Article - Agroforestry Systems for Temperate Climates - Forest & Conservation History-1994-Lelle-118-26

7/27/2019 Article - Agroforestry Systems for Temperate Climates - Forest & Conservation History-1994-Lelle-118-26

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Agroforesibry Syslemsfor Temperale Clnnales

Mark A. Lelle and Michael A. Gold

Wile agroforestry hasappeared in the scientific literature only recently, agricultural systems incorporating woodyperennials