"Asian Environmental Protection in Natural Resources and Sustainable Development: Convergence Versus Divergence?" [2007] MqJlICEnvLaw 3; (2007) 4(1) Macquarie Journal of International

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Koh, Kheng-Lian --- "Asian Environmental Protection in Natural Resources andSustainable Development: Convergence Versus Divergence?" [2007] MqJlICEnvLaw3; (2007) 4(1) Macquarie Journal of International and Comparative EnvironmentalLaw 43 Asean&Environmental&Protection&in&Natural&Resources&and&Sustainable&Development:&Convergence&versusDivergence?I&IntroductionII&Some&DivergenceA&The&ASEAN&Way1&ASEAN&Way&v&Flexible&Engagement:&Some&Divergence&in&Approach&to&Environmental&Governance&inNatural&Resources2&ASEAN&Way&and&Doctrine&of&Sovereignty&as&Applied&to&Natural&Resources:&Divergent&Views3&The&Future&of&the&ASEAN&Way&&the&ASEAN&Charter:&Divergent&Views?B&ASEAN&Agreement&on&the&Conservation&of&Nature&and&Natural&Resources,&1985:&Divergence&inConvergenceC&ASEAN&Agreement&on&Transboundary&Haze&Pollution,&2002&and&Thailands&Interpretative&Declarationand&NonVRatiWication&by&some&ASEAN&MembersD&Draft&ASEAN&Framework&Agreement&on&Access&to&Biological&and&Genetic&Resources,&2000:&SomeConWlict&of&InterestsIII&Some&ConvergenceA&ASEAN&Environmental&Governance&Focus&on&Natural&ResourcesB&Forging&Common&ASEAN&Policies&and&Stands&in&Natural&Resource&ManagementC&Programs&and&Plans&of&Action&on&Natural&Resource&ManagementD&Other&Soft&Law&Instruments&on&Protection&of&Natural&ResourcesE&Some&SpeciWic&Areas&of&Cooperation&in&Natural&ResourcesIV&Conclusion

Asean Environmental Protection in Natural Resources and SustainableDevelopment: Convergence versus Divergence?KHENGVLIAN&KOH*We&envision&a&&green&ASEAN&with&fully&established&mechanisms&for&sustainable&development&toensure&the&protection&of&the&regions&environment,&the&sustainability&of&its&natural)resources&&(italicsadded).[1]

I IntroductionEstablished&in&1967,&ASEAN&&the&Association&of&South&East&Asian&Nations&&consists&of&ten&member&states,&namely,Brunei,&Cambodia,&Indonesia,&Laos,&Myanmar,&Malaysia,&the&Philippines,&Singapore,&Thailand&and&Vietnam.[2]To&what&extent&can&the&ASEAN)Vision)2020&on&natural&resources,&quoted&above,&be&realized&in&a&region&which&is&notaltogether&homogeneous&but&is&disparate&to&a&varying&extent&in&terms&of&its&history,&politics,&economics,&socioVcultural&communities,&population&and&natural&resources?



The&2002&ASEAN)Report)to)the)World)Summit)on)Sustainable)Development)(WSSD)&noted&the&regions&naturalresources&in&the&following&terms:ASEANs&environment&and&natural&resource&endowments&are&unique&and&diverse.&Forest&cover&inASEAN&is&over&48%,&compared&to&the&world&average&of&below&30%.&The&aquatic&ecosystems&and&themarine&environment&in&ASEAN&are&highly&productive&and&species&rich.&In&1998,&it&contributed&14%&ofthe&worlds&marine&Wish&production,&and&contained&35%&of&the&worlds&mangrove&forests,&and&30%&ofthe&worlds&coral&reefs.[3]Three&of&the&ten&ASEAN&members,&Indonesia,&Malaysia&and&the&Philippines,&are&among&the&seventeen&megadiversity&countries&in&the&world.[4]This&paper&deals&with&the&policies,&strategies,&programs&and&plans&of&actions&in&the&management&of&the&naturalresources&in&ASEAN.&The&challenges&encountered&in&the&formulation&and&implementation&of&the&variousinstruments&relating&to&these,&reWlect&some&divergence&as&well&as&convergence.&The&approach&to&ASEANscooperation&is&the&ASEAN&Way,[5]&which&may&soon&be&modiWied&by&the&ASEAN)Charter&(infra).[6]This&paper&focuses&on&ASEAN&at&the&subVregional&level&and&not&at&the&national&level&of&member&states.During&the&last&two&decades,&ASEAN&countries&have&embarked&on&massive&economic&development&aimed&at&raisingthe&standards&of&living&of&the&people.&Consequently,&the&impact&of&these&activities&has&affected&the&regionsbiodiversity.&For&example,&the&clearing&of&forest&land&by&burning&to&make&way&for&palm&oil&plantations&in&Indonesiahas&caused&untold&damage&to&biodiversity.&This&is&one&such&example&with&which&ASEAN&has&still&to&grapple.The&ASEAN)Vision)2020[7]&calls&for&shared&values&for&sustainable&development&of&natural&resources.&This&involvesboth&procedural&as&well&as&substantive&mechanisms&by&integrating&environmental&considerations&into&developmentplanning.&The&Vision&weaves&together&demographic&dynamics,&socio&&cultural&factors,&economic&growth,&naturalresource&use&and&environmental&protection.As&environment&is&a&highly&political&issue,&there&is&bound&to&be&divergence&in&Winding&solutions.&As&in&other&parts&ofthe&world&and&even&within&a&particular&country&there&are&always&divergencies&in&the&pursuit&of&the&use&of&naturalresources&and&sustainable&development.&Where&there&are&common&concerns,&it&is&easier&to&Wind&a&convergence.II Some DivergenceI&will&consider&four&instances&of&divergence.&First,&the&approach&to&decision&making&&the&ASEAN&Way.&Second,&the1985&ASEAN)Agreement)on)the)Conservation)of)Nature)and)Natural)Resources:[8]divergence&in&convergence.&Third,&the&2002&ASEAN)Agreement)on)Transboundary)Haze)Pollution:[9]Thailands&Interpretative&Declaration,[10]&and&nonV&ratiWication&by&some&ASEAN&members.&Fourth,&the&draft&ASEAN

Framework)Agreement)on)Access)to)Biological)and)Genetic)Resources:[11]some&conWlict&of&interests.It&is&not&at&all&surprising&that&divergencies&occur&in&an&area&such&as&the&environment,&as&issues&relating&toenvironmental&governance&and&sustainable&development&in&natural&resources&require&progressive)deliberations&inorder&to&achieve&a&clear&vision&and&policy&before&speciWic&strategies&and&laws&can&be&formulated.&This&is&seen&notonly&in&ASEANs&cooperation&in&environment&but&also&in&other&parts&of&the&world.&As&N&A&Robinson&notes:The&need&for&more&effective&international&cooperation&to&safeguard&Earths&environment&had&beenevident&since&before&the&UN&Stockholm&Conference&on&the&Human&Environment&in&1972.&ThatConference&provided&for&the&establishment&of&the&United&Nations&Environment&Programme&(UNEP),and&perhaps&it&was&because&of&the&success&of&UNEP&that&nations&came&to&recognize&the&need&for&nationsto&take&ever&more&effective&international&measures&to&prevent&environmental&degradation&around&theworld.&The&need&to&do&so,&however,&was&not&matched&by&a&clear&vision&about&how&to&do&so.[12]A The ASEAN Way



