Aryan Race - Wikipedia, The

8/10/2019 Aryan Race - Wikipedia, The..

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Aryan raceFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

The Aryan racewas a racial grouping commonly used in the period of the late 19th century to the mid 20th centuryto describe peoples of European and Western Asian heritage. It derives from the idea that the original speakers ofthe Indo-European languages and their descendants up to the present day constitute a distinctive race or subrace of

the larger Caucasian race.[1]

While originally meant simply as a neutral ethno-linguistic classification, from the late 19th century onwards theconcept of the Aryan race has been used by proponents of ideologically-motivated racism and white supremacismsuch as in doctrines of Nazism and neo-Nazism. Aryanismdeveloped as a racial ideology that claimed that theAryan race was a master race.

Contents

1 Origin of the term

2 19th-century physical anthropology

3 Indo-Aryan migration

4 Occultism

4.1 Theosophy

4.2 Ariosophy

5 Aryanism

5.1 Nazism

5.2 Italian Fascism

5.3 Neo-Nazism5.3.1 Tempelhofgesellschaft

6 See also

6.1 Philosophical

6.2 Third Reich specific

6.3 Contemporaneous concepts of race

7 References

8 Further reading

9 External links

Origin of the term

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The earliest epigraphically-attested

reference to the word aryaoccurs in

the 6th century B.C. Behistun

inscription, which describes itself to

have been composed "in arya

[language or script]" ( 70). As is also

the case for all other Old Iranian

language usage, the aryaof the

inscription does not signify anything

but "Iranian".[2]

The regionAriaas depicted by

Waldseemuller in 1507

The termAryanoriginates from the Sanskrit word rya, in origin an ethnicself-designation, in Classical Sanskrit meaning "honourable, respectable,

noble".[3][4]

In the 18th century, the most ancient known Indo-European languages werethose of the ancient Indo-Iranians. The wordAryanwas therefore adoptedto refer not only to the Indo-Iranian peoples, but also to nativeIndo-European speakers as a whole, including the Romans, Greeks, and the

Germans. It was soon recognised that Balts, Celts, and Slavs also belongedto the same group. It was argued that all of these languages originated from acommon rootnow known as Proto-Indo-Europeanspoken by an ancientpeople who were thought of as ancestors of the European, Iranian, andIndo-Aryan peoples. The ethnic group composed of the Proto-Indo-Europeans and their modern descendants was termed the "Aryans".

This usage was common among knowledgeable authors writing in the late19th and early 20th century. An example of this usage appears in The

Outline of History, a bestselling 1920 work by H. G. Wells. [5]In thatinfluential volume, Wells used the term in the plural ("the Aryan peoples"),

but he was a staunch opponent of the racist and politically motivatedexploitation of the singular term ("the Aryan people") by earlier authors likeHouston Stewart Chamberlain (see below) and was careful either to avoid thegeneric singular, though he did refer now and again in the singular to somespecific "Aryan people" (e.g. the Scythians). In 1922 inA Short History of theWorld, Wells depicted a highly diverse group of various "Aryan peoples"learning "methods of civilization" and then, by means of differentuncoordinated movements that Wells believed were part of a larger dialecticalrhythm of conflict between settled civilizations and nomadic invaders that alsoencompassed Aegean and Mongol peoples inter alia, "subjugat[ing]""inform" but not in "ideas and methods""the whole ancient world, Semitic,

Aegean and Egyptian alike".[6]

But in a climate of burgeoning racism it proved difficult to maintain such nuanced distinctions. Even Max Mueller,a linguist who wrote in 1888 that "an ethnologist who speaks of Aryan race, Aryan blood, Aryan eyes and hair, is as

great a sinner as a linguist who speaks of a dolichocephalic dictionary or a brachycephalic grammar,"[7]was on

occasion guilty of using the term "Aryan race."[8]So it was that despite the injunctions of writers like Wells, thenotion of an Aryan race took root in mainstream culture.

Thus in the 1944 edition of Rand McNallys World Atlas, the Aryan race is depicted as one of the ten major racial

groupings of mankind.[9]The science fiction author Poul Anderson (19262001), an anti-racist libertarian of

Scandinavian ancestry, in his many novels, novellas, and short stories, consistently used the termAryanas asynonym forIndo-Europeans. He spoke of theAryan bird of preywhich impelled those of the Aryan race to takethe lead in developing interstellar travel, colonize habitable planets in other planetary systems and become leading

business entrepreneurs on the newly colonized planets.[10]

Today the use of "Aryan" as a synonym for "Indo-European" or to a lesser extent for "Indo-Iranian" both inacademia and in popular culture is obsolete, ideologically suspect, and politically incorrect. But the term may stilloccasionally appear in material that is based on older scholarship or written by persons accustomed to older usage.Thus in a 1989 article in Scientific American, Colin Renfrew uses the term "Aryan" as a synonym for "Indo-

European".[11]

The term Indo-Aryan is still commonly used to describe the Indic half of the Indo-Iranian languages, i.e. the familythat includes Sanskrit and modern languages such as Hindi, Urdu and Bengali.

19th-century physical anthropology




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The 4th edition of Meyers Konversationslexikon (Leipzig, 1885-1890) shows

the Caucasian race(in various shades of grayish blue-green) as comprising

Aryans, Semites, andHamites.Aryansare further subdivided intoEuropean

AryansandIndo-Aryans(the term "Indo-Aryans" was then used to describe

those now called Indo-Iranians).

Arthur de Gobineau, one of the key

formulators of the theory of the "Aryan

race"

In 19th century physical anthropology,represented by some as being scientificracism, the "Aryan race" was defined asthe subgroup of the Caucasian (orEuropid) race consisting of the nativespeakers of Indo-European languagesdescended from the original Proto-Indo-Europeans, that in modern times

reside in Europe, Australia, NewZealand, Anglo-America, Canada,Russia, South Africa, Latin America,Iran, Armenia, Maldives, Pakistan,Bangladesh, Afghanistan, Tajikistan,

Northern India, and Nepal.[12]

The original 19th-century and early20th-century use of the termAryanreferred to "the early speakers ofProto-Indo European and their

descendents".[13][14]Max Mller isoften identified as the first writer tospeak of an Aryan "race" in English. InhisLectures on the Science of Language

in 1861[15]he referred to Aryans as a"race of people". At the time, the term

racehad the meaning of "a group of tribes or peoples, an ethnic group".[16]

