Articles Reading Theory

8/3/2019 Articles Reading Theory

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A. Understanding Sentences

1. The Concept of a Sentence

Many experts try to make definition about sentence. They express slightly

different opinion about definition of sentence, but in general they havesomething in common. Oshima and Hogue (1991: 77) state that a sentence is a

group of words that consists of at least one subject and one predicate and can

stand by itself. While, Hornby (1974: 64) says that a sentence is the largestgrammatical unit, consisting of phrases or clauses used to express a statement,

question, and command. Then, Bolinger (1975: 32) defines a sentence as the

minimum part of the language that expresses a complete thought. Similarly,

Alexander (1988: 45) says that a sentence is a complete unit of meaning, both inspoken and written form. And, Lester (1990: 71) defines a sentence as a group of

words that expresses a complete thought.

Downing and Locker (1992: 42) divide sentence into two types. They are

sentence grammatically and sentence orthographically (or sentence rhetorically).The first part is the highest unit and consists of one independent clause or two or

more related clauses. The second part is unit that starts with a capital letter andend with a full stop. The sentence as orthographical or rhetorical unit is

associated primarily with the written language.

In conclusion, a sentence refers to the largest grammatical unit that consists

of words, phrases, and clauses that present complete thought and can stand byitself.

2. The Types of Sentence

According to Werner (1985: 27), sentence can be categorized into threetypes. They are a simple sentence, a compound sentence, and a complexsentence. Briefly explanation about these sub-topics will be discussed

respectively.

a. A Simple Sentence

A simple sentence always stands as an independent sentence, which is

capable of occurring on its own. A simple sentence has one subject and one verb(Werner, 1985: 227). While, Aarts and Aarts (1982: 80) say that a simple

sentence is a sentence in which none of the functions is realized by a clause. It

means that it does not contain subordinate sentence as realization of one of itsfunction.

To comprehend a simple sentence, a reader has to look at the key idea or

the basic message from a sentence. This key idea is made up of two parts, asimple subject and a simple predicate. So, every sentence expresses at least one

key idea or basic message (McWhorter, 1986: 62). Then, Niles et. al. (1981: 149)

states that a sentence consists of action and who or what is doing. It means that it

has a subject or who or what is doing, and a predicate or action. These are what


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we call as core parts of the sentence. Niles adds that the core parts are parts that

are most important to understand the meaning of a sentence.

b. A Compound Sentence

A compound sentence is two simple sentences connected by conjunction.

According to Oshima and Hogue (1991: 157), a compound sentence is two or

more independent clauses joined together by using a semicolon and a commafollowed by a conjunction such as and, but, or, nor, for, yet, so, etc. They also

add that there are three ways to combine independent clauses to form a

compound sentence. They are:

- With a coordinator

There is a comma after independent clause and then followed by

coordinators.For example: - I like playing football, but I do not like playing golf.

- With a semicolon

The independent clauses in a compound sentence may be joined only by a

semicolon. It may occur when the two independent clauses are closelyrelated.

For example: - I read a new story; my father reads a magazine.

- With a conjunctive adverb

The independent clauses of a compound sentence can also be joined by aconjunctive adverb such as furthermore, however, otherwise, and therefore.

The punctuation of conjunctive adverb is quite special where a semicolon

may be used after the first clause and a comma after the conjunctive adverb.

For example: - The students have to take the final exam; otherwise, they

will receive a grade of incomplete.

McWhorter (1986: 65) states that there are three reasons why an author

combines two or more close related ideas into one sentence. The first is to clarify

the ideas such as Randy was lonely and depressed, so he called his brother onthe phone to talk things over. The second is to emphasize their connection such

as The football team practices everyday; hot or rain weather never stop them.

The last one is to show that they are equal importance. For Example: Somestudents decide to take final exam, and others choose to write a term paper. In

the last example we can see that there are two ideas is combined. So, the second

idea is important as idea in the first idea. It means that we have to read the two

ideas.