1 ASEAN Way v Flexible Engagement: Some Divergence in Approach to Environmental Governance inNatural ResourcesIn&the&context&of&environmental&governance,&the&ASEAN&Way&is&generally&typiWied&by&soft&laws&rather&than&hardlaws.&Of&course,&there&are&other&reasons&why&many&environmental&instruments&take&the&form&of&soft&laws.[13]&TheASEAN&Way&also&puts&the&burden&of&implementation,&compliance&and&enforcement&on&the&member&states&as&there&isno&central&ASEAN&bureaucracy.The&ASEAN&Way&is&now&ready&to&move&forward&to&the&next&stage&with&a&focus&on&people&under&the&forthcomingASEAN)Charter.[14]&This&is&important&as&the&role&of&the&people&(public&participation)&plays&a&part&in&shaping&themanagement&of&natural&resources.&Ong&Keng&Yong,&Secretary&General&of&ASEAN&said:&a&certain&formality&based&on&amore&legal&regime&will&help&ASEAN&grow&into&a&more&effective&regional&organization.[15]&Things&have&changed&andASEAN&is&meeting&new&challenges&in&all&spheres&including&the&environment&as&grimly&demonstrated&by&theIndonesian&Wires,&SARS&and&avian&Wlu.[16]&More&teeth&are&also&needed&to&tackle&the&problems&such&as&illegal&trade&inendangered&species.The&ASEAN&Way&has&had&its&strengths&and&weaknesses.[17]&Its&weakness&has&been&manifested&in&attempts&to&solvethe&Indonesia&Haze.&In&order&to&counteract&this,&an&innovative&concept&of&Wlexible&engagement&was&mooted&in&thelate&1990s&by&the&then&Foreign&Minister&of&Thailand,&Surin&Pitsuwan,&signifying&a&divergence&in&the&approach&todealing&with&the&internal&affairs&of&a&member&state&which&would&have&environmental,&economic&or&other&impacts.To&understand&how&the&ASEAN&Way&evolved,&we&need&to&understand&the&history&of&the&formation&of&ASEAN&itself.The&Bangkok&Declaration&of&8&August&1967&which&established&ASEAN[18]&was&toaccelerate&the&economic&growth,&social&progress&and&cultural&development&in&the&region&through&jointendeavor&in&the&spirit&of&equality&and&partnership,&in&order&to&strengthen&the&foundations&for&aprosperous&and&equal&community&of&South&East&Asian&nations&and&to&promote&regional&peace&andstability.[19]Mr&S&Rajaratnam,&the&then&Foreign&Minister&of&Singapore,&at&the&signing&ceremony&said:&It&is&easy&to&give&birth&to&anew&organization&&It&is&a&mere&skeleton&that&we&have&erected&&He&pointed&out&that&the&difWicult&task&was&to&giveWlesh&and&blood&to&the&concept,&by)marrying)nationalist)thinking)with)regional)thinking.)He&continued:We&must&also&accept&the&fact,&if&we&are&really&serious&about&it,&that&regional)existence)means)painful

medications)to)nationalist)practices)and)difKicult)adjustments.&If&were&not&going&to&do&that&thenregionalism&remains&Utopian.[20]The&founder&members&&Indonesia,&Malaysia,&the&Philippines,&Singapore&and&Thailand&&had&not&been&in&the&best&ofpolitical&relationships&and&some&were&then&hostile&to&one&another.&ConWidence&building&through&the&gentlemusyawarah&&consensus&way&of&decisionVmaking&was&the&only&way&&and&thus&came&to&be&known&as&the&ASEANWay.&And&cooperation&in&the&now&three&communities&&ASEAN&Security&Community;&ASEAN&Economic&Community;and&ASEAN&SocioVCultural&Community&&has&gained&conWidence&and&is&moving&forward&to&the&next&step&&one&that&isintended&to&give&more&teeth.&This&is&the&move&forward&for&the&ASEAN&Community.This&ASEAN&Charter&Way&approach&would&enable&ASEAN&member&states&to&discuss&problems&of&Wires&caused&bypalm&oil&plantation&owners&in&Indonesia&without&being&regarded&as&interfering&with&the&internal&affairs&of&thecountry.&At&the&33rd&ASEAN&Ministers&Meeting&in&July&2000,&the&then&Foreign&Minister&of&Thailand,&Surin&Pitsuwan,stated&thatour&initiative&on&Wlexible&engagement,&which&has&evolved&into&enhanced&interaction,&is&part&of&oureffort&to&ensure&that&ASEAN&is&more&effective,&cohesive&and&relevant&to&the&changing&world&situation.[21]This&concept&would&also&herald&a&rulesVbased&solution.&It&could&also&modify&the&doctrine&of&sovereignty&andterritorial&integrity&of&nations&as&applied&by&ASEAN,&reWlected&in&the&1976&Bali&Declaration)of)the)ASEAN)Concord,[22]and&could&apply&in&the&management&of&natural&resources.&This&would&give&ASEAN&members&legal&backing&tosolutions&in&the&protection&of&the&environment&including&the&protection&of&natural&resources.[23]



2 ASEAN Way and Doctrine of Sovereignty as Applied to Natural Resources: Divergent ViewsThe&doctrine&of&sovereignty&is&related&to&the&notion&of&the&ASEAN&Way.&The&ASEAN&Way&has&called&for&an&absoluteapplication&of&the&doctrine&&ie&nonVinterference&with&the&internal&affairs&of&a&country.&The&provision&on&nonVinterference&has&been&incorporated&in&many&ASEAN&documents.&For&example,&the&Declaration)of)ASEAN)Concord&II(Bali,&2003)&reafWirmed&the&fundamental&importance&of&adhering&to&the&principle&of&nonVinterference&andconsensus&in&ASEAN&cooperation:The&ASEAN&Security&Community&shall&abide&by&the&UN&Charter&and&other&principles&of&internationallaw&and&uphold&ASEANs&principles&of&nonVinterference,&consensusVbased&decisionVmaking,&nationaland&regional&resilience,&respect&for&national&sovereignty,&the&renunciation&of&the&threat&or&the&use&offorce,&and&peaceful&settlement&of&differences&and&disputes.[24]Article&2&(7)&of&the&United&Nations&Charter&reads:&nothing&contained&in&the&present&Charter&shall&authorize&theUnited&Nations&to&intervene&in&matters&which&are&essentially&within&the&domestic&jurisdiction&of&any&state&[25]In&the&context&of&natural&resources,&the&doctrine&Winds&expression&in&the&preamble&of&the&General&AssemblyResolution&on&Permanent&Sovereignty&over&Natural&ResourcesBearing&in&mind&its&resolution&1314(XIII)&of&12&December&1958,&by&which&it&established&theCommission&on&Permanent&Sovereignty&over&Natural&Resources&and&instructed&it&to&conduct&a&fullsurvey&of&the&status&of&permanent&sovereignty&over&natural&wealth&and&resources&as&a&basic&constituentof&the&right&to&selfVdetermination,&with&recommendations,&where&necessary,&for&its&strengthening,&anddecided&further&that,&in&the&conduct&of&the&full&survey&of&the&status&of&the&permanent&sovereignty&ofpeoples&and&nations&over&their&natural&wealth&and&resources,&due&regard&should&be&paid&to&the&rightsand&duties&of&States&under&international&law&and&to&the&importance&of&encouraging&international&coVoperation&in&the&economic&development&of&developing&countries,&[26]As&already&noted,&during&various&ASEAN&ministers&meetings&on&the&Indonesian&haze,&the&Thai&Foreign&Minister,Surin&Pitsuwan,&recommended&thatperhaps&it&is&time&that&ASEANs&cherished)principle)of)nonNintervention)(ie,&the&ASEAN&Way)&is&modiWiedto&allow&ASEAN&to&play&a&constructive&role&in&preventing&or&resolving&domestic&issues&with&regionalimplications.He&argued&that&a&Wlexible&engagement&would&enable&ASEAN&member&states&to&make&recommendations&and&policiesin&regard&to&a&member&states&internal&affairs.&At&the&31st&ASEAN&Ministerial&Meeting&in&Manila&in&July&1998,&heelaborated&his&view&that&the&nonVinterference&principle&in&the&ASEAN&Way&could&no&longer&be&accepted&as&follows:Many&domestic&affairs&have&obvious&external&or&transnational&dimensions,&adversely&affectingneighbors,&the&region&and&the&regions&relations&with&others.&In&such&cases,&the&affected&countriesshould&be&able&to&express&their&opinions&and&concerns&in&an&open,&frank&and&constructive&manner,which&is&not,&and&should&not&be,&considered&interference&in&fellowVmembers&domestic&affairs.[27]He&went&on&to&challenge&the&traditional&doctrine&of&national&sovereignty&which&has&also&been&applied&to&the&hilt&inmany&ASEAN&environmental&instruments,&boldly&stating:ASEAN&countries&should&have&sufWicient&selfVconWidence&and&conWidence&in&one&another,&both&to&discussall&issues&once&considered&taboos&&and&to&speak&out&on&such&issues&&when&necessary&andappropriate.&[28]However,&he&did&not&go&so&far&as&to&jettison&the&principle&but&only&said&that&it&should&not&be&absolute.[29]&Thisconcept&caused&some&alarm&among&member&countries,&and&the&only&support&for&this&Wlexible&engagement&policywas&from&the&Philippines.&The&rest&preferred&the&ASEAN&Way.If&the&Wlexible&engagement&policy&had&been&adopted,&ASEAN&may&have&recommended&the&establishment&of&productecoVlabeling&for&Indonesian&palm&oil&or&timber&sale&items&in&order&to&address&the&direct&capital&investment&that&is&acause&of&the&forest&Wires&in&Indonesia&or&the&deforestation&there&and&elsewhere.&Such&an&ecoVlabeling&measure&wouldallow&informed&market&decisions&to&deter&the&illegal&process&of&setting&Wires&to&clear&land&for&investment.