When Mller's statement was interpreted to imply a biologically distinct sub-group of humanity, he soon clarifiedthat he simply meant a line of descent, insisting that it was very dangerous to mix linguistics and anthropology. "The

Science of Language and the Science of Man cannot be kept too much asunder ... I must repeat what I have saidmany times before, it would be wrong to speak of Aryan blood as of dolichocephalic grammar". [17]He restated his

opposition to this method in 1888 in his essayBiographies of words and the home of the Aryas.[15]

Mller was responding to the development of racial anthropology, and theinfluence of the work of Arthur de Gobineau who argued that theIndo-Europeans represented a superior branch of humanity. A number oflater writers, such as the French anthropologist Vacher de Lapouge in hisbookL'Aryen, argued that this superior branch could be identifiedbiologically by using the cephalic index (a measure of head shape) and otherindicators. He argued that the long-headed "dolichocephalic-blond"

Europeans, characteristically found in northern Europe, were naturalleaders, destined to rule over more "brachiocephalic" (short headed)

peoples.[18]

The division of the Caucasian race into Aryans, Semites and Hamites is inorigin linguistic, not based on physical anthropology, the division in physicalanthropology being that into Nordic, Alpine and Mediterranean. However,the linguistic classification of "Aryan" later became closely associated, andconflated, with the classification of "Nordic" among some archaeologistsand anthropologists.

This claim became increasingly important during the 19th century. In themid-19th century, it was commonly believed that the Aryans originated in

the southwestern steppes of present-day Russia. However, by the late 19th century the steppe theory of Aryanorigins was challenged by the view that the Aryans originated in ancient Germany or Scandinavia, or at least that inthose countries the original Aryan ethnicity had been preserved. The German origin of the Aryans was especially




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"The Forenoon of Life - Aryans

entering India, 3500 B.C.", fromHutchinson's History of the Nations,

c.1910, an early 20th century portrayal

of "Aryan" migration.

promoted by the archaeologist Gustaf Kossinna, who claimed that the Proto-Indo-European peoples were identicalto the Corded Ware culture of Neolithic Germany. This idea was widely circulated in both intellectual and popular

culture by the early twentieth century,[19]and is reflected in the concept of "Corded-Nordics" in Carleton S. Coon's1939 The Races of Europe.

Other anthropologists contested such claims. In Germany, Rudolf Virchow launched a study of craniometry, whichprompted him to denounce "Nordic mysticism" in the 1885 Anthropology Congress in Karlsruhe, while JosefKollmann, a collaborator of Virchow, stated in the same congress that the people of Europe, be they English,

German, French, and Spaniard belonged to a "mixture of various races," furthermore declaring that the "results ofcraniology...[are] against any theory concerning the superiority of this or that European race" to others.[15]

Virchow's contribution to the debate sparked a controversy. Houston Stewart Chamberlain, a strong supporter of thetheory of a superior Aryan race, attacked Josef Kollmann arguments in detail. While the "Aryan race" theoryremained popular, particularly in Germany, some authors defended Virchow's perspective, in particular OttoSchrader, Rudolph von Jhering and the ethnologist Robert Hartmann (18311893), who proposed to ban the notion

of "Aryan" from anthropology.[15]

Indo-Aryan migration

Models of the Indo-Aryan migration discuss scenarios of prehistoricmigrations of the early Indo-Aryans to their historically attested areas ofsettlement in the northwest of the Indian subcontinent and from therefurther across all of North India. Claims of Indo-Aryan migration are

primarily drawn from linguistic[20]evidence but also from a multitude of

data stemming from genetics,[21]Vedic religion, rituals, poetics as well assome aspects of social organization and chariot technology.

All discussion of historical Indo-Aryan migrations or Aryan and Dravidianraces remains highly controversial in India to this day, and continues toaffect political and religious debate. Some Dravidians, and supporters of theDalit movement, most commonly Tamils, claim that the worship of Shiva is a

distinct Dravidian religion going back to the Indus Civilization,[22]to be

distinguished from Brahminical "Aryan" Hinduism. In contrast others[23]

argue that no Aryan invasion or migration ever occurred,[24]asserting that

Vedic beliefs emerged from the Indus Valley Civilisation,[25]which pre-dated the supposed advent of theIndo-Aryans in India, and is identified as a likely candidate for a Proto-Dravidian culture.

Some Indians were also influenced by the debate about the Aryan race during the British Raj. The Indian nationalist

V. D. Savarkar believed in the theory that an "Aryan race" migrated to India,[26]but he didn't find much value in a

racialized interpretation of the "Aryan race".[27]Some Indian nationalists supported the British version of the

theory because it gave them the prestige of common descent with the ruling British class.[28]

Occultism

Theosophy




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Mme. Blavatsky and Henry Steel Olcott, a lawyer,

agricultural expert, and journalist who covered

the Spiritualist phenomena.

The Theosophical movement, founded by Helena Blavatsky andHenry Olcott at the end of the nineteenth century, took inspirationfrom Indian culture, in this case, perhaps, from the Hindu reformmovement the Arya Samaj founded by Swami Dayananda.Blavatsky argued that humanity had descended from a series of"Root Races", naming the fifth root race (out of seven) the AryanRace. She thought that the Aryans originally came from Atlantisand described the Aryan races with the following words:

"The Aryan races, for instance, now varying from dark

brown, almost black, red-brown-yellow, down to the whitest

creamy colour, are yet all of one and the same stock -- the

Fifth Root-Race -- and spring from one single progenitor,

(...) who is said to have lived over 18,000,000 years ago, and

also 850,000 years ago -- at the time of the sinking of the last

remnants of the great continent of Atlantis."[29]

Blavatsky used "Root Race" as a technical term to describe human evolution over the large time periods in hercosmology. However, she also claimed that there were modern non-Aryan peoples who were inferior to Aryans.She regularly contrasts "Aryan" with "Semitic" culture, to the detriment of the latter, asserting that Semitic peoples

are an offshoot of Aryans who have become "degenerate in spirituality and perfected in materiality."[30]She alsostates that some peoples are "semi-animal creatures". These latter include "the Tasmanians, a portion of theAustralians and a mountain tribe in China." There are also "considerable numbers of the mixed Lemuro-Atlanteanpeoples produced by various crossings with such semi-human stocks -- e.g., the wild men of Borneo, the Veddhas of

Ceylon, most of the remaining Australians, Bushmen, Negritos, Andaman Islanders, etc."[31]

Despite this, Blavatsky's admirers claim that her thinking was not connected to fascist or racialist ideas, assertingthat she believed in a Universal Brotherhood of humanity and wrote that "all men have spiritually and physically the

same origin" and that "mankind is essentially of one and the same essence".[32]On the other hand, in The SecretDoctrine, Blavatsky states: "Verily mankind is 'of one blood,' but not of the same essence."