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c. A Complex Sentence

A complex sentence should consist of a main clause and subordinate

clause. According to Oshima and Hogue (1991: 61), a complex sentence

contains one independent clause and two or more dependent clauses.Furthermore, Werner and Church (1985: 177) state that complex sentence is the

sentence that has a main clause and at least one dependent clause.

- Independent Clause

Independent clause consists of a subject and predicate that expresses a

complete idea. It is called as main clause and it can stand-alone.

For example: - When the telephone rang, I was still reading a book.

- Dependent Clause

Dependent clause consists of a subject and predicate but it does not express acomplete idea. It is one that is not complete but performs a single function in

a sentence (Aronson, 1984: 137). It means that this clause cannot stand by

itself.

For example: - When Marry gets home, she plans to relax for an hour.Here, the underlined clause has a noun and a verb, but it does not make

sense until reader reads the entire sentence. It is being subordinate clause

(dependent clause) because it cannot stand-alone by itself.The idea that we found in the subordinate or dependent clause may perform

some functions in the following:

1. For description

For example: - The old man, who wears the glasses, lives in America.

2. For expressing cause

For example: - Because the cost of education has been rising, many studentshave financial problems.

3. For stating purpose or reason

For example: - John has saved his salary for three years so he could buy

a new house.

4. For describing the conditions or circumstances

For example: - If Ahmad finished his work, he will go to the wedding party.


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5. For expressing time relationships

For example: - I am playing guitar while Marry is singing.

Oshima and Hogue (1991: 162) add that there are three kinds of dependentclauses used in a complex sentence. They are as follows:

1. A dependent adverb clause

It begins with an adverbial subordinate such as when, while, because, even

though, although, so that, and if. The position of this clause can be found after orbefore an independent clause. If it is found before an independent clause, it

should followed by a comma. And if it is found after an independent clause, no

comma is used.

For example: - Although women could own property, they could not vote.

(Before)- Women could not vote although they could own property. (After)

2. A dependent adjective (relative) clause

This clause begins with a relative pronoun such as who, whom, which,whose, or the relative adverb such as where, when, and why. It has function as

adjective; that is, it modifies a noun.

For example: - Marni who is unsocial person called her lecturer.

3. A dependent noun clause

This clause begins with that, whether, and sometimes with if. Here, a nounclause has function as noun; that is, it can be a subject or an object of the

independent clause.

For example: - That the Earths temperature is raising concern scientist.- Scientist believed that the Earths temperature is rising.

Based on the types of this dependent, McWhorter (1986: 62) states that thekey idea is not obvious in long complex sentence. In this case, the students need

to think about who or what is the sentence about and what is happening in the

sentence in order to find a key idea.

Example:


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Burger World, which operates some 2000 fast food restaurants, plans tostart working this spring, or at latest by early summer, on a new self-

service restaurant in Rochester, New York, which is designed to test many

new ideas in energy saving and customer convenience.

From this example, the answer for Who and what is the sentence isabout? is Burger World. And, the answer for What is happening in the

sentence? is plans.

To figure out what an author is trying to express in their sentences, a readerneeds to know in which each sentence has a subject and a predicate but may

have a compound subject and predicate and may be combined in a variety of

ways with other sentences to form compound sentences or complex sentence

with adjective, adverb, or noun clauses. It is supported by Devine (1989: 189).He states that students who have some knowledge of the ways the writers put

their information and ideas into sentences are in a better position to process those

sentences rather than the students who do not. Then, Statman (1980: 16) states

that without the ability to isolate the different parts of the sentence intomeaningful units even a good advanced learner may have great difficulties in

extracting meaning from a long complex sentence. It means that, a reader has to be able to determine which one is main idea, compliment or additional

information from what he reads.