Subsequently,&in&2002&the&ASEAN&members&drafted&the&ASEAN)Agreement)on)Transboundary)Haze)Pollution.[30]This&Agreement&entered&into&force&in&2003&with&its&ratiWication&by&seven&ASEAN&member&states,&Brunei,&Laos,Myanmar,&Malaysia,&Singapore,&Thailand&and&Vietnam.&Indonesia,&which&has&caused&the&forest&Wires,&has&not&as&yetratiWied&the&Agreement,&nor&have&Cambodia&and&the&Philippines.&So&although&there&is&common&concern&amongASEAN&countries&in&dealing&with&forest&Wires,&there&is&divergence&on&implementation&for&political,&economic&or&otherreasons.This&poses&the&question&as&to&whether&the&Wlexible&engagement&concept&is&a&precursor&to&the&formulation&of&theASEAN)Charter&which&contemplates&a&hard&law&approach.3 The Future of the ASEAN Way the ASEAN Charter: Divergent Views?

The&ASEAN&Way&may&soon&be&remoulded&to&accommodate&the&ASEAN)Charter&which&was&established&by&the&11thSummit&of&ASEAN&held&from&12V14&December&2005&in&Kuala&Lumpur.&It&is&expected&that&the&ASEAN)Charter&will&givemore&teeth&by&providing&more&formal&rules&and&norms.[31]However,&some&of&the&more&recent&member&states&such&as&Myanmar&may&prefer&to&adhere&to&the&ASEAN&Way&as&theCharter&may&open&the&gate&to&interference&with&internal&affairs.&The&recent&issue&over&Myanmars&chairmanship&ofASEAN&has&demonstrated&that&the&Charter&may&be&perceived&by&Myanmar&as&pressuring&it&to&be&more&transparentand&accountable.[32]The&ASEAN)Charter&is&expected&to&be&submitted&at&the&13th&ASEAN&Summit&to&be&held&in&Singapore&in&November2007.[33]It&is&expected&to&give&a&more&rules&oriented&approach&to&cooperation&including&the&area&of&natural&resourcemanagement.&Will&ASEAN&under&the&Charter&issue&Directives&to&members&to&amend&their&laws&and&establish&amechanism&for&implementation,&monitoring&and&compliance?[34]B ASEAN Agreement on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, 1985: Divergence inConvergenceThe&highest&level&of&cooperation&and&convergence&lies&in&hard&law&instruments&and&the&only&direct&hard&lawagreement&relating&to&natural&resources&is&the&1985&ASEAN)Agreement)on)the)Conservation)of)Nature)and)NaturalResources.&Yet,&after&21&years,&this&Agreement&has&not&entered&into&force.[35]&Is&there&a&conWlict&of&views&among&theASEAN&countries&which&have&not&ratiWied&the&Agreement?&A&brief&survey&of&its&history&may&throw&some&light.At&the&6th&Meeting&of&the&ASEAN&Expert&Group&on&the&Environment&in&1983,&the&draft&Agreement&was&adopted.&Itwas&signed&on&9&July&1985&by&the&then&six&member&countries&&Brunei,&Indonesia,&Malaysia,&Philippines,&Singaporeand&Thailand.&To&date&only&three)of&the&six&signatory&member&states,&Indonesia,&the&Philippines&and&Thailand&haveratiWied&it.&Singapore,&Malaysia&and&Brunei&have&not.&It&is&therefore&not&yet&in&force.If&signatories&to&an&agreement&signify&a&convergence&in&its&adoption,&nonVratiWication&by&a&signatory&state&mayreWlect&some&divergence.The&question&of&conservation&of&nature&is&very&political&and&with&it&the&question&of&governance&in&making&decisions.What&is&the&position&in&a&federal&state&like&Malaysia?&Is&there&adequate&infrastructure&(required&under&theAgreement)&to&implement&it?&Is&an&inventory&of&species&in&place?&To&what&extent&can&the&then&ASEAN&member&statesclaim&ownership&in&drafting&the&Agreement&(as&this&is&an&important&political&consideration&for&its&ratiWication)?There&are&other&considerations&such&as&the&extent&of&natural&resources&and&the&use&and&conservation&of&suchresources,&also&the&extent&to&which&environmental&considerations&should&be&taken&into&account&in&economicdevelopment.I&have&posed&more&questions&than&I&can&answer,&but&they&may&assist&in&determining&the&convergence&or&divergenceof&views&on&the&question&of&ratiWication.At&the&1st&meeting&of&the&then&ASEAN&Working&Group&on&Environment&(comprising&senior&ofWicials&of&theEnvironment&in&the&then&member&states)&held&from&18V20&December&1978&in&Jakarta,&Indonesia&recommended&the



development&of&the&Agreement.&At&the&5th&Meeting&in&1982&it&was&felt&that&further&studies&were&needed&and&for&thispurpose&a&Workshop&of&Legal&and&Technical&Experts&was&held&from&3V5&November&1982&in&Manila.&The&IUCN&(theWorld&Conservation&Union)&Environmental&Law&Centre&and&the&Commission&on&Environmental&Policy&andAdministration&provided&technical&assistance&in&drafting&the&Agreement.The&scope&is&very&wide&and&was&perhaps&too&forwardVlooking&at&that&period&of&time&for&member&states&toimplement,&as&it&speciWied&an&inventory&of&Wlora&and&fauna&among&other&requirements.&Subsequently,&when&the&1992United&Nations&Convention)on)Biological)Diversity[36]&came&into&existence,&the&question&was&posed&as&to&whether&ithad&overtaken&the&Agreement&in&terms&of&the&contents.&Was&there&still&a&need&for&the&Agreement?&Have&there&beenother&ASEAN&initiatives&that&have&now&rendered&the&Agreement&outdated,&otiose&or&replaced&many&of&itsprovisions?&Should&each&ASEAN&member&state&proceed&with&its&own&ratiWication&of&global&conventions&andimplement&those&in&accordance&with&the&common&but&differentiated&responsibilities&principle?&Or,&should&ASEANwork&towards&a&harmonized&biodiversity&strategy&under&this&Agreement,&together&with&other&ASEAN&strategies,programs&and&plans&of&action?&Has&the&ASEAN&Way&to&cooperation&among&its&members&been&an&obstacle&to&thehard&law&approach&at&the&subregional&level?At&the&7th&and&8th&meetings&of&ASOEN&(ASEAN&Senior&OfWicials&on&the&Environment)&held&from&9V11&September1996&and&8V11&September&1997&respectively,&a&call&was&made&to&assess&the&relevance&of&the&ASEAN&Agreement&inpresent&context,&ie,&in&light&of&several&international&related&conventions&such&as&the&Convention)on)BiologicalDiversity,[37]the&Convention)on)Migratory)Species[38]&and&the&Convention)on)International)Trade)in)Endangered)Species.[39]There&is&now&silence!C ASEAN Agreement on Transboundary Haze Pollution, 2002 and Thailands InterpretativeDeclaration and Non-Ratification by some ASEAN MembersThe&Indonesian&forest&Wires&wrought&great&havoc&in&terms&of&economy&and&public&health,&not&only&to&Indonesia&butalso&to&other&ASEAN&countries,&namely,&Singapore,&Malaysia,&the&Philippines&and&even&the&south&of&Thailand.&InIndonesia&where&the&Wires&occurred,&there&was&also&great&biodiversity&loss.&This&led&ASEAN&members&to&cooperate&indrafting&the&above&framework&AgreementV&only&the&second&ASEAN&hard&law&instrument.&In&contrast&to&the&ASEANAgreement)on)Conservation)of)Nature)and)Natural)Resources,[40]&the&Transboundary&Haze&Agreement&came&intoforce&in&November&2003&&seven&of&the&ten&member&countries&having&ratiWied.[41]Thailand&submitted&a&Declaration[42]&on&the&interpretation&of&Articles&4(3)&and&9(g)&of&the&Agreement.&According&toThailand,&the&phrase,&and/or&appearing&in&these&two&Articles,&should&be&read&or.&Article&4(3)&reads:&In&pursuingthis&Agreement,&the&Parties&shall&take&legislative&and/or&other&measures&to&implement&their&obligations&under&thisAgreement.&The&Thai&Declaration&narrows&the&scope&of&the&provision&by&requiring&only&one&of&the&alternativemechanisms&instead&of&a&combination&of&them.&Similar&interpretation&is&to&be&given&to&Article&9(g)&in&relation&tomeasures&to&control&open&burning&and&prevention&of&the&use&of&Wires&for&land&clearing.&It&is&clear&that&Thailandwants&to&retain&its&sovereignty&over&its&natural&resources&and&this&would&include&the&right&to&clear&land&by&burning,which&Thailand&practices.&Thailand&has&ratiWied&the&Agreement.Indonesia,&the&country&which&inspired&the&Agreement,&because&of&its&forest&Wires&and&also&its&practice&of&swiddenagriculture,&has&not&ratiWied&the&Agreement;&nor&have&Brunei,&Laos&or&Vietnam.&There&are&many&reasons&why&acountry&may&not&ratify&an&Agreement&and&this&may&not&necessarily&mean&that&there&is&disagreement&with&theAgreement&itself,&or&its&provisions.Indonesia&participated&in&drafting&the&Agreement.&Whatever&the&reasons&Indonesia&has&given&for&not&ratifying&theAgreement&as&yet,&it&is&not&difWicult&to&guess&that&one&of&the&underlying&reasons&is&its&adherence&to&its&sovereigntyover&its&natural&resources&including&the&methods&of&land&clearing.[43]D Draft ASEAN Framework Agreement on Access to Biological and Genetic Resources, 2000:Some Conflict of InterestsThis&draft&Agreement[44]&acknowledges&the&need&to&ensure&the&uniformity&and&consistency&of&regulations&on&accessto&genetic&resources&and&its&equitable&beneWit&sharing&in&the&ASEAN&region.&It&sets&minimum&requirements&for