Blavatsky connects physical race with spiritual attributes constantly throughout her works:

"Esoteric history teaches that idols and their worship died out with the Fourth Race, until the survivors of the

hybrid races of the latter (Chinamen, African Negroes, &c.) gradually brought the worship back. The Vedas

countenance no idols; all the modern Hindu writings do".[33]

"The intellectual difference between the Aryan and other civilized nations and such savages as the South Sea

Islanders, is inexplicable on any other grounds. No amount of culture, nor generations of training amid

civilization, could raise such human specimens as the Bushmen, the Veddhas of Ceylon, and some African

tribes, to the same intellectual level as the Aryans, the Semites, and the Turanians so called. The 'sacred spark'

is missing in them and it is they who are the only inferior races on the globe, now happily -- owing to the wise

adjustment of nature which ever works in that direction -- fast dying out. Verily mankind is 'of one blood,' but

not of the same essence. We are the hot-house, artificially quickened plants in nature, having in us a spark,

which in them is latent".[34]

According to Blavatsky, "the MONADS of the lowest specimens of humanity (the "narrow-brained" savageSouth-Sea Islander, the African, the Australian) had no Karma to work out when first born as men, as their more

favoured brethren in intelligence had".[35]

She also prophesies of the destruction of the racial "failures of nature" as the future "higher race" ascends:




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Adolf Hitler.

"Thus will mankind, race after race, perform its appointed cycle-pilgrimage. Climates will, and have already

begun, to change, each tropical year after the other dropping one sub-race, but only to beget another higher

race on the ascending cycle; while a series of other less favoured groups -- the failures of nature -- will, like

some individual men, vanish from the human family without even leaving a trace behind". [36]

The second subrace of the Fifth or Aryan root race, the Arabian, is regarded by Theosophists as one of the Aryansubraces. It is believed by Theosophists that the Arabians, although asserted in traditional Theosophy to be ofAryan (i.e., Indo-European) ancestry, adopted the Semitic language of the people around them who had migratedearlier from Atlantis (the fifth or (original) Semite subrace of the Atlantean root race). Theosophists assert that theJews originated as an offshoot of the Arabian subrace in what is now Yemen about 30,000 BC. They migrated firstto Somalia and then later to Egypt where they lived until the time of Moses. Thus, according to the teachings of

Theosophy, the Jews are part of the Aryan race.[37]

Samael Aun Weor published a book in 1967 retitled in 2008 The Doomed Aryan Racein which he asserted that theAryan "Root Race" is doomed to be destroyed by hydrogen bombs unless the people of the Aryan race learn tantric

yoga.[38]

Ariosophy

Guido von List (and his followers such as Lanz von Liebenfels) later took up some of Blavatsky's ideas, mixing herideology with nationalistic and fascist ideas; this system of thought became known as Ariosophy. It was believed inAriosophy that the Teutonics were superior to all other peoples because according to Theosophy the Teutonics or

Nordics were the most recent subrace of the Aryan root race to have evolved.[39]Such views also fed into thedevelopment of Nazi ideology. Theosophical publications such as The Aryan Pathwere strongly opposed to theNazi usage, attacking racialism.

Aryanism

Nazism

The ideology of Nazism was based upon the conception of the Aryan racebeing a master race. The Nazi conception of the Aryan race arose fromearlier proponents of a supremacist conception of the race as described byracial theorist figures such as Arthur de Gobineau and Houston StewartChamberlain. The Nazis were divided on some parts of the constitution ofthe Aryan race.

Nazi racial theorist Hans F. K. Gnther identified the Aryan race in Europe

as having five subtype races: Nordic, Mediterranean, Dinaric, Alpine, andEast Baltic.[40]Gnther applied a Nordicist conception that Nordics werethe highest in the racial hierarchy amongst these five Aryan subtype

races.[40]In his bookRassenkunde des deutschen Volkes(1922) ("RacialScience of the German People"), Gnther recognized Germans as beingcomposed of all five Aryan subtypes, but emphasized the strong Nordic

heritage amongst Germans.[41]He defined each racial subtype according togeneral physical appearance and their psychological qualities including their"racial soul" - referring to their emotional traits and religious beliefs, andprovided detailed information on their hair, eye, and skin colours, facial

structure.[41]He provided photographs of Germans identified as Nordic inplaces like Bedan, Stuttgart, Salzburg, and Schwaben; and providedphotographs of Germans he identified as Alpine and Mediterranean types,

especially in Vorarlberg, Bavaria, and the Black Forest region of Baden.[41]Nazi FhrerAdolf Hitler readRassenkunde des deutschen Volkesthat influenced his racial policy, and with Nazi backing, Gnther attained a




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position in the anthropology department at the University of Jena in 1932 where Hitler attended Gnther's inaugural

lecture at Jena.[42]

Gnther distinguished Aryans from Jews, and identified Jews as descending from non-European races, andparticularly what he classified as the Near Asian race (Vorderasiatische) more commonly known as the Armenoidrace, and said that such origins rendered Jews as fundamentally different and incompatible with Germans and most

Europeans.[43]This association of Jews with the Armenoid type had been utilized by Zionist Jews who claimed that

Jews were a group within that type.