Pearson and Johnson (1995: 16) say that longer sentences and more

complex sentences tend to appear in passages that people have difficulty tounderstand. It means that, in understanding a long complex sentence, a reader

should find the main clause. The idea of the main clause or independent clause is

more important than the idea in subordinate clause or dependent clause. So, to beable to comprehend a long complex sentence, there are several ways need to be

taken into account (Devine, 1989: 190):

1. What is a writer talking about in this sentence?

2. What seem to be his subject?

3. What is he saying about his subject?4. What words and phrases the students can eliminate and still get the

basic idea?

5. How can the students cut this sentence up into several shorter

sentences?6. How might the students say this sentence in their own?

3. How to Understand Sentences

According to Zainil (2005: 96), understanding sentences can be done

through recognizing complete sentences, understanding punctuations, wordparts, context clues, core parts of simple sentences, and core parts of complicated

sentences. The explanation of these part can be seen in the following:

a. Recognizing complete sentences


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This functions to identify the subject and predicate of a sentence, such as,

The students is the subject and studies English everyday is the predicate ofthe complete sentence, The students studies English everyday.

b. Understanding punctuations

This functions to comprehend the punctuations, such as, commas, semi

colon, colon, and dash.

- Comma (,)

A Comma in a sentence that begins with a preposition means that the mainclause is after the comma; for example, The man goes to the office is the

main clause of the sentence, after having breakfast, the man goes to the

office. Two commas, as the parenthetical use, mean the phrase or the clause

between them is the additional information from the main idea of thesentence; for instance, who wears the glasses is the additional information

separated by two commas in the sentence, The old man, who wears theglasses, is my father. Then, three commas or more show a list or series of

the same kind; like, the fruit in the sentence, Marry buys apples, bananas,

oranges, and mangoes. Finally, and indicate that the two clauses in the

sentence have positive related ideas, and but shows the contrasting relatedideas of the two clauses in the sentence. Thus, practice listening and

speaking and practice reading and writing are the ideas that are positively

related in the sentence, Some students practice listening and speaking, andother practice reading and writing. On the other hand, are diligent and

are lazy are the ideas that are in contrast and closely related in the

sentence, Some students are diligent, but other are lazy.

- Semi colon (;)

The semi colon separates the two sentences which have two closely related

ideas; for example, attend the class and pay attention to the lecture are

two closely related ideas of the sentences, The students attend the class;

they pay attention to the lecture.

- Colon (:)

The colon introduces the additional information or examples that follow.

butter, sugar, flour, egg, and vanilla are examples of the word, ingredients,

in the sentence, The cake is made from the ingredients: butter, sugar, flour,egg, and vanilla.

- Dash (-)


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It shows the phrase or clause between the dashes as the additional

information in the sentence; for instance, Ahmad, Fajri, and Furkhon is the

additional information in the sentence, The three young man Ahmad, Fajri,and Furkhon- play football in the street.

c. Understanding word parts

This functions to recognize the prefix, root, and suffix of words, such as,

the word unpredictable in the sentence, The professor is unpredictable. Theprefix un- means not; the root -predict- means guessing; and the suffix

-able means referring to a condition. Thus, the word, unpredictable, means

referring to a condition that cannot be guessed. There are a lot of other prefixes

(a-, dis-, non-, un-, in-, ir-, im-, and il- that mean not, etc) and there are a lot ofother suffixes (-able, -ment, -ness, -ation, -y, -ance, - ence, -ion, -ity that refer to

a state, condition, or quality; -er, or, -er, -eer, -ee, and list that mean one

who, etc).

d. Understanding context clues

This functions to recognize the clues and understand the meaning of

unfamiliar words. The clues can be grouped into: definition clue, example clue,

contrast clue, inference clue, cause and effect clue, restatement clue, and

modifier clue.

- Definition clues

Definition clues are the words or phrases; such as, means, is a, is the, are

nouns, etc. is a in the sentence, Mr. Mahmud is famous lawyer in Bali

defines Mr. Mahmud.