national&implementation&and&maximizes&opportunities&for&the&conservation&and&sustainable&use&of&biological&andgenetic&resources.ASEAN&has&a&common&interest&to&realize&the&value&of&biological&and&genetic&resources&in&the&development&ofproducts,&compounds&and&substances&that&have&medicinal,&industrial,&agricultural&and&related&applications.&There&isan&urgent&need&to&protect&ASEAN&interests&in&these&biological&and&genetic&resources&from&biopiracy&as&provided&forin&the&Convention)on)Biological)Diversity.&The&object&of&this&is&to&provide&a&level&playing&Wield&for&all&countrieswishing&to&control&exploitation&of&their&genetic&resources.There&are&divergent&interests&between&providers&and&users&of&genetic&resources&in&the&ASEAN&region,&particularlyin&the&areas&of&prior&informed&consent,&and&fair&and&equitable&sharing&of&beneWits&for&indigenous&and&localcommunities.&The&doctrine&of&sovereignty&as&viewed&by&each&member&state&and&the&concerns&of&indigenous&peoplesand&local&communities,&account&for&divergent&views.&To&date&the&draft&Agreement&has&not&been&Winalized.The&draft&agreement&was&formulated&in&the&year&2000.&In&the&Hanoi&Plan&of&Action1999V2004,&the&deadline&set&for&the&adoption&of&this&Agreement&was&2004.&The&deadline&has&past,&as&there&are&stillprovisions&where&there&are&divergent&views&and&no&agreement&has&been&reached.III Some ConvergenceSince&1978,&ASEAN&has&produced&a&remarkable&array&of&legal&frameworks&for&cooperation&in&natural&resources.Cooperation&to&safeguard&the&environment&in&ASEAN,&including&natural&resources,&was&not&contemplated&in&the1967&Bangkok&Declaration&which&established&ASEAN.&It&began&soon&after&the&United&Nations&Conference&on&theHuman&Environment&held&in&Stockholm&in&1972.&Also,&as&ASEAN&members&began&to&develop&their&economies,common&environmental&issues&emerged&which&required&cooperation&in&Winding&solutions.In&1977,&the&United&Nations&Environment&Programme&(UNEP)&commissioned&its&Regional&Advisory&Team&to&visitthe&then&Wive&founder&ASEAN&member&states&(&ie,&Indonesia,&Malaysia,&the&Philippines,&Singapore&and&Thailand)&todetermine&the&priority&areas&in&environment.&The&result&was&Phase&I&of&the&ASEAN&Subregional&EnvironmentProgramme&(ASEP)&1978V1982.&One&of&the&six&programs&in&the&ASEP&was&Nature&Conservation&and&TerrestrialEcosystems.&This&was&the&beginning&of&ASEANs&environmental&protection&of&natural&resources.&Today,&after&30years,&cooperation&in&natural&resources&is&reWlected&in&some&thirtyVWive&relevant&instruments&covering&biodiversity,marine&and&coastal&environment,&and&water&resources.&The&mechanisms&include&policies,&programs,&and&plans&ofaction,&strategies&and&agreements.&They&constitute&a&corpus&of&environmental&laws&which&can&form&a&basis&forharmonization&of&natural&resources&management&at&the&ASEAN&subregional&level&with&implementation&at&thenational&level.[45]

A ASEAN Environmental Governance Focus on Natural ResourcesIt&is&important&to&consider&the&ASEAN&environmental&governance&structure&(focusing&on&the&organizationalstructure&to&deal&with&natural&resources)&as&this&is&pivotal&to&the&process&of&convergence&in&the&institutionalizationof&ASEANs&cooperation.ASEAN&has&established&a&sophisticated&organizational&framework.&The&decisions&of&the&ASEAN&summits&aretransmitted&to&various&levels&to&be&acted&upon.&Of&the&six&working&groups,&three&deal&with&natural&resources,namely,&the&Working&Group&on&Nature&Conservation&and&Biodiversity&(AWGNCB),&the&Working&Group&on&Coastaland&Marine&Environment&(AWGCME)&and&the&Working&Group&on&Water&Resource&Management&(AWGWR):1&ASEAN)Working)Group)on)Nature)Conservation)and)Biodiversity)(AWGNCB)The&original&name&of&the&Working&Group[46]did&not&include&the&term&Biodiversity&&it&was&then&known&as&the&ASEAN&Working&Group&on&Nature&Conservationand&Terrestrial&Ecosystems.&However,&after&the&Convention)on)Biological)Diversity&(CBD)&was&ratiWied&by&manyASEAN&member&states,&it&was&renamed&ASEAN&Working&Group&on&Nature&Conservation&and&Biodiversity&and&theterms&of&reference&were&widened&to&reWlect&the&CBD.&Thus,&for&example,&reference&to&the&CBD&and&the&WorldHeritage&Convention[47]&were&incorporated&into&the&Preamble&of&the&ASEAN)Declaration)of)Heritage)Parks&2003.[48]This&is&one&of&the&recent&outputs&of&the&AWGNCB.