[44]

He claimed that the Near Eastern race descended from the Caucasus in thefifth and fourth millennia BC, and that it had expanded into Asia Minor and Mesopotamia and eventually to the

west coast of the Eastern Mediterranean Sea.[43]Aside from ascribing Armenians and Jews as having Near Easterncharacteristics, he ascribed them to several other contemporary peoples, including: Greeks, Turks, Syrians, and

Iranians.[45]In his workRacial Characteristics of the Jewish People, he defined the racial soul of the Near Easternrace as emphasizing a "commercial spirit" (Handelgeist), and describing them as "artful traders" - a term thatGunther ascribed as being used by Jewish racial theorist Samuel Weissenberg to describe contemporary Armenians,

Greeks, and Jews.[43]Gnther added to that description of the Near Eastern type being commercially spirited and

artful traders, that the type held strong psychological manipulation skills that aided them in trade.[43]He claimedthat the Near Eastern race had been "bred not so much for the conquest and exploitation of nature as it was for the

conquest and exploitation of people".[43]

Hitler's conception of the AryanHerrenvolk("Aryan master race") explicitly excluded the vast majority of Slavs,

regarding the Slavs as having dangerous Jewish and Asiatic influences.[46]The Nazis because of this declared Slavs

to be untermenschen(subhumans).[47]Exceptions were made for a small percentage of Slavs who were seen by theNazis to be descended from German settlers and therefore fit to be Germanised to be considered part of the Aryan

master race.[48]Hitler described Slavs as "a mass of born slaves who feel the need of a master".[49]Hitler declaredthat because Slavs were subhumans that the Geneva Conventions were not applicable to them, and German soldiers

in World War II were thus permitted to ignore the Geneva Conventions in regards to Slavs.[50]Hitler called Slavs "a

rabbit family" meaning they were intrinsically idle and disorganized.[51]Nazi Germany's propaganda minister

Joseph Goebbels had media speak of Slavs as primitive animals whom were from the Siberian tundra who were likea "dark wave of filth".[52][53]The Nazi notion of Slavs being inferior was part of the agenda for creatingLebensraum ("living space") for Germans and other Germanic people in eastern Europe that was initiated duringWorld War II under Generalplan Ost, millions of Germans and other Germanic settlers would be moved intoconquered territories of Eastern Europe, while the original Slavic inhabitants were to be annihilated, removed, or

enslaved.[54]Nazi Germany's ally the Independent State of Croatia rejected the common conception that Croats

were primarily a Slavic people and claimed that Croats were primarily the descendents of the Germanic Goths.[55]

However the Nazi regime continued to classify Croats as "subhuman" in spite of the alliance.[56]Nazi Germany'spolicy changed towards Slavs in response to military manpower shortages, in which it accepted Slavs to serve in itsarmed forces within occupied territories, in spite of them being considered subhuman, as a pragmatic means to

resolve such manpower shortages.[56]Hitler often doubted whether Czechs were Aryan or not, he said in his tabletalk "It is enough for a Czech to grow a moustache for anyone to see, from the way the thing droops, that his origin

is Mongoloian.[57]The question of whether Italians were Aryan enough was questioned by the Nazi racial theorists,Hitler viewed northern Italians as strongly Aryan but not southern Italians. The Nazis viewed the downfall of theRoman Empire as being the result of the pollution of blood from racial intermixing, claiming that Italians were ahybrid of races, including black African races. Hitler even mentioned his view of the presence of Negroid blood in

the Mediterranean peoples during his first meeting with Mussolini in 1934.[58]

German Interior Ministry official Albert Gorter drafted an official definition of the Aryan Race for the new CivilService Law that included European Aryans and Asian Aryans of the subtype race known as Irano-Afghan;this

definition was unacceptable by the Nazis.[59]However Achim Gerke revised Gorter's draft of the Civil Service Lawby removing such contemporary Asian people from the definition of the Aryan race, as they were considered too

foreign to be connected with the Aryan race as in Europe.[59]The Nuremberg race laws of 1935 classified as

"racially acceptable" people with "German or related blood" [59]all persons wishing to be a citizen of the Reich had




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Benito Mussolini.

to provide proof of their Aryan ancestry by acquiring an Aryan certificate.[60]The term remained in constant flux

and nations such as Finns or Hungarians were often excluded by Nazis as Aryans.[59]

The idea of the Northern origins of the Aryans was particularly influential in Germany. It was widely believed thatthe "Vedic Aryans" were ethnically identical to the Goths, Vandals and other ancient Germanic peoples of theVlkerwanderung. This idea was often intertwined with antisemitic ideas. The distinctions between the "Aryan" and"Semitic" peoples were based on the aforementioned linguistic and ethnic history. A complete, highly speculativetheory of Aryan and anti-Semitic history can be found in Alfred Rosenberg's major work, The Myth of the TwentiethCentury. Rosenberg's account of ancient history, melded with his racial speculations, proved to be very effective inspreading racialism among German intellectuals in the early twentieth century, especially after the First World War.

Semitic peoples came to be seen as a foreign presence within Aryan societies, and the Semitic peoples were oftenpointed to as the cause of conversion and destruction of social order and values leading to culture and civilization'sdownfall by proto-Nazi theorists such as Houston Stewart Chamberlain.

These and other ideas evolved into the Nazi use of the term "Aryan race" to refer to what they saw as being amaster race, which was narrowly defined by the Nazis as being identical with the Nordic race, followed by othersub-races of the Aryan race. They worked to maintain the purity of this race through eugenics programs (includinganti-miscegenation legislation, compulsory sterilization of the mentally ill and the mentally deficient, the execution

of the institutionalized mentally ill as part of a euthanasia program).

Heinrich Himmler (theReichsfhrerof the SS), the person ordered by Adolf Hitler to implement the Final Solution,

or The Holocaust,[61]told his personal masseur Felix Kersten that he always carried with him a copy of the ancientAryan scripture, the Bhagavad Gita because it relieved him of guilt about what he was doing he felt that like the

warrior Arjuna, he was simply doing his duty without attachment to his actions. [62]

Italian Fascism

In a 1921 speech in Bologna, Mussolini stated that "Fascism was born... outof a profound, perennial need of this our Aryan and Mediterranean race".[63][64]In this speech Mussolini was referring to Italians as being theMediterranean branch of the Aryan Race, Aryan in the meaning of people of

an Indo-European language and culture.[65]Italian Fascism emphasized thatrace was bound by spiritual and cultural foundations, and identified a racial

hierarchy based on spiritual and cultural factors.[65]While Italian Fascismbased its conception of race on spiritual and cultural factors, Mussoliniexplicitly rejected notions that biologically "pure" races existed though

biology was still considered a relevant factor in race.[66]

Italian Fascism strongly rejected the common Nordicist conception of the

Aryan Race that idealized "pure" Aryans as having certain physical traitsthat were defined as Nordic such as blond hair and blue eyes.[67]Theantipathy by Mussolini and other Italian Fascists to Nordicism was over theexistence of what they viewed as the Mediterranean inferiority complex thatthey claimed had been instilled into Mediterraneans by the propagation ofsuch theories by German and Anglo-Saxon Nordicists who viewedMediterranean peoples as racially degenerate and thus in their view

inferior.[67]Mussolini refused to allow Italy to return again to this inferiority complex, initially rejecting