- Example clues

Example clues are the words or phrases as examples to clarify a difficult

word. The clues are for example, for instance, such as, etc. The word fruit

can be clarifies by the words after the clue, for example, in the sentence,

My brother likes fruit, for example, apples, oranges, and mangoes.

- Contrast clues

Contrast clues are the words or phrases that show opposite meanings. The

clues are but, although, on the other hand, even though, however, etc. The

word but shows that the meanings of talkative and quite are in contrastin the sentence, That landlady is very talkative, but the landlord is quite. If

one of them is understood, the other one can be predicted.

- Inference Clues


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Inference clues are drawn as inferences from several equal expressions. The

word versatile means successful in many aspects as an inference in thesentence, Zainil is a successful, Dr., Prof., lecturer, and husband. He is a

versatile man.

- Cause and effect clues

Cause and effect clues are the clues that show the cause and effect in asentence. The clues are because, so, consequently, as a result, etc. The word

because shows the sentence after it as the cause and the sentence before it

as the result in the sentence, Ann did not attend the class last week because

she was sick.

- Restatement clues

Restatement clues are the clues that restate the meanings of the words or phrases before them. The clues are or, in other words, two commas,parentheses, dashes, that is, etc. The parentheses shows the restatement ofthe word freshman in the sentence, Muhardi is a freshman (first year) at

the English department of State University of Padang.

- Modifier clues

Modifier clues are phrases, clauses, or a sentence (sentences) that modify

unfamiliar words. They are all phrases beginning with repositions and allclauses which follow the nouns; they modify the nouns. The phrase in the

room modifies the word student and the clause which is near the office

modifies the word room in the sentence, The student in the room which isnear the office is the best one in the class.

e. Understanding core parts of simple sentences

Understanding core parts of simple sentences functions to recognize the

subject and the predicate as well as to understand the headword of the subject

and the headword of the predicate. The sentence, The good student speaksEnglish and French, consists of the subject the good student and the

headword of it is student and the predicate speaks English and French and

the headword of it is speaks.

f. Understanding core parts of complicated sentences

This part functions to recognize and understand the core parts, modifiers,

and headwords of the subjects and the predicates of the complicated sentence.

The complicated sentence, Minang Plaza, the supermarket near the bridge,

carries a lot of things which are expensive, such as, wool hats, leather shoes,


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gold rings and other items which are cheep, like, pencils, pens, writing pads for

teacher to use at schools, has a subject and a predicate, phrases, and clauses as

modifiers, and headwords for the subject and the predicate. In this case, thereaders can apply the previous discussions for analyzing the sentence.

B. Understanding Paragraphs

1. The Concept of a Paragraph

A paragraph is a group of sentences which discuss one main idea, existing

on the topic sentence of a paragraph. According to Muhyidin (1988: 43), a group

of sentences which tell about one topic or main idea is called as a paragraph. He

also adds that a paragraph consists of three components: topic sentence,supporting sentences, and a concluding sentence. Topic sentence states main idea

of the paragraph. The supporting sentences develop the topic sentence by giving

examples, reasons, and facts. Then, concluding sentence ends the paragraph by

restating or summarizing the ideas in it. Therefore, a good paragraph should havethese three components.

A paragraph is a group of sentences that clearly and concisely expressesone basic idea (Coffey, 1987: 72). It means that we cannot have more than one

idea in a paragraph. While, Rooks (1988: 103) adds that a paragraph is a group

of sentences which logically develop one subject is stated in the topic sentence.

Similarly, McWhorter (1980: 70) defines paragraph as a group of relatedsentences about a single topic. She also divides a paragraph into three essential

parts: topic, main idea, and details. The topic of a paragraph is the subject of the

whole paragraph. The main idea of a paragraph is what an author wants you toknow about the topic. An author usually directly states a main idea in one or

more sentences within a paragraph. The main idea can be found in the first

sentence, in the last, in the middle of the paragraph, or in the first and the lastsentence. We can see it in the following example:

Whenever possible, the good listener prepares in advance for the speech or

lecturer he or she to attends. He or she studies the topic to be discussed and find

out about the speaker and his beliefs. An effective listener, as you are beginningto see, takes specific steps to achieve accurate understanding of the lecturer.