2&ASEAN)Working)Group)on)Marine)and)Coastal)Environment&(AWGMCE)The&terms&of&reference&of&this&Working&Group[49]&include&the&formulation&and&implementation&of&regional&actionplan&for&sustainable&development&and&management&of&coastal&and&marine&resources.&The&Group&seeks&tostrengthen,&coVordinate&and&coVoperate&with&ASEAN&regional&bodies&and&international&organizations&for&theintegrated&protection,&conservation&and&management&of&coastal&zones&and&marine&environment.3&ASEAN)Working)Group)on)Water)Resource)Management)(AWGWRM)This&Working&Group[50]&was&established&by&the&ASEAN&Senior&OfWicials&on&the&Environment&(ASOEN)&during&their13th&Meeting&in&Siem&Reap,&Cambodia&on&17V19&July&2002.&The&areas&for&cooperation&include&networking&andcollaborative&action&on&integrated&water&resources&management&(IWRM);&and&exchange&of&relevant&information,expertise,&technology&and&knowVhow&on&water&management.[51]4&Other)Mechanisms)for)ASEANs)CooperationApart&from&the&above&working&groups,&the&ASEAN&Regional&Centre&for&Biological&Conservation&(ARCBC&&laterrenamed&the&ASEAN&Centre&for&Biodiversity),[52]was&established&in&1998.&It&is&a&joint&venture&between&ASEAN&and&the&European&Union&(EU).&It&facilitates&ASEAN&tomeet&the&World&Summit&on&Sustainable&Development&Plan&of&Implementation&goal&to&reduce&the&current&rate&of&lossof&biological&diversity&by&2010.[53]In&addition,&ASEANs&Dialogue&Partners[54]serve&an&important&function&to&promote&greater&cooperation&between&ASEAN&and&other&countries&and&internationalorganizations&such&as&APEC&and&ASEM.&More&recently,&a&new&caucus&was&established&by&the&East&Asia&Summit&heldfrom&11V14&December,&2005&in&Kuala&Lumpur&where&ASEAN&Plus&Three&(China,&Japan&and&South&Korea)&met&withthe&new&neighbours,&India,&Australia&and&New&Zealand.&This&forum&has&the&potential&to&promote&people&to&peoplecontact&and&enhance&cooperation&and&promote&Wields&such&as&environmental&protection,&prevention&of&infectiousdiseases.[55]The&Summit&also&pledged&to&take&measures&to&prevent&a&bird&Wlu&pandemic.&Participants&agreed&to&be&transparent,to&report&any&outbreak&quickly&and&set&up&a&network&of&stockpiles&of&antiviral&drugs.&Also,&concerns&relating&toeconomic&development&and&integration,&poverty&and&eradication&and&energy&security&are&included,&apart&from&themain&stream&of&political&and&security&measures.B Forging Common ASEAN Policies and Stands in Natural Resource ManagementPolicy&guidelines&form&the&backbone&of&a&regions&perspectives&and&over&time,&if&adopted&by&its&members,&willfacilitate&harmonization&or&integration.&ASEANs&policy&guidelines&on&natural&resources&are&found&in&a&number&ofdeclarations&and&resolutions&dating&from&the&1981&Manila)Declaration)on)the)ASEAN)Environment.[56]&The&objectiveof&this&Declaration&was&to&ensure&the&protection&of&the&ASEAN&environment&and&the&sustainability&of&its&naturalresources.&It&recognizes&both&that&the&development&processes&in&ASEAN&must&be&accelerated&to&meet&the&growingneeds&and&to&eradicate&poverty&and&provide&a&quality&of&life,&and&that&these&processes&can&only&be&sustained&if&thenatural&resources&are&sustained.&It&stressed&the&utilization&of&natural&resources&to&meet&the&needs&of&present&andfuture&generations,&and&calls&for&an&integrated&approach.Other&policy&guidelines&laid&down&by&ASEAN&have&been&used&in&the&formulation&of&the&various&ASEAN&programs,plans&of&action,&strategies,&and&terrestrial&and&marine&protected&areas.&The&policy&imperatives&for&a&sustainabletransition&in&environment&and&development&focused&on&incorporating&environmental&factors&in&economicevaluations.&A&summary&of&the&various&policies&for&ASEANs&natural&resources&includes:Environment&management&of&natural&resources&&eg,&use&of&environmental&impact&assessments&(EIAs);Nature&conservation&and&biological&resources&&eg,&develop&new&practicable&approaches&for&conservation&offorests,&fauna&and&Wlora&and&ecological&systems;Marine&and&marine&resources&&eg,&develop&practicable&methods&for&management&of&pollution&dischargeswhich&could&destroy&wetlands,&corals,&etc;&developing&marine&protected&areas;Freshwater&resources&and&ecosystems&&eg,&promote&a&multiVsectoral&approach&to&water&management,



planning&for&sustainable&utilization,&protection&and&adequate&supply.There&were&also&common&stands&taken&by&ASEAN&member&states&in&the&Singapore)Resolution)on)Environment)andDevelopment[57]&on&18&February&1992&to&promote&its&common)views&at&the&4th&UNCED&Preparatory&CommitteeMeeting&which&was&to&be&held&in&New&York&in&March&1992,&and&the&2nd&Ministerial&Conference&of&DevelopingCountries&on&Environment&and&Development,&which&was&to&be&held&in&Kuala&Lumpur&in&April&1992.&ASEANs&Wirmcooperation&as&a&subVregional&organization&in&the&global&forum&of&UNCED&is&reWlected&in&this&Resolution:ASEAN&shall&continue&to&actively&participate&in&and&support&international&efforts&in&promoting&the&principlesof&sustainable&development;To&enhance&regional&cooperation&towards&sustainable&development&ASEAN&member&countries&agreed&certainpolicies.The&Resolution&also&conWirms&ASEANs&responsibilities,&inter)alia,&in&freshwater&resources,&forests&and&conservationof&biological&diversity.&Since&the&1992&United&Nations&Conference&on&Environment&and&Development&(UNCED)[58]and&the&2003&World&Summit&on&Sustainable&Development&(WSSD),[59]&ASEAN&has&progressively&cooperated&in&thearea&of&natural&resources&and,&today,&this&is&reWlected&in&many&signiWicant&areas.C Programs and Plans of Action on Natural Resource ManagementThere&are&four&main&general&environmental&programs/action&plans&which&include&natural&resource&management.These&are:&the&ASEAN)Subregional)Environmental)Program)(ASEP)&1988V1992;&ASEAN)Strategic)Plan)of)Action)onthe)Environment&(ASPAE))1994N1998;)Hanoi)Plan)of)Action)(HPA))1999N2004;)and&Vientiane&Action&Programme(VAP)&2004V2010.&These&programs&are&a&continuum.Beginning&with&the&ASEP,&speciWic&priority&areas&were&identiWied&which&would&beneWit&from&regional&cooperation.These&ASEP&criteria&still&apply&to&natural&resources&programs&in&which&ASEAN&has&cooperated.ASEP: is&participated&in&by&the&majority&of&ASEAN&member&countries.&It&is&endorsed&by&all&ASEAN&countries,strengthens&national&capacities&and&develops&ASEAN&cooperation;is&based&on&the&existing&situation&and&needs&of&the&region.&It&would&beneWit&from&regional&collaboration;is&aimed&at&achieving&both&shortVterm&and&longVterm&results;is&actionVoriented.&It&is&expected&to&lead&towards&concrete&governmental&actions.&ASEPs&intention&is&totransform&the&agreement&of&regional&meetings&into&national&programs&of&action&drawing,&whereverappropriate,&upon&full&cooperation&of&governmental&agencies,&nonVgovernmental&organizations,&privatesectors&and&related&international&agencies;is&dynamic&in&nature.&It&is&Wlexible&and&can&incorporate&new&emerging&issues&which&would&merit&regionalattention.Two&of&the&program&areas&under&ASEP&were&nature&conservation&and&the&marine&environment.&These&werecontinued&with&reWinements&under&the&ASPAE:&Strategy&5&which&called&for&the&establishment&of&a&regionalframework&on&biological&diversity&conservation&and&sustainable&utilization&of&its&components.&Strategy&6&dealt&withmarine&environment&and&called&for&the&protection&of&marine&resources&such&as&mangroves&and&corals.[60]&The&HPAdealt&with&time&frames&for&completion&of&some&of&ASEANs&initiatives&including&those&relating&to&natural&resources.The&HPA&also&focused&on&a&number&of&factors[61]&aimed&at&bringing&about&ASEANs&progress&in&regionalcooperation/integration.[62]&Finally,&the&VAP&further&seeks&to&strengthen&efforts&to&meet&its&commitments&in&threecommunities&including&the&socioVcultural&community&&under&this&pillar&the&natural&resources&programs&areincluded.[63]For&example,&in&nature&conservation&and&biodiversity,&the&measures&to&be&taken&include:Reduction&of&the&current&rate&of&loss&of&biological&diversity&by&2010&(WSSD&target);Promotion&of&further&listing&and&coordinated&management&of&ASEAN&Heritage&Parks&as&a&platform&forecosystemVbased&protected&areas&management;Facilitation&of&access&and&fair&and&equitable&sharing&of&beneWits&arising&from&the&regional&biological&andgenetic&resources,&by&effectively&implementing&the&ASEAN&Framework&Agreement&on&Access&to,&and&Fair&andEquitable&Sharing&of&BeneWits&Arising&from&the&Utilization&of&Genetic&and&Biological&Resources&(sic);