Nordicism.[67]However traditional Nordicist claims of Mediterraneans being degenerate due to having a darkercolour of skin than Nordics had long been rebuked in anthropology through the depigmentation theory that claimed

that lighter skinned peoples had been dipigmented from a darker skin, this theory has since become a widelyaccepted view in anthropology.[68]Anthropologist Carleton S. Coon in his work The races of Europe(1939)subscribed to depigmentation theory that claimed that Nordic race's light-coloured skin was the result of

depigmentation from their ancestors of the Mediterranean race.[69]




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In the early 1930s, with the rise to power of the Nazi Party in Germany with FhrerAdolf Hitler's emphasis on aNordicist conception of the Aryan Race, strong tensions arose between the Fascists and the Nazis over racial issues.In 1934, in the aftermath of Austrian Nazis killing Austrian Chancellor Engelbert Dollfuss, an ally of Italy,Mussolini became enraged and responded by angrily denouncing Nazism. Mussolini rebuked Nazism's Nordicism,claiming that the Nazis' emphasizing of a common Nordic "Germanic race" was absurd, saying "a Germanic race

does not exist. ... We repeat. Does not exist. Scientists say so. Hitler says so."[70]The fact that Germans were notpurely Nordic was indeed acknowledged by prominent Nazi racial theorist Hans F. K. Gnther in his bookRassenkunde des deutschen Volkes(1922) ("Racial Science of the German People"), where Gnther recognizedGermans as being composed of five Aryan subtype races: Nordic, Mediterranean, Dinaric, Alpine, and East Baltic

while asserting that the Nordics were the highest in a racial hierarchy of the five subtypes.[41]

By 1936, the tensions between Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany reduced and relations became more amicable. In1936, Mussolini decided to launch a racial program in Italy, and was interested in the racial studies being conducted

by Giulio Cogni.[71]Cogni was a Nordicist but did not equate Nordic identity with Germanic identity as was

commonly done by German Nordicists.[72]Cogni had travelled to Germany where he had become impressed by

Nazi racial theory and sought to create his own version of racial theory.[73]On 11 September 1936, Cogni sent

Mussolini a copy of his newly published bookIl Razzismo(1936).[71]Cogni declared the racial affinity of theMediterranean and Nordic racial subtypes of the Aryan race and claimed that the intermixing of Nordic Aryans and

Mediterranean Aryans in Italy produced a superior synthesis of Aryan Italians.[72]Cogni addressed the issue ofracial differences between northern and southern Italians, declaring southern Italians were mixed between Aryanand non-Aryan races, that he claimed was most likely due to infiltration by Asiatic peoples in Roman times and

later Arab invasions.[71]As such, Cogni viewed Southern Italian Mediterraneans as being polluted with orientalizing

tendencies.[71]Initially Mussolini was not impressed with Cogni's work, however Cogni's ideas later entered into the

official Fascist racial policy several years later.[71]

In 1938 Mussolini was concerned that if Italian Fascism did not recognize Nordic heritage within Italians, that the

Mediterranean inferiority complex would return to Italian society.[67]Therefore in summer 1938, the Fascistgovernment officially recognized Italians as having Nordic heritage and being of Nordic-Mediterranean descent andin a meeting with PNF members, and in June 1938 in a meeting with PNF members, Mussolini identified himself asNordic and declared that previous policy of focus on Mediterraneanism was to be replaced by a focus on

Aryanism.[67]

The Fascist regime began publication of the racialist magazineLa Difesa della Razzain 1938.[74]The Nordicistracial theorist Guido Landra took a major role in the early work ofLa Difesa, and published theManifesto of

Racial Scientistsin the magazine in 1938.[75]TheManifestoreceived substantial criticism, including its assertion of

Italians being a "pure race", as it was viewed as absurd.[75]La Difesapublished other theories that describedlong-term Nordic Aryan amongst Italians, such as the theory that in the Eneolithic age Nordic Aryans arrived to

Italy.[76]Many of the writers took up the traditional Nordicist claim that the decline and fall of the Roman Empire

was due to the arrival of Semitic immigrants.[76]La Difesa's writers were divided on their claims that described how

Italians extricated themselves from Semitic influence.[75]

The Nordicist direction of Fascist racial policy was challenged in 1938 by a resurgence of the Mediterraneanist

faction in the PNF.[77]By 1939, the Mediterraneanists' advocacy of a nativist racial theory that rejected ascribing

the achievements of the Italian people to Nordic peoples.[77]This nativist racial policy was prominently promoted

by Ugo Rellini.[77]Rellini rejected the notion of large scale invasions of Italy by Nordic Aryans in the Eneolithic

age, and claimed that Italians were an indigenous people descended from the Cro-Magnons.[78]Rellini claimed thatMediterranean and Nordic peoples arrived later and peacefully intermixed in small numbers with the indigenous

Italian population.[78]

In 1941 the PNF's Mediterraneanists through the influence of Giacomo Acerbo put forward a comprehensive

definition of the Italian race.[79]However these efforts were challenged by Mussolini's endorsement of Nordicistfigures with the appointment of staunch spiritual Nordicist Alberto Luchini as head of Italy's Racial Office in May




10/15

The sun wheel has been used as asymbol of the Aryan race by some

neo-Nazis, however the Celtic cross

seems to be the most popular symbol

among white supremacists - Nazis

included.

1941, as well as with Mussolini becoming interested with Julius Evola's spiritual Nordicism in late 1941. [79]Acerboand the Mediterraneanists in his High Council on Demography and Race sought to bring the regime back to

supporting Mediterraneanism by thoroughly denouncing the pro-NordicistManifesto of the Racial Scientists.[79]

The Council recognized Aryans as being a linguistic-based group, and condemned theManifestofor denying theinfluence of pre-Aryan civilization on modern Italy, saying that theManifesto"constitutes an unjustifiable andundemonstrable negation of the anthropological, ethnological, and archaeological discoveries that have occurred

and are occurring in our country".[79]Furthermore the Council denounced theManifestofor "implicitly" crediting

Germanic invaders of Italy in the guise of the Lombards for having a "a formative influence on the Italian race in adisproportional degree to the number of invaders and to their biological predominance".[79]The Council claimedthat the obvious superiority of the ancient Greeks and Romans in comparison with the ancient Germanic tribes

made it inconceivable that Italian culture owed a debt to ancient Aryan Germans.[79]The Council denounced theManifesto's Nordicist attitude towards Mediterraneans that it claimed was "considering them as slaves" and was "a

repudiation of the entire Italian civilization".[79]