Furthermore, on arriving at the place where the speech is to be given, he or she

chooses a set where it is easy to see, hear, and remain alert. Finally, when the

speech is over, the effective listener reviews what was said and reads to andevaluators the ideas expressed.

From this example we can find the main idea in the middle of the

paragraph. The details in a paragraph are those facts and ideas which prove,explain, support, or given examples about the main idea of the paragraph. But,

we have to know not all main ideas are directly stated. Some of them are implicit

main ideas. In implicit main idea, a reader must formulate a main idea of a

paragraph by himself.


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Brereton (1982: 28) says that a paragraph is neat, a compact unit of writing.

It is longer that a single sentence, but much shorter than an essay or a chapter.

He also adds that a good writing comes in all shapes and sizes; in all types andstyles. The structure and the style, then, should be simple and clear to the reader.

Saraka (1980: 27) defines a paragraph as basic and logical unit of organization in

writing in which a series of closely related sentences supply the reader withdetailed information. And it explores, develops, and supports a single main idea.

So, a paragraph does not have to be too long or too broad. It should be organized

logically by giving only the real detailed information and develop about mainidea or a topic sentence.

According to McCrimmon (1950), a good paragraph should have four

qualities: completeness, unity, order, and coherence. Differently, Leacock (1980:

135-136) states that there are 3 characteristics of good paragraph. They are:

1. Unity

It means developing general idea governing the entire paragraph

2. Coherence

It means one sentence follow another in clear and logical sequence.

3. Completeness

It occurs when in supporting sentences are enough to explore topic sentence.

2. Paragraph Patterns, Signal Words, and Diagram in Reading Comprehension

According to McWhorter (1986) who says that there are many kinds ofparagraph patterns that are used in a paragraph. Usually, a writer indicates

connections and relationships within individual sentences by using certain signal

words. It is supported by Devine (1986: 167). He says that writers indicateconnections and relationships with preceding and following sentences by

signaling them with specific words. Darkin in Devine (1986: 193) adds that

when readers know the signal words, they can more easily figure out the

meaning of sentences in a paragraph. Then, Wassman and Rinsky (1993) say thatsignal words can help us to understand the information from the text. It means

that signal words are very useful to comprehend a writers message in reading

text.The use of a diagram will show the level of generality in a paragraph. First,

we may find the most general information. Second, we may find a more specific

statement and then the most specific information (Devine, 1986). Similarly,Wassman and Rinsky (1993: 167) states that outlining or mapping by creating a

chart or diagram will simplify remembering the information when we are

studying.


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Furthermore, Zainil (2005: 100) states that understanding paragraphs have

many functions, such as, to identify paragraph elements, transitions, references,

and paragraph developments. These sub-topic will be explained respectively:

a. Paragraph elements are the topic, topic sentence, and details of a paragraph.

- The topic is the word or phrase as the subject of the paragraph. It is

the answer of the question, What is the whole paragraph about?

- The topic sentence is the sentence (subject-predicate) that states thetopic of the paragraph. It is the answer of that question, What does the

author say about the topic of the paragraph? It is usually at thebeginningof the paragraph, but it can be in the middle, at the end, at the

beginningand at the endof the paragraph, even it can be unstatedin theparagraph.

- The details are sentences that support the topic sentence of the

paragraph. It is the answer of the question, How does the author support,

explain, or prove the topic sentence of the paragraph.

b. Transitions are the word or phrase that builds the smoothness of thought inthe paragraph. They are words, such as,first, second, third, orinitially, later,

finally, etc.

c. References are the words or phrases that substitute the original word orphrase in the paragraph. They are the words such as, they, he, it and the

phrases, such as, the same, the problem, etc.

d. Paragraph developments are the thought patterns in the paragraphs.

