much of western Europe
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16 th 17 th centuries : Dutch, French, and English follow
Portugal into Asia Had little to offer Indians, southeast Asians,
or Chinese in exchange for silks and spices they risked their lives
to carry back to Europe Few Asian peoples interested in converting
to Christianity Military efforts largely unsuccessful Too few in
number When the Europeans posed a threat, the Asian civilizations
isolated themselves from the West
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Europeans used their sea power to control the export of
specific products Especially spices Pepper, cinnamon, nutmeg
Europeans wanted to regulate seaborne commerce in vast Asian
trading network (from Red Sea to South China) Too expensive
Difficult to sustain with widespread Asian resistance Portuguese,
and then the Dutch and English, found it better to fit into the
Asian system rather than attempt to capture it
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16 th 17 th centuries: Asian civilization (including Mughal and
Safavid empires) had little or nothing to do with European
expansion Focus on inner workings Interaction with neighboring
states and nomadic peoples European peoples had not yet gained the
military strength and economic power to dominate the civilizations
of Asia or change the course of their development
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The Asian Trading World and the Coming of the Europeans 1498
Vasco de Gama and his Portuguese crew arrived in India Calicut
prosperous commercial center; southwest coast of India Trade for
spices, fine textiles, and other Asian products Local merchants
were not interested in the products Europeans had brought to trade
for Asian goods Cast-iron pots, coarse cloth, coral beads Asian
merchants only wanted precious metal silver
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The Portuguese also discovered that Muslims had already
established themselves within the Asian markets (tensions between
Muslims/Hindus) Led to resistance to Portuguese trading and empire
building in Asia Obstacles to converting peoples of the area to
Roman Catholicism
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The Asian Sea Trading Network The Asian trading network was
composed of three main zones: an Arab zone in the west based on
carpets, tapestry and glass an Indian zone in the center based on
cotton textiles, gems, elephants, and salt a Chinese zone to the
east based on silks, paper, and porcelain
Slide 10
Trade also occurred within Japan, the Southeast Asian islands,
and East Africa. Provided mainly raw materials precious metals,
foods, and forest products Highest demand and prices for spices,
primarily coming from the Indonesian archipelago Long-distance
trade was largely in high-priced commodities Spices, ivory from
Africa Silk, cotton textiles also trade long-distance Bulk items
were exchanged between the ports within each main trading zones
Large volume of trade Less profitable than luxury items ex) rice,
livestock, timber
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Since ancient times, monsoon winds and the nature of ships and
navigational instruments available to sailors had dictated the main
trade routes in Asian network
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The Arabs and the Chinese Had compasses Had large, well- built
ships Could cross large expanses of open water Arabian and South
China sea Like Europeans, preferred established coastal routes
rather than the largely uncharted and less predictable open
seas
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Two characteristics of Asian trading network were critical to
European attempts to regulate and dominate it 1) no central control
2) military force was usually absent from commercial exchanges
Because all the peoples participating in the network had something
to trade for the products they wanted from others, exchanges within
the system were largely peaceful Trading vessels lightly armed for
protection against pirate attacks
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Trading Empire: The Portuguese Response to the Encounter at
Calicut Mercantilists states power depended heavily on amount of
precious metals a monarch had Steady flow of bullion to Asia was
unacceptable Would enrich merchants and rulers from rival kingdoms
(especially Muslims) Portuguese decided to take by force what they
could not get through fair trade Could offset their lack of numbers
and trading goods with their superior ships and weaponry United in
their drive for wealth and religious converts
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1502 de Gama forced ports on African and Indian coasts to
submit to Portuguese tribute regime Assaulted towns that refused to
cooperate 1507 onward Portuguese captured towns and build
fortresses at strategic points on Asian trading network Ormuz south
end of Persian Gulf Gao- western Indian coast Malacca tip of
Malayan peninsula Ports served both as naval bases for Portuguese
fleets patrolling Asian waters and as factories Factories - Spices
and other products could be stored until they were shipped to
Europe
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The aim of empire was to establish Portuguese monopoly control
over key Asian products All spices (such as cinnamon) produced were
to be shipped in Portuguese galleons to Asian or European markets
Sell products at high prices Portuguese wanted to control a
sizeable portion of Asian trading network