Neo-Nazism

Since the military defeat of Nazi Germany by the Allies in 1945, some

neo-Nazis have developed a more inclusive definition of "Aryan", claimingthat the peoples of Western Europe are the closest descendants of theancient Aryans, with Nordic and Germanic peoples being the most "racially

pure." [80]

According to Nicholas Goodrick-Clarke, many neo-Nazis want to establishan autocratic state modeled after Nazi Germany to be called the Western

Imperium. It is believed this proposed state would be able to attain worlddomination by combining the nuclear arsenals of the four major Aryan worldpowers, the United States, the United Kingdom, France, and Russia under a

single military command.[81]

This proposed state would be led by a Fhrer-like figure called the Vindex,and would include all areas inhabited by the "Aryan race", as conceived byNeo-Nazis. Only those of the Aryan race would be full citizens of the state.The "Western Imperium" would embark on a vigorous and dynamic programof space exploration, followed by the creation by genetic engineering of asuper race called Homo Galactica. The concept of the "Western Imperium"as outlined in the previous three sentences is based on the original conceptof theImperiumas outlined in the 1947 bookImperium: The Philosophy of History and Politicsby Francis ParkerYockey as further updated, extended and refined in the early 1990s in pamphlets published by David Myatt.[82][83][84]

Tempelhofgesellschaft

A neo-Nazi esoteric Nazi Gnostic sect headquartered in Vienna, Austria called the Tempelhofgesellschaft, foundedin the early 1990s, teaches a form of what it calls Marcionism. They distribute pamphlets claiming that the Aryanrace originally came to Atlantis from the star Aldebaran.

See also

Anatolian hypothesis

Aryan

Indo-Aryan migrations

Indo-Iranians


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Iranian peoples

Nordic theory

Proto-Indo-Europeans

Indo-European language family

Kurgan hypothesis

R1b

Race Life of the Aryan Peoples

Scandinavism

White nationalism

White supremacy

Philosophical

Esotericism in Germany and Austria

Thule Society

Germanic Neopaganism

Neo-vlkisch movements

As opposed to:

Soviet people

Zhonghua minzu

Third Reich specific

Aryanization

Aryan paragraph

Honorary Aryan

Ahnenpass

Aryan Games

Contemporaneous concepts of race

Alpine race

Armenoid race

Dinaric race

East Baltic race

Iranid race

Mediterranean race

Nordic race

References

^Mish, Frederic C., Editor in Chief Webster's Tenth

New Collegiate DictionarySpringfield, Massachusetts,

U.S.A.:1994--Merriam-Webster See original definition

1. (definition #1) of "Aryan" in English--Page 66

^cf.Gershevitch, Ilya (1968). "Old Iranian Literature".

Handbuch der Orientalistik, Literatur I. Leiden: Brill.

2.


http://www.novapdf.com/http://www.novapdf.com/http://www.novapdf.com/http://www.novapdf.com/http://www.novapdf.com/http://www.novapdf.com/http://www.novapdf.com/


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pp. 131., p. 2.

^Monier-Williams (1899).3.

^"Monier Williams Sanskrit-English Dictionary (2008

revision)" (http://www.sanskrit-lexicon.uni-koeln.de

/monier/). UNIVERSITT ZU KLN. Retrieved July

25, 2010.

4.

^Wells, H.G. The Outline of History, 3rd ed. (New

York: Macmillan, 1921), Ch. 20 ("The Aryan-Speaking

Peoples in Prehistoric Times"), pp. 236-51.

5.

^H.G. Wells in 1922 on the early history of "the

Aryan peoples" (Proto-Indo Europeans):

(http://www.bartleby.com/86/19.html)

6.

^F. Max Mller,Biographies of Words and the Home

of the Aryas(1888), Kessinger Publishing reprint,

2004, p. 120; Dorothy Matilda Figueira,Aryans, Jews,

Brahmins: Theorizing Authority Through Myths of

Identity(SUNY Press, 2002), p. 45.

7.

^Romila Thapar, "The Theory of Aryan Race and

India: History and Politics," Social Scientist24.1/3

(Jan.-Mar. 1996), 6. Thapar cites an 1883 lecture in

which Mueller spoke of someone as "belonging to the

south-eastern branch of the Aryan race."

8.

^Rand McNallys World Atlas International Edition

Chicago:1944 Rand McNally Map: "Races of

Mankind" Pages 278279In the explanatory section

below the map, the Aryan race (the word Aryan

being defined in the description below the map as a

synonym for Indo-Europeans) is described as being

one of the ten major racial groupings of mankind. Each

of the ten racial groupings is depicted in a different

color on the map and the estimated populations in 1944

of the larger racial groups except the Dravidians are

given (the Dravidian population in 1944 would have

been about 70,000,000). The other nine groups are

depicted as being the Semitic race (the Aryans(850,000,000) and the Semites (70,000,000) are

described as being the two main branches of the

Caucasian race), the Dravidian race, the Mongolian

race (700,000,000), the Malayan race (Correct

population given on page 413--64,000,000 including

besides the populations of the Dutch East Indies, the

Philippines, and Madagascar also half of the Malay

States, Micronesia, and Polynesia), the American

Indian race (10,000,000), the Negro race(140,000,000), the Native Australians, the Papuans,

and the Hottentots and Bushmen.

9.

^See, for example, the Poul Anderson short stories in10.

the 1964 collection Time and Stars and the

Polesotechnic Leaguestories featuring Nicholas van

Rijn

^Renfrew, Colin. (1989). The Origins of

Indo-European Languages. /Scientific American/,

261(4), 82-90.

11.

^Rand McNallys World Atlas International Edition

Chicago:1944 Rand McNally Map: "Races of

Mankind" Pages 278279 The domain of the Aryan

race is shown as extending throughout the regions

mentioned above.

12.

^Mish, Frederic C., Editor in Chief Webster's Tenth

New Collegiate DictionarySpringfield, Massachusetts,

U.S.A.:1994--Merriam-Webster Page 66

13.

^Widney, Joseph PRace Life of the Aryan Peoples

(http://books.google.com/books?id=s9UKAAAAIAAJ&

printsec=titlepage)New York: Funk & Wagnalls. 1907

In Two Volumes: Volume One--The Old WorldVolume

Two--The New WorldISBN B000859S6O

14.