McWhorter (1986) states that there are many kinds of paragraph patters thatare usually used in a paragraph of a text, such as, illustration- example,

definition, comparison and contrast, cause and effect, classification, and

chronological order or sequence of events.

- The illustration- example pattern has examples in the development of

the paragraph. This pattern is explained by providing specific instances

that illustrate it. We may give example of the topics that we study. Wecan use some example to illustrate or to support main idea and we can

use list signal words for illustration- example. The following is the

diagram of this pattern:

Example:

Electricity is all around us. We see it in lightning. We receive

electric shocks when we walk on a nylon rug on a dry and then touchsomething (or someone). We can see sparks fly from a cats fur when we

pet in the dark. We can rub a balloon on a sweater and make the balloon


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stick to the wall or the ceiling. Our clothes cling together when we takethem from the dryer.

The paragraph above can be diagrammed as follows:

From the diagram, it can be said that electricity is all around us is themain idea of the paragraph. And lightning, nylon rug, cats fur, balloon,

and clothing from dryerare examples which explain the main ideas. In

other words, the main idea is supported by giving examples. Signal

words that commonly used in this patter are, such as, for example, to

illustrate,for instance, and in the case of.

- The definition pattern has definitions in the development of theparagraph. This pattern defines something that makes it different from

each others. The definition itself has two parts: part that tells the general

class belongs to and part that describes how it is different from others.

Example:An opossum is animal with a ratlike tail that lives in the trees. It

carries its young in pouch. It is active at night and pretends to be dead

when trapped.

The first part of this paragraph is animalis a general class, while rest isthe part which differences each opossum from the other animals. Within

the second part, a reader might interpret opossum with other animals.

Here, we can see the diagram of this paragraph as follows:

Lightning

Clothing from dryer

Cats fur

Nylon rug

Electricity is all around us

Balloon

Term

General class group

Distinguishing features



Animal

Lives in trees

Ratlike tail

Opossum

Young in pouch


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- The comparison and contrast pattern emphasize similarities anddifferences between ideas, theories, people, concepts, or events in the

development of the paragraph. The comparison pattern focuses onsimilarities, while contrast pattern emphasizes the differences. It may be

organized in different ways. We can list all similarities ant then all

differences. After that, we discuss the first item, and presenting both

similarities and differences; continue to do the same way for the seconditem. These patterns can be diagrammed as follows:

Example:

Housing in New York City differs in several ways from that in most

other cities of the United States. About 60 percent of New Yorks families

live in apartment buildings or hotels. In other cities, most people live inNew York City rent their homes. In other U.S cities, most families own

their homes. About 70 percent of the housing in New York City is more

than 3o years old, and over 300,000 families live in buildings that are

more that 70 years old. Most other cities have a far larger percentage ofnewer housing.

This paragraph discusses about housing in New York City. The signal

words used is differ. This paragraph pattern can be diagrammed asfollows:


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Here, we may also use some other signal words for this patters such as:

The signal words for comparison:

compare resembles in comparisonsimilar in the same way/manner parallels

like similarly likewise

also both correspondingly

The signal words for contrast:

But nevertheless althoughInstead conversely on the other hand

Differences rather than different

Unlike however yetin contrast less wordy as opposed to

bigger than differs from etc.

- The cause and effect pattern has the causes and effects described inthe development of the paragraph. This pattern describes an event or

action that is caused by another event or action. It explains how and whysomething happened. In this case, causal relationship between two ormore event or actions are shown with cause and effect. Causes may be

implied or directly stated and often multiple causes (MC) or multiple

effects (ME) are as evident (McWhorter, 1994: 121). This patter can varyin some combinations such as:

one cause and one effect

one cause and multiple effects

multiple causes and single effect


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multiple causes and multiple effects

Example:

The car would not start this morning, the bus was 30 minutes late. I

lost my office keys, and my secretary called in sick. Because of all these

problems, I had a terrible headache by lunchtime.