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The Portuguese Vulnerability and the Rise of the Dutch and
English Trading Empires The Portuguese decided to use military
force rather than trade the bullion, but were never able to enforce
their monopoly Corruption independent traders were in defiance of
the crow monopoly; crown officials Poor military discipline Heavy
shipping losses caused by overloading and poor design Lack of
numbers- soldiers and ships Resistance from Asian rivals
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17 th century - the Dutch and English began trading in Asia
Dutch emerged as the victors (at least in the short term) Captured
Malacca 1620 new port at Batavia on the island of Java
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The Dutch trading empire made up of the same basic components
as the Portuguese Fortified towns and factories Warships on patrol
Monopoly control of a limited number of products Better system
Dutch had more numerous and better armed ships
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17 th century - Profits from Dutch trading empire were used to
create a golden age in Holland Realized that greatest profits could
be gained through peace Dutch mainly came to rely on fees they
charged for transporting products from one area in Asia to another
Benefited on profits gained from buying Asians products (like
cloth) and selling them to Europe at inflated prices English
enterprises concentrated along coasts of India Cloth trade rather
than spices of southeast Asia For both the Dutch and English,
peaceful commerce was more profitable than forcible control
Monopolistic measures were increasingly aimed at European rather
than Asian rivals
Slide 22
Going Ashore: European Tribute Systems in Asia As Europeans
moved inland, their military advantages (ships and guns)
disappeared Vastly superior numbers of Asian armies offset
Europeans advantage in weapons and organization for waging war on
land In each area where the Europeans went ashore in early
centuries of expansion, they set up tribute regimes European
overlords content to let indigenous people live in their
traditional settlements and maintain daily lives as long as leaders
paid tribute Agricultural products grown by peasantry supervised by
local elites
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Spreading the Faith: Missionary Enterprise in South and
Southeast Asia Protestant Dutch and English not interested in
winning converts to Christianity Spread of Roman Catholicism was a
fundamental part of the global mission of the Portuguese and
Spanish Iberian missionary offensive in Asia was disappointing
Islam arrived centuries before Da Gama Hindus sophisticated and
deeply entrenched set of religious ideas and rituals Conversion in
south Asia limited to outcaste groups in coastal areas
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Greatest successes of Christian missions occurred in northern
islands of the Philippines Controlled by Spain Had not previously
been exposed to a world religion such as Islam or Buddhism Friars
(priests and brothers) went out to convert and govern the rural
population Served as government officials Dispensed justice Oversaw
collection of tribute payments and public works projects
Responsible for what little education rural Filipinos received
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Filipinos brand of Christianity was a blend Traditional beliefs
and customs Idolatry; magical practices Religion preached by friars
Reasons Filipinos converted Spanish dominance Filipino leaders
converted Believed Christian God could protect them from illness
Wanted to be equal to Spanish overlords in heaven Much of the
preconquest way of life and approach to the world was maintained
Public bathing Ritual drinking
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Modest Returns: The Early Impact of Europeans in Maritime Asia
By 1700 after two centuries of European involvement in south and
southeast Asia Minimal impact on people Europeans introduced the
principle of sea warfare into a peaceful commercial world Concluded
they were better off adapting existing commercial arrangements
Slide 27
1600s onward - As in Africa, European discoveries in the
long-isolated Western Hemisphere did result in the introduction of
important new food plants into India, China, and other areas
Europeans spread diseases into more isolated parts of Asia
Philippines devastating smallpox epidemic Impact of European ideas,
inventions, and modes of social organization were also very limited
Christianity created more hostility than interest European clocks
were seen as toys by Asian rulers
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Ming China: A Global Mission Refused 1368 1644: Ming Dynasty
Reunification of country Renewed agrarian and commercial growth
Worlds most advanced technology Skilled engineers and artisans
Benefit from rich soils and mineral wealth Centralized bureaucracy
Most efficient in the world Firearms fell behind West Still
powerful military Return to examination system Chinese elite was
one of largest and best educated of any major civilization
Slide 30
Ming China Zhu Yuanzhang, a peasant, led the armies that
overthrew the last of the Mongol Yuan dynasty In 1368, he declared
himself the first emperor of the Ming dynasty Attempted to remove
all cultural traces of the Mongol period in Chinese history Mongol
dress discarded Mongol names dropped Mongol palaces and