Setting&in&place&measures&to&minimize&impacts&of&transboundary&movement&of&living&modiWied&organisms&inaccordance&with&the&ASEAN&Guidelines&on&Risk&Assessment&of&Agricultural&GMOs;Promotion&of&national&and&regional&cooperation&to&address&measures&related&to&the&cluster&of&multilateralenvironmental&agreements&addressing&biological&diversity&such&as&the&Convention&on&Biological&Diversity,CITES,&Ramsar&Convention;Establishment&of&a&functional&regional&database&or&network&of&national&databases&containing&an&inventory&ofthe&biological&resources&of&the&ASEAN&Region;Enhancement&of&the&role&and&capacity&of&the&ASEAN&Centre&for&Biodiversity&to&function&as&an&effectiveregional&centre&of&excellence&in&promoting&biodiversity&conservation&and&management;Addressing&issues&pertaining&to&invasive&alien&species.Other&program&areas&and&measures&under&the&VAP&on&natural&resources&include&land,&freshwater&resources,agriculture&(crops,&livestock&and&Wisheries),&forest&Wires,&and&coastal&marine&environment.D Other Soft Law Instruments on Protection of Natural ResourcesApart&from&the&above&programs&and&plans,&there&are&speciWic&instruments&on&the&protection&of&various&naturalresources:Water&Resources&ManagementASEAN)Long)Term)Strategic)Plan)for)Water)Resources,)20032025[64]ASEAN)Strategic)Plan)of)Action)on)Water)Resources)Management,)2005[65]Heritage&ParksASEAN)Declaration)on)Heritage)Parks)and)Reserves,)1984[66]ASEAN)Criteria)for)Marine)Heritage)Areas,)2002[67]ASEAN)Criteria)for)National)Marine)Protected)Areas,)2002[68]ASEAN)Declaration)on)Heritage)Parks,)2003[69]AgricultureASEAN)Ministerial)Understanding)on)Plant)Quarantine)Ring,)1982[70]ASEAN)Guidelines)on)Risk)Assessment)of)Agriculture)related)Genetically)ModiKied)Organisms,)1999)[71]FisheriesASEAN)Ministerial)Understanding)on)Fisheries)Cooperation,)1983[72]ForestryJakarta)Consensus)on)ASEAN)Tropical)Forestry)of)the)Third)Meeting)of)the)ASEAN)Economic)Ministers)on)Agricultureand)Forestry,)1981[73]Biodiversity&Conservation,&Aspects&of&Animal&and&Human&Health:&Avian&Flu&and&SARSJoint)Statement:)ASEAN)+)3)Ministers)of)Health)Special)Meeting)on)SARS,)Kuala)Lumpur,)Malaysia,)2003[74]Joint)Resolution:)ASEAN)+3)(China,)Japan,)Korea))Aviation)Forum)on)the)Joint)Declaration)and)Containment)of)SARS,2003[75]Joint)Declaration:)Special)ASEAN)Leaders)Meeting)on)Severe)Acute)Respiratory)Syndrome)(SARS),)Bangkok,)Thailand,2003[76]



Joint)Statement)of)the)Special)ASEAN)+)3)Health)Ministers)Meeting)on)Severe)Acute)Respiratory)Syndrome)(SARS),2003[77]Joint)Ministerial)Statement)on)Prevention)and)Control)of)Avian)InKluenza,)Bangkok,)Thailand,)2004[78]East)Asia)Summit)Declaration)on)Avian)InKluenza)Prevention,)Control)and)Response,)Kuala)Lumpur,)Malaysia,2005[79]SpeciesMemorandum)of)Understanding)on)ASEAN)Sea)Turtle)Conservation)and)Protection,)1997[80]ASEAN)Statement)on)the)Convention)on)International)Trade)in)Endangered)Species)of)Wild)Fauna)and)Flora,)2004[81]ASEAN)Regional)Action)Plan)on)Trade)in)Wild)Fauna)and)Flora,)2005N2010[82]ASEAN)Statement)on)Launching)of)the)ASEAN)Wildlife)Law)Enforcement)Network)(ASEANNWEN),)2005[83]E Some Specific Areas of Cooperation in Natural ResourcesIt&is&beyond&the&scope&of&this&paper&to&deal&with&all&these&instruments.&I&shall&brieWly&cover&a&few&areas:1&ForestryUncontrolled&deforestation,&illegal&logging&and&forest&Wires&have&been&some&of&the&most&pressing&problems&in&theregion&particularly&in&Indonesia,&the&Philippines,&Malaysia&and&Myanmar.&For&example,&at&some&time&in&February2006,&an&entire&village&in&Leyte,&Philippines,&was&buried&under&a&major&mud&landslide&&this&bears&testimony&to&theyears&of&illegal&logging.[84]&The&ASEAN)Vision)2020&calls&for&the&promotion&of&sustainable&forestry&throughharmonizing&environmental,&social,&and&economic&policies&in&the&ASEAN&member&states.&There&have&been&a&numberof&environmental&instruments&on&sustainable&forestry.&More&recently,&the&ASEAN&Ministers&of&Agriculture&andForestry&(AMAF)&endorsed&the&Framework)for)ASEAN)Regional)Criteria)and)Indicators)(C&I))for)SustainableManagement)of)Natural)Tropical)Forests,)2000.[85]&The&concerns&which&are&addressed&by&the&Framework&includecriteria&setting,&institutionalization&of&certiWication,&ecoVlabeling&procedures,&costing,&lack&of&holistic&land&useplanning,&economic&valuation&and&transparency,&and&the&harmonization&of&approaches&to&sustainability&assessment.2&ASEAN)Heritage)Parks:)Progressive)Convergence)from)1984)to)2003This&is&a&landmark&example&of&progressive&development&from&the&rudimentary&ASEAN)Declaration)on)HeritageParks)and)Reserves&way&back&in&1984[86]&to&the&2003&ASEAN)Declaration)on)Heritage)Parks,[87]&where&27&HeritageParks&in&the&ten&member&states&have&been&designated.The&concept&of&ASEAN&Heritage&Parks&(AHPs)&and&transboundary&conservation&areas&was&Wirst&introduced&by&thethen&ASEAN&Expert&Group&on&Environment&(AEGE)&in&1978.&AHPs&are&protected&areas&of&high&conservationimportance&preserving&in&total&a&complete&spectrum&of&representative&ecosystems&of&the&ASEAN&region.&There&werevarious&stages&in&its&development,&beginning&from&1978.[88]Following&the&recommendation&of&the&AEGE,&an&ASEAN&Workshop&on&Nature&Conservation&was&held&from&15V17September&1980&in&Bali&at&which&an&action&plan&on&ASEAN&Heritage&Reserves&was&discussed.&The&Workshop&alsoconsidered&transboundary&conservation.&The&following&were&some&of&the&issues&raised:Common&criteria&in&establishing&a&reserve&system&of&regional&and&national&importance&of&beneWit&to&the&localpopulation;Transfrontier&cooperation;Management&cooperation&on&shared&endangered&species;Establishment&of&several&major&ecotype&reserves;Establishment&of&a&regional&task&force&to&develop&an&action&plan.The&next&stage&saw&IUCN&providing&the&technical&assistance&to&develop&an&action&plan.&The&focus&was&on&thoseecosystems&and&species&that&are&either&signiWicant&to&the&region&as&a&whole&or&require&cooperation&to&effect&their