It can be seen that this paragraph try to explains multiple causes and

single effect. The multiple causes are the car would not start, the bus was30 minutes late, and my secretary called in sick. And the single effect isI

had a terrible headache. The signal word used in this paragraph is

because. Then, we may use other signal words in a paragraph, such as:

The signal word for cause:

Because for this reason cause

An account of due to why

The signal word for effect:

As a result thus consequently

Therefore in effect result



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- The classification pattern has classifications of the topic in the

development of the paragraph. This pattern divides a topic into parts orcategories based on common or shared characteristics. In this pattern, an

object or idea will be explained by dividing into parts and describing

each.

Example:

Horticulture, the study and cultivation of garden plants, is a large

industry. Recently has become a popular are of study. The Horticulture field consists of four major divisions. First, there is pomology, the

science and practice of growing and handling fruit trees. Then there is

olericulture, which is concerned with growing and vegetables. A third

field, floriculture, is the science of growing, storing and designing flowering plants. The last category, ornamental and landscape

horticulture is concerned with using grasses, plants, and shrubs inlandscaping.

This paragraph explained that horticulture by describing its four areas of

fields of study, such as, pomology, olericulture, floriculture, and

ornamental and lanscape. The signal words used in this paragraph are:first, then, third, and last. But, there are many other signal words that canbe used:

Sorts categories element featuresParts characteristics several kinds

Numbers classes types

Methods classify waysKinds divide group


- The chronological order pattern has chronological events arranged in

the development of the paragraph. Actually, there four forms of thispattern. They are chronological order refers to the arrangement of events

in time, process focuses on the order in which procedures or steps are

accomplished, order of importance expresses priority or preference, and


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spatial order refers to physical location, position, or order. Let see the

diagram bellows:

The signal words for this pattern are as follows:

First second third next

Most important last above after last

During eventually finally later

Stages steps at the end etc.

Example:

The process of making adjusting entries is very simple and logical.First for each account it is necessary to determine what is in the account,in example, it is balance. Next, it is necessary to determine what should

be in the account. Finally, if there is a difference, the account is either

debited or credited so that the final balance becomes correct. Acorresponding credit or debit entry must be made to one or more other

accounts so that the adjusting entry balances.

The paragraph above tells us about the sequence how to make adjusting

entries. The process is described in chronological order, beginning withthe first process and ending with the last process. The ideas in the

paragraph can be seen in diagram bellows:

Sometimes, a writer uses mixed pattern in which one pattern is combined

with another pattern. We can see in the following example:In the beginning, I thought that the white world was very different

from the world I was moving out of and I turned out to be entirely

wrong. It seemed different. It seemed suffer, it seemed more polite,and, of course it seemed much richer from the material point of view.

But I didnt meet anyone in that world who didnt suffer from the

same affliction that all the people I had fled from suffered from andthat was they didnt know who they were. They wanted to be

something that they were not. And very shortly I didnt know who I

was, either. I could not be certain whether I was really female, reallytalented or fraud, really strong or merely stubborn. In short, I had

become an American. I had stepped into, I had walked right into, as I


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inevitably had to do, the bottomless confusion that is both public andprivate, of the American republic.

Here, the writer tries to combine one pattern with another pattern. It can

be seen from the signal words used in the paragraph, such as, in thebeginning, but, very shortly, and in short. So, it can be concluded that the

paragraph does not belong to one pattern.

REFERENCES

Aarts, Flor. and Jan Aarts. 1982.English Syntactic Structures, Function andCategories in Sentence Analysis. New York: Pergamon Press Ltd.

Alexander, L. G. 1988.Longman English Grammar. New York: Longman Group

UK.

Arikunto, Suharsimi. 1993.Dasar-Dasar Evaluasi Pendidikan. Jakarta: Bumi

Aksara.

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