administrative buildings in some areas were raided and sacked
Nomads fled beyond Great Wall
Slide 31
Another Scholar-Gentry Revival Emperor Hongwu viewed the
scholar- gentry with some suspicion, however Realized their
cooperation was necessary to revival of Chinese civilization
Restored state subsides that had supported the imperial academies
in the capital and regional colleges Restoration of the social and
political dominance of the scholar-gentry Much more complex The
Emperor ordered the civil examination system restored Determined
entry into the imperial administration (at least 50%) Many
positions won by virtue of being born male in the right family or
giving gifts to high officials Those who passed the most difficult
imperial exams were the most highly respected of all Chinese,
except members of the royal family
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Reform: Efforts to Root Out Abuses in Court Politics Hongwu was
mindful of his dependence on a well-educated and loyal
scholar-gentry for day- to-day administration, but still wanted
clear limits on their influence Institute reforms that would check
the abuses Abolished the position of chief minister and transferred
those powers to emperor himself Introduced the practice of public
beatings for bureaucrats found guilty of corruption or incompetence
Many died of wounds; others never recovered from humiliation
Slide 33
Scholar Gentry dominance Hongwu introduced policies that would
provide short-term gains in the lives of common people Promoted
public works Dike building Extension of irrigation systems aimed at
improving farmers yields Declared unoccupied lands tax exempt for
those who cleared and cultivated them Lowered forced labor demands
on peasantry by government and gentry class Promoted silk and
cotton cloth production, creating more income for peasant
households
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Long term lives of peasants didnt improve Growing power of
rural landlord families Landlord families formed alliances with
relatives in the imperial bureaucracy Gentry households with
members in government service were exempted from land taxes and
enjoyed special privileges Peasants had little choice but to become
tenants of large landowners or landless laborers moving about in
search of employment As the gentry began to control much of the
land, the gap between them and the peasantry widened
Slide 35
At most levels of Chinese society, the Ming period continued
the subordination of youths to elders and women to men Student at
the imperial academy dared to dispute the findings of one of his
instructors Beheaded, severed head was hung on a pole at the
entrance of the academy Neo-Confucian thinking was even more
influential than under the late Song and Yuan dynasties The
Confucian social hierarchy was reinforced
Slide 36
Women continued to have subordinate positions in Chinese
society Barred from taking civil service exams and obtaining
positions in the bureaucracy Daughters of upper-class families
Taught to read and write by brothers Composed poetry, painted, and
played musical instruments Non-elite women Worked in fields Sold
goods in local market Courtesans gratifying the needs of
upper-class men; often enjoyed lives of luxury and greater personal
freedom Success for women Bearing male children When they were
married, moving from the status of daughter-in-law to
mother-in-law
Slide 37
An Age of Growth: Agriculture, Population, Commerce, and the
Arts First decades of Ming period economic growth Unprecedented
contacts with other civilizations overseas Great commercial boom
and population increase that had begun in the late Song was renewed
and accelerated New food crops from the Americas (Portuguese and
Spanish merchants) Maize (corn), sweet potatoes, and peanuts Their
cultivation spread throughout China Supplemented the staple rice or
millet diet of the Chinese Helped against famine Aided population
growth
Slide 38
Early Ming - Renewal of commercial growth Domestic economy
became more persistent, and overseas trading links multiplied Trade
in Chinas favor Advanced handicraft industries Silk textiles, tea,
fine ceramics, lacquer ware High demand throughout Asia and Europe
In addition to the Arab and Asian traders, Europeans arrived in
increasing numbers, but could only do business at two places in
Ming China Macao Canton
Slide 39
Merchant class reaped biggest profits from economic boom Good
portion of their gains were transferred to the state in the form of
taxes and to the scholar- gentry in the form of bribes for official
favors Much of the merchants wealth invested in land rather than
put back into trade or manufacturing Ming prosperity was reflected
in fine arts Portraits and scenes of the court, city, or country
life were prominent Major innovation was occurring in literature
Full development of the Chinese novel Spread of literacy among the
upper classes
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The Zheng He (Cheng Ho) Expeditions 1405 1423: Zheng He led
seven major commercial and diplomatic expeditions overseas The
expeditions reached as far away as Persia, Arabia, and Africa
Desire to explore other lands and proclaim the glory of Ming empire
around the world The scholar-gentry argued that the minimal profits
did not justify the expense Need to repair Great Wall The voyages
were abandoned in the 1430s
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Admiral Zheng Hes Voyages First Voyage: 1405-1407 [62 ships;
27,800 men]. Second Voyage: 1407-1409 [Ho didnt go on this trip].