^ abcdAndrea Orsucci, "Ariani, indogermani, stirpi

mediterranee: aspetti del dibattito sulle razze europee

(1870-1914) (http://www.unifi.it/riviste/cromohs

/3_98/orsucci.html)", in Cromohs, 1998 (Italian)

15.

^OED under race, n.6I.1.c has "A group of several

tribes or peoples, regarded as forming a distinct ethnic

set. Esp. used in 19th-cent. anthropological

classification, sometimes in conjunction with linguistic

groupings."

16.

^Speech before the University of Stassbourg, 1872,

Chaudhuri, Nirad, Scholar Extraordinary: The Life of

Professor the Rt. Hon. Freidrich Max Muller, Chatto

and Windus, 1974, p.313

17.

^Vacher de Lapouge (trans Clossen, C), Georges

(1899). "Old and New Aspects of the Aryan

Question". The American Journal of Sociology5(3):329346. doi:10.1086/210895 (http://dx.doi.org

/10.1086%2F210895)..

18.

^Arvidsson, Stefan (2006). Aryan Idols. USA:

University of Chicago Press, 143. ISBN

0-226-02860-7.

19.

^The Quest for the Origins of Vedic Culture: The

Indo-Aryan Migration Debate, Edwin Bryant, 2001

20.

^Trivedi, Bijal P (2001-05-14). "Genetic evidence

suggests European migrants may have influenced theorigins of India's caste system"

(http://www.genomenewsnetwork.org/articles/05_01

/Indo-European.shtml). Genome News Network(J.

21.


http://www.sanskrit-lexicon.uni-koeln.de/http://www.bartleby.com/86/19.html)http://books.google.com/books?id=s9UKAAAAIAAJ&http://www.unifi.it/riviste/cromohshttp://dx.doi.org/http://www.genomenewsnetwork.org/articles/05_01http://www.novapdf.com/http://www.novapdf.com/http://www.novapdf.com/http://www.novapdf.com/http://www.novapdf.com/http://www.novapdf.com/http://www.novapdf.com/http://www.genomenewsnetwork.org/articles/05_01http://dx.doi.org/http://www.unifi.it/riviste/cromohshttp://books.google.com/books?id=s9UKAAAAIAAJ&http://www.bartleby.com/86/19.html)http://www.sanskrit-lexicon.uni-koeln.de/


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Craig Venter Institute). Retrieved 2005-01-27.

Ît is claimed that the Pashupati seal represents Shiva.

J. Marshall 1931: Vol. 1, 52-55. Mohenjo-Daro and the

IVC. London: Arthur Probsthain.

22.

^http://www.huffingtonpost.com/rajiv-malhotra

/how-europeans-misappropri_b_837376.html

23.

^http://books.google.co.in/books/about

/The_invasion_that_never_was.html?id=xixuAAAAMAAJ

24.

Âlthough most pro-Aryan migration theory scholars

also agree that a part of the IVC culture has influenced

Hinduism. Renfrew says: "it is difficult to see what is

particularly non-Aryan about the Indus Valley

Civilization. Renfrew 1988:188-190. Archaeology and

Language. New York: Cambridge University Press

25.

^Bryant 2001:271, Talageri 2000. The Rigveda.26.

Âfter all there is throughout this world so far as man

is concerned but a single race - the human race, kept

alive by one common blood, the human blood. All

other talk is at best provisional, a makeshift and only

relatively true. (...) Even as it is, not even the

aborigines of the Andamans are without some

sprinkling of the so-called Aryan blood in their veins

and vice-versa. Truly speaking all that one can claim is

that one has the blood of all mankind in ones veins.

The fundamental unity of man from pole to pole is

true, all else only relatively so. Savarkar: "Hindutva".

Vinayak Damodar Savarkar, Savarkar Samagra:

Complete Works of Vinayak Damodar Savarkar in 10

volumes, ISBN 81-7315-331-0

27.

Êrdosy 1995:21, The Indo-Aryans of ancient South

Asia.

28.

^Blavatsky, The Secret Doctrine, the Synthesis of

Science, Religion and Philosophy, Vol.II, p.249

29.

^Blavatsky, The Secret Doctrine, Vol II, p. 20030.

^Blavatsky, The Secret Doctrine, Vol II, pp. 195-631.^The Key to Theosophy, Section 332.

^Blavatsky, The Secret Doctrine, Vol. II, p.72333.

^Blavatsky, The Secret Doctrine, Vol II, p 42134.

^Blavatsky, The Secret Doctrine, Vol II, p.16835.

^Blavatsky, The Secret Doctrine, Vol II, p.44636.

^Powell, A.E. The Solar System: A Complete Outline

of the Theosophical Scheme of EvolutionLondon:1930

The Theosophical Publishing House Pages 298-299

37.

^1967 - Christmas Message 1967-1968: The SolarBodies and Gnostic Wisdom(in Spanish), published in

English as The Doomed Aryan Racein 2008 ISBN

1-934206-30-X

38.

^Goodrick-Clarke, Nicholas The Occult Roots of

Nazism: Secret Aryan Cults and Their Influence on

Nazi IdeologyNew York:1992 New York University

Press Chapter 13 "Herbert Reichstein and Ariosophy"

Pages 164-176

39.

^ abBruce David Baum. The Rise and Fall of the

Caucasian Race: A Political History of Racial Identity.

New York, New York, USA; London, England, UK:

New York University Press, 2006. P. 156.

40.

^ abcdAnne Maxwell. Picture Imperfect:

Photography and Eugenics, 1870-1940. Eastbourne,

England: UK; Portland, Oregon, USA: SUSSEX

ACADEMIC PRESS, 2008, 2010. P. 150.

41.

^John Cornwell. Hitler's Scientists: Science, War, and

the Devil's Pact. Penguin, Sep 28, 2004. [1]

(http://books.google.ca/books?id=5bA2vTgvobAC&

pg=PT68&dq=hitler+gunther+aryan&hl=en&

sa=X&ei=q2IYUfKYIoyayQHBmoG4Dg&

ved=0CGMQ6AEwCQ)

42.

^ abcdeAlan E Steinweis. Studying the Jew:

Scholarly Antisemitism in Nazi Germany. Harvard

University Press, 2008. P. 28.

43.