conservation.&This&led&to&the&1984&ASEAN)Declaration)on)Heritage)Parks)and)Reserves[89]&which&was&adopted&by&theSecond&ASEAN&Ministerial&Meeting&on&the&Environment&on&29&November&1984&in&Bangkok&and&signed&by&the&thensix&ASEAN&member&states,&namely,&Brunei,&Indonesia,&Malaysia,&Philippines,&Singapore&and&Thailand.The&objective&of&the&1984&Declaration&was&to&assist&the&governments&toward&the&attainment&of&conservation&and&toprotect&the&biodiversity&heritage&of&the&ASEAN&countries&through&the&establishment&of&a&national&integratedprotected&areas&system&based&on&scientiWic&principles.All&the&then&six&ASEAN&countries&except&Singapore&designated&some&AHPs&under&the&1984&Declaration,&whichprovided&for&a&master&plan&to&be&drawn&up&for&each&park&taking&into&consideration&the&following:Maintenance&of&ecological&processes&and&life&support&systems;Preservation&of&genetic&diversity;Ensuring&sustainable&utilization&of&species&and&ecosystems;Maintenance&of&wilderness&that&is&of&scenic,&cultural,&educational,&recreational&and&tourism&value.However,&nothing&very&much,&if&at&all,&was&done&at&national&level,&and&no&management&plans&were&drafted&for&thethen&six&designated&AHPs.The&next&stage&which&could&have&further&developed&the&AHP&concept&was&in&1985&when&the&ASEAN)Agreement)onthe)Conservation)of)Nature)and)Natural)Resources,[90],&which&can&be&considered&backVtoVback&with&the&1984Declaration,&was&signed&by&the&then&six&ASEAN&countries.&Unfortunately,&it&has&yet&to&enter&into&force,&with&onlythree&ratiWications&out&of&the&six&signatories.&However,&there&has&been&renewed&interest&in&the&ratiWication&of&thisAgreement.[91]&Article&13&of&the&Agreement&contains&very&comprehensive&provisions&on&protected&areas&and&callsfor&a&coordinated&network&of&protected&areas&throughout&the&region&and&for&an&Appendix&to&be&developedcontaining&principles,&objectives,&criteria&and&guidelines&in&light&of&the&best&scientiWic&evidence.&It&also&calls&for&theconservation&of&natural&areas&by&private&owners,&community&or&local&authorities.Another&stage&in&the&process&was&in&Strategy&5&of&the&ASEAN)Strategic)Plan)of)Action)on)the)Environment)1994N1998(ASPAE)&which&was&to&establish&a&regional&framework&on&biological&diversity&conservation&&Strategy&5.1&statesthat: &The&absence&of&a&regional&framework&for&the&protection&and&conservation&of&heritage&areas&andendangered&species&only&exacerbates&the&situation&as&management&efforts&are&left&to&individualmember&countries.&There&is&a&need&to&develop&a&framework&for&the&protection&of&these&areas&andspecies&so&as&to&ensure&that&conservation&approaches&are&rationalized.[92]The&Actions&to&be&undertaken&to&implement&the&Strategy&were:5.1&Promote&the&development&of&a&framework&for&the&protection&and&conservation&of&heritage&areas&andendangered&species;&and5.2&Strengthen&capacities&for&Research&and&Development&(R&D)&to&enhance&biodiversity&conservation&in&the&region.The&protection&of&endangered&species&in&the&AHPs&would&assist&in&the&implementation&of&CITES,&which&has&beenratiWied&by&all&of&the&ASEAN&countries.[93]The&Hanoi)Plan)of)Action)1999N2004,&a&continuum&of&the&ASPAE,&provided&that&in&order&to&protect&the&environmentand&promote&sustainable&development,&it&is&necessary&to&promote&regional&coordination&for&the&protection&of&theASEAN&Heritage&Parks&and&Reserves.[94]In&2003&ASEAN&kept&to&its&Hanoi&schedule&and&the&ASEAN)Declaration)on)Heritage)Parks)(ADHP)[95]&was&adoptedby&the&current&ten&ASEAN&member&countries.The&Preamble&to&the&ADHP&mentions&the&Convention&on&Biological&Diversity&(CBD).[96]&All&ASEAN&countries&exceptBrunei&have&ratiWied&the&CBD&(Thailand&being&the&latest&to&do&so&in&2004).&The&ADHP&Preamble&supports&the&CBDsrecognition&of&in)situ&conservation&of&ecosystems&and&natural&habitats&as&a&fundamental&requirement&for&theconservation&of&biodiversity&in&protected&areas.&In&the&Programme&of&Work&on&Protected&Areas,&the&CBD&at&the&7thConference&of&the&Parties&meeting&in&February&VMarch&2004&in&Kuala&Lumpur[97]&(Decision&VII/28&&Protected



Areas&&Articles&8&(a)&to&(e),&Annex)&recommended&that&the&Program&takes&into&consideration&the&relationshipbetween&protected&areas&and&landscape&so&that&goods&and&services&Wlowing&from&the&protected&areas&can&be&valued.The&ADHP&Preamble&also&takes&note&of&the&role&of&natural&sites&under&the&World&Heritage&Convention&to&reduce&lossof&biodiversity.&Some&of&the&AHPs&may&well&be&future&World&Heritage&sites.&The&synergies&of&these&with&otherbiodiversity&instruments&such&as&the&Ramsar)Convention&on)Wetlands)of)International)Importance)especially)asWaterfowl)Habitat,[98]&the&ASEAN)Agreement)on)the)Conservation)of)Nature)and)Natural)Resources&(though&not&yetin&force),[99]&the&1997&Memorandum)of)Understanding)on)ASEAN)Sea)Turtle)Conservation)and)Protection,[100]&etcmust&all&be&taken&into&consideration&in&developing&management&guidelines&for&AHPs.Why,&it&may&be&asked,&did&the&process&of&convergence&take&so&long?&It&is&not&surprising,&as&ASEAN&had&to&take&timeto&mature&to&understand&the&importance&of&environmental&sustainability&&indeed,&the&notion&of&sustainability&onlycame&into&political&legitimacy&in&the&Brundtland&Report&in&1987.[101]&Environmental&law&was&also&not&quite&the&toppriority&in&the&ASEAN&scheme&of&things&as&it&is&beginning&to&be&now.3&ASEAN)Statement)on)CITES)(Convention)on)International)Trade)in)Endangered)Species),)2004In&recent&years,&ASEAN&has&recognized&the&need&to&coordinate&joint&actions&to&address&the&illegal&exploitation&andtrade&in&CITESVlisted&species&within&the&ASEAN&region.&This&involves&the&sharing&of&information&and&technicalexpertise&of&governmental,&intergovernmental&agencies,&and&nonV&governmental&organizations.At&the&Thirteenth&Meeting&of&the&Conference&of&the&Parties&to&the&Convention)on)International)Trade)in)EndangeredSpecies)of)Wild)Fauna)and)Flora)(CITES),[102]&ASEAN&issued&a&statement&on&11&October&2004&on&theimplementation&of&CITES.[103]&It&acknowledged&that&while&progress&was&made&at&national&and&ASEAN&levels&inpromoting&sustainable&use&of&wild&fauna&and&Wlora,&concerted&action&within&ASEAN&was&required.&Also,&the&laws&ineach&of&the&ASEAN&member&states&are&inadequate&with&the&result&that&illegal&trade&is&rife.&Many&syndicates&andnetworks&in&the&region&and&beyond,&take&advantage&of&this&inadequacy.[104]Some&of&the&main&points&in&the&ASEAN&Statement&on&CITES&read:1.&to&enhance&awareness&of&and&to&ensure&further&cooperation&and&coordination&among&all&national&agenciesinvolved&in&wild&fauna&and&Wlora&trade&law&enforcement&including&the&sharing&of&intelligence;2.&to&further&promote&regional&cooperation&through&the&establishment&of&bilateral&and&multilateral&arrangementsbetween&enforcement&agencies&responsible&for&common&boundaries&to&achieve&more&effective&control&of&illegalinternational&trade&in&wild&fauna&and&Wlora&and&their&products;3.&to&strengthen&enforcement&efforts&along&key&border&regions,&including&further&building&of&capacity&and&capability;4.&to&consider&undertaking&the&review&of&their&respective&national&legislation&to&facilitate&the&implementation&ofCITES&if&deemed&necessary;Pursuant&to&paragraph&4&of&the&Statement,&Singapore&amended&its&laws&to&increase&the&Wines&and&also&to&makeliability&based&on&per&specimen&instead&of&per&species.[105]4&Avian)Flu)&)SARS:)Culling)Domesticated)and)Wildlife)SpeciesThe&problems&raised&by&avian&Wlu&and&SARS&include&not&only&issues&of&environmental&public&health&but&alsobiodiversity&conservation&and&sustainable&development.[106]In&the&case&of&avian&Wlu,&millions&of&poultry&and&migratory&birds&have&been&culled&as&preventive&measures.&Also,some&habitats&of&wild&migratory&species&in&the&region&such&as&wetlands&were&sprayed&with&toxic&chemicals&as&ameasure&to&cull&migratory&species.&In&the&case&of&SARS,&many&civet!cats&and&some&other&species&were&culled.The&ASEAN&countries&that&have&been&affected&either&by&avian&Wlu&or&SARS&include&Indonesia,&Malaysia,&Laos,&thePhilippines,&Singapore,&Thailand&and&Vietnam.&The&other&countries&in&Asia&which&were&affected&include&the&PeoplesRepublic&of&China,&Japan,&Republic&of&Korea&and&Mongolia.&Avian&Wlu&has&now&spread&to&other&parts&of&the&world.ASEAN&has,&so&far,&focused&on&the&health&issues&rather&than&the&biodiversity&conservation&aspects&of&the&twozoonotic&diseases&(see&the&ASEAN&instruments&on&avian&Wlu&and&SARS&referred&to&previously.&In&the&case&of&avian&Wlu,



for&example,&ASEAN&has&not&addressed&the&ecological&impact&of&culling&migratory&birds&and&also&the&problem&of&thedestruction&of&habitats/wetlands&(where&migratory&birds&have&their&resting&place)&as&a&method&of&culling&migratorybirds&and&other&wildlife&species.&In&the&VAP&(Vientiane&Action&Plan),[107]&measures&are&being&considered&to&preventthe&spread&of&zoonotic&diseases[108]&but&there&is&no&cross&reference&to&the&section&on&nature&conservation&andbiodiversity&(VAP,&Annex&3:&3.3.8).At&the&height&of&the&outbreak&of&avian&Wlu&in&2004,&the&question&of&whether&migratory&birds&from&the&East&AsianFlyway&are&to&be&blamed&for&the&virus&was&raised.[109]&The&following&questions&should&be&considered&by&ASEAN:What&should&the&policy&considerations&for&culling&be?Is&the&precautionary&principle&a&useful&tool&in&deciding&when&to&undertake&mass&culling?What&are&the&implications&of&culling&on&some&biodiversityVrelated&conventions&(eg,&CBD,&Ramsar,&andConvention&on&Migratory&Species)?It&should&be&noted&that&any&indiscriminate&culling,&whether&by&deliberate&killing&or&poisoning&of&habitats,&may&bringabout&unintended&consequences&detrimental&to&natural&resources&and&biological&sustainability.&We&should&heed&thegrim&reminder&of&what&China&did&in&the&1950s&when&it&embarked&on&a&massive&killing&of&birds&in&the&belief&that&theywere&eating&the&rice&in&the&Wields.&After&the&culling&had&been&carried&out,&the&rice&crops&still&failed.&It&was&thereafterdiscovered&that&the&birds&were&actually&eating&worms&and&only&incidentally&ate&some&rice&grains.IV ConclusionThis&survey&of&ASEANs&efforts&in&the&protection&and&management&of&natural&resources&in&the&region&demonstratesmore&of&a&convergence&than&divergence,&not&so&much&in&terms&of&integration&(at&least&not&in&the&context&ofenvironment&&perhaps&more&in&the&economic&Wield)&but&rather&towards&the&harmonization&of&policies,&programs,plans&of&action,&strategies&and&guidelines.It&is&interesting&to&note&that&the&former&Secretary&General&of&ASEAN,&Rodolfo&C&Severino,&in&an&address&on&theFuture&of&ASEAN&Economic&Integration&said:Any&comparison&between&Europe&as&integrated&in&the&European&Union&on&the&one&hand&and&Asia,&asexempliWied&by&ASEAN,&on&the&other&hand&is&at&best&gratuitous&and&at&worst&odious.&In&a&talk&I&gave&inBrussels&a&few&years&ago,&I&said&that&comparing&ASEAN&to&the&EU&reminded&me&of&that&despairinglament&of&Professor&Higgins&in&My&Fair&Lady,&Why&cant&a&woman&be&more&like&a&man?&This&was&inreference&to&the&custom&of&measuring&ASEANs&progress&in&regional&integration&against&the&EUsachievements.&I&said&then&that&this&was&a&bit&unfair,&since&ASEAN&was&never&meant&to&be&like&the&EU,which&has&a&European&Commission&that&negotiates&trade&agreements&on&behalf&of&the&Union,&asupranational&authority&with&powers&of&enforcement,&and&which&has&now&produced&a&draftconstitution.&On&the&other&hand,&ASEAN&memberVstates&have&been&from&the&beginning&jealous&of&andsensitive&about&their&sovereignty&and&remain&so,&quite&apart&from&the&immense&diversity&of&SoutheastAsia.[110]This&was&spoken&in&the&context&of&economic&integration&but&it&is&equally&applicable&in&the&approach&to&naturalresources&management.&What&is&the&difference&between&the&two&concepts?&The&difference&seems&to&be&one&ofdegree.&Integration&involves&a&total&fusion,&such&as&an&agreement&which&applies&uniformly&to&all&states.Harmonization&is&something&less&and&may&be&manifested&in&a&less&formalistic&approach&such&as&adoption&ofpolicies,&strategies,&guidelines,&etc.One&of&the&most&remarkable&processes&of&ASEAN&in&institutionalizing&regional&cooperation&is&the&progressiveevolution&from&the&ASEAN&Way&to&the&ASEAN&Charter&Way.&From&the&conWlict&among&ASEAN&member&states&inWlexible&engagement&when&it&was&Wirst&mooted,&ASEAN&has&travelled&a&long&way&to&an&ASEAN)Charter&in&the&making.However,&it&is&not&clear&at&this&moment&the&extent&to&which&ASEAN&is&prepared&to&go&the&hard&way.&What&is&clear&isthat&ASEAN&will&never&be&quite&the&same&again.&The&new&approach&will&spill&over&into&the&way&ASEAN&will&deal&withthe&management&of&natural&resources.&A&more&legalistic&approach,&for&example,&will&give&more&teeth&in&the&solutionof&forest&Wires.&Notions&of&sovereignty&will&spill&over&from&the&political&to&other&areas&including&sovereignty&overnatural&resources.&This&is&an&example&of&convergence&from&divergence.The&notion&of&sovereignty,&a&twin&aspect&of&the&ASEAN&Way,&should&be&reconsidered&in&the&context&of&environmentallaw.&When&the&doctrine&was&evolved,&the&main&actors&in&international&law&were&states&and&the&doctrine&legitimised



states&to&do&what&they&wanted&within&their&own&territory.&Today,&in&environmental&law&there&are&many&nonVstateactors&ranging&from&corporations&to&NGOs&and&individuals&who&play&a&vital&role&in&public&participation&and&inshaping&the&notion&of&sustainable&development.&Functionally,&the&doctrine&of&sovereignty&has&been&eroded&andstates&can&no&longer&justify&sovereignty&to&the&hilt.Pursuant&to&the&1997)Memorandum)of)Understanding)on)ASEAN)Sea)Turtle)Conservation)and)Protection,[111]&ASEANcan&forge&a&regional&stand&to&facilitate&recommendations&which&have&an&impact&on&natural&resources&includingendangered&species&such&as&sea&turtles.&For&example,&in&the&case&of&United)States))Import)Prohibitions)of)CertainShrimp)and)Shrimp)Products,[112]&the&World&Trade&Organization&Appellate&Body&advocated&the&adoption&of&effectivemeasures&to&protect&endangered&species,&such&as&sea&turtles&which&are&recognized&under&CITES.&The&AppellateBody&further&encouraged&sovereign&states&to&act&together&bilaterally,&plurilaterally&or&multilaterally,&either&withinthe&WTO&or&in&other&international&fora,&to&protect&endangered&species&or&to&otherwise&protect&the&environment.[113]&Thus,&ASEAN&can&at&some&future&date&cooperate&to&deal&with&a&common&position&regarding&the&use&of&TED(turtle&excluder&devices)&which&would&protect&sea&turtles.&This&would&strengthen&the&ASEAN&MOU&on&sea&turtles.ASEAN&could&further&cooperate&in&the&area&of&avian&Wlu&and&SARS&&it&can&move&from&the&public&health&to&theconservation&issues&brought&about&by&culling.&An&ecosystem&approach&could&be&taken&under&the&CBD.&Farmedpoultry&comes&within&the&scope&of&the&CBD&as&it&can&be&considered&a&domesticated&species&under&Article&2&for&thefollowing&reasons:&A&chicken&is&a&bird&and&todays&chickens&are&believed&to&be&descended&from&the&red&jungle&fowl.[114]&Article&6&of&the&CBD&deals&with&general&measures&for&conservation&and&sustainable&use,&eg,&biodiversitystrategies,&plans&or&programs.&In&planning&for&a&good&management&system&for&animal&husbandry,&ASEAN&couldcooperate&with&the&relevant&secretariats&of&the&various&biodiversityVrelated&Conventions.Regarding&the&implementation&of&ASEANs&initiatives&at&the&national&level,&the&

Documents

"Asian Environmental Protection in Natural Resources and Sustainable Development: Convergence Versus Divergence?" [2007] MqJlICEnvLaw 3; (2007) 4(1) Macquarie Journal of International