Third Voyage: 1409-1411 [48 ships; 30,000 men]. Fourth Voyage:
1413-1415 [63 ships; 28,500 men]. Fifth Voyage: 1417-1419 Sixth
Voyage: 1421-1422 Emperor Zhu Gaozhi cancelled future trips and
ordered ship builders and sailors to stop work. Seventh Voyage:
1431-1433 Emperor Zhu Zhanji resumed the voyages in 1430 to restore
peaceful relations with Malacca & Siam 100 ships and 27,500
men; Cheng Ho died on the return trip.
Slide 43
Chinese Retreat and the Arrival of the Europeans Just over a
half century after the last of the Zheng He expeditions, China had
purposely moved from the position of great power reaching out
overseas to an increasingly isolated empire Ming war fleet declined
dramatically in number and quality of ships
Slide 44
Christian missionaries infiltrated Chinese coastal areas and
tried to gain access to the court Hope to convert Ming emperors
Franciscans and Dominicans converted tens of thousands of Chinese
Jesuits focused on Ming emperor Missionaries won few converts among
the elite Most court officials were suspicious of these strange-
looking barbarians with large noses and hairy faces When the Ming
were overthrown by the Manchu nomads, Jesuits were able to hold and
even strengthen their position at court Ricci- Italian Jesuit
priest whose missionary activity in China during the Ming Dynasty
marked the beginning of modern Chinese Christianity. He is still
recognized as one of the greatest missionaries to China.
Slide 45
Ming Decline and the Chinese Predicament By late 1500, Ming was
in decline Retreat from overseas involvement Highly centralized
absolutist political structure later controlled by mediocre or
incompetent men Decades of rampant official corruption Public works
productions fell into disrepair Floods, drought, and famine Some
peasants sold their children into slavery; others resorted to
cannibalism Local landlords built huge estates by taking advantage
of the increasingly desperate peasant population Farmers turned to
banditry and rebellion to confiscate food and avenge greedy
landlords and corrupt officials Internal disorder led to outside
invasions by nomads
Slide 46
1644 - Dynasty was overthrown by rebels within Rebels not able
to organize government Opened the way for invasion and conquest by
a nomadic people Jurchens (Manchus) seized power Nurhaci
established a new dynasty Qing dynasty would rule China for nearly
three and a half centuries
Slide 47
Japan The centralization of Japan began when Nobunaga, one of
the regional daimyo lords, successfully unified central Honshu
prior to his assassination in 1582 1573 - overthrew the last of the
Ashikaga shoguns and united Japan In 1603, the emperor granted
Ieyasu the title of shogun Reduced daimyo independence and imposed
political unity
Slide 48
European traders brought the Japanese mainly goods produced in
India, China, and southeast Asia Firearms Revolutionized warfare
Helped unify Japan Printing presses Clocks In return, the Europeans
received silver, copper, pottery, and lacquer ware from the
Japanese Dealing with the European Challenge
Slide 49
Soon after the merchants, Christian missionaries arrived and
set to work converting the Japanese to Roman Catholicism Christian
acceptance began to diminish following Nobunaga's assassination
Alarmed by the potential threat to the Japanese social hierarchy,
Hideyoshi proved less amenable to the spread of Christianity
Slide 50
Japans self imposed isolation Growing doubts about European
intentions Fears that both European merchants and missionaries
might upset existing social order By the 1590s, Hideyoshi began
active persecution of Christians 1614 Ieyasu continued persecution
and then officially banned Christianity Japanese converts were
forced to renounce their faith or be imprisoned, tortured, and
executed As in India and China, a promising start toward conversion
had died out
Slide 51
Broader campaign to isolate Japan from outside influences 1616
foreign traders confined to handful of cities 1630s Japanese ships
were forbidden to trade or even sail overseas Export of silver and
copper restricted Western books banned Mid 17 th century Japan
almost completely isolated Japanese elite still interested in
European achievements Chinese scholar gentry hairy barbarians
Japanese concentrated on building up their strength by adopting
European innovations
Slide 52
CHINESE DYNASTIC SONG Shang, Zhou, Qin, Han Sui, Tang, Song
Yuan and Ming and Qing Mao Zedong, Mao Zedong