^Mitchell B. Hart. Jews & Race: Writings on Identity

& Difference, 1880-1940. Lebanon, New Hampshire,

USA: Brandeis University Press, 2011. P. 247.

44.

Âlan E Steinweis. Studying the Jew: Scholarly

Antisemitism in Nazi Germany. Harvard University

Press, 2008. P. 29.

45.

Ândr Mineau. Operation Barbarossa: Ideology and

Ethics Against Human Dignity. Rodopi, 2004. Pp.

34-36.

46.

^Steve Thorne. The Language of War. London,

England, UK: Routledge, 2006. P. 38.

47.

^Wendy Lower.Nazi Empire-building And The

Holocaust In Ukraine. The University of NorthCarolina Press, 2005. P. 27.

48.

^Marvin Perry. Western Civilization: A Brief History.

Cengage Learning, 2012. P. 468.

49.

Ânne Nelson.Red Orchestra: The Story of the

Berlin Underground and the Circle of Friends Who

Resisted Hitler. Random House Digital, Inc., 2009. P.

212.

50.

^David Downing. Sealing Their Fate: The Twenty

Two Days That Decided World War II. P. 48.

51.

^Richard C. Frucht (31 December 2004).Eastern

Europe: An Introduction to the People, Lands, and

Culture(http://books.google.com

52.


http://www.huffingtonpost.com/rajiv-malhotrahttp://books.google.co.in/books/abouthttp://books.google.ca/books?id=5bA2vTgvobAC&http://books.google.com/http://www.novapdf.com/http://www.novapdf.com/http://www.novapdf.com/http://www.novapdf.com/http://www.novapdf.com/http://www.novapdf.com/http://www.novapdf.com/http://books.google.com/http://books.google.ca/books?id=5bA2vTgvobAC&http://books.google.co.in/books/abouthttp://www.huffingtonpost.com/rajiv-malhotra


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/books?id=lVBB1a0rC70C&pg=PA259). ABC-CLIO.

pp. 259. ISBN 978-1-57607-800-6.

^David Downing. Sealing Their Fate: The Twenty

Two Days That Decided World War II. Read How You

Want, 2010 P. 48.

53.

^Joseph W. Bendersky. A concise history of Nazi

Germany, Plymouth, England, UK: Rowman &

Littlefield Publishers Inc., 2007. p. 161-2.

54.

^Rich, Norman (1974). Hitler's War Aims: the

Establishment of the New Order, p. 276-7. W. W.

Norton & Company Inc., New York.

55.

^ abNorman Davies.Europe at War 1939-1945: No

Simple Victory. Pan Macmillan, 2008. Pp. 167, 209.

56.

Âdolf Hitler (30 April 2008).Hitler's Table Talk,

1941-1944: Secret Conversations

(http://books.google.com/books?id=JIbqZ_F5UhkC).

Enigma Books. ISBN 978-1-929631-66-7.

57.

Âaron Gillette (12 October 2012).Racial Theories

in Fascist Italy(http://books.google.com

/books?id=8Gjq0ZPvIZgC). Routledge.

ISBN 978-1-134-52706-9.

58.

^ abcdEric Ehrenreich. The Nazi ancestral proof:

genealogy, racial science, and the final solution.

Bloomington, Indiana, USA: Indiana University Press,

pp.9-10

59.

Êhrenreich, The Nazi ancestral proof, p.7060.

^Himmler noted on 26 July 1942 in response to

Rosenbergs attempt to influence Jewish policy that

"The occupied territories will be Jew-free. The Fuhrer

has laid the implementation of this very difficult order

on my shoulders." Evans, Richard J. The Third Reich

at WarNew York:2008 Penguin Page 271; Himmler

had begun the initial pre-Wansee Conference

implementation of the final solution by July and

August of 1941. Evans, Richard J. The Third Reich at

WarNew York:2008 Penguin Page 240.

61.

^Padfield, PeterHimmlerNew York:1990--Henry

Holt Page 402

62.

Âaron Gillette.Racial Theories in Fascist Italy.

London, England, UK; New York, New York, USA:

Routledge, 2001. Pp. 11.

63.

^Neocleous, Mark. Fascism. Minneapolis, Minnesota,

USA: University of Minnesota Press, 1997. p. 35

64.

^ abAaron Gillette.Racial Theories in Fascist Italy.London, England, UK; New York, New York, USA:

Routledge, 2001. Pp. 39.

65.

^Glenda Sluga. The Problem of Trieste and the Italo-66.

Yugoslav Border: Difference, Identity, and

Sovereignty in Twentieth-Century. SUNY Press, 2001.

P. 52.

^ abcdeAaron Gillette.Racial Theories in Fascist

Italy. London, England, UK; New York, New York,

USA: Routledge, 2001. Pp. 188.

67.

Âlan W. Ertl. Toward an Understanding of Europe:A

Political Economic Prcis of Continental Integration.

Boca Raton, Florida, USA: Universal Publishers, 2008.

P. 8.

68.

^Melville Jacobs, Bernhard Joseph Stern. General

anthropology. Barnes & Noble, 1963. P. 57.

69.

Âaron Gillette. Racial Theories in Fascist Italy.


Routledge, 2002. P. 45.

70.

^ abcdeAaron Gillette.Racial Theories in Fascist


USA: Routledge, 2002. P. 60.

71.

^ abAaron Gillette.Racial Theories in Fascist Italy.



72.



Routledge, 2002. P. 59-60.

73.




74.

^ abcAaron Gillette.Racial Theories in Fascist Italy.



75.




76.

^ abcAaron Gillette.Racial Theories in Fascist Italy.


Routledge, 2002. P. 110-111.

77.



Routledge, 2002. P. 110-112.

78.

^ abcdefgAaron Gillette.Racial Theories in Fascist


USA: Routledge, 2001. Pp. 146.

79.

^Goodrick-Clarke, NicholasBlack Sun: Aryan Cults,

Esoteric Nazism, and The Politics of IdentityNewYork: 2002--N.Y. University Press, See Chapter 15 for

a discussion ofAryan identity politics

80.

^Goodrick-Clarke, Nicholas (2003).Black Sun:81.


http://books.google.com/books?id=JIbqZ_F5UhkC).http://books.google.com/http://www.novapdf.com/http://www.novapdf.com/http://www.novapdf.com/http://www.novapdf.com/http://www.novapdf.com/http://www.novapdf.com/http://www.novapdf.com/http://books.google.com/http://books.google.com/books?id=JIbqZ_F5UhkC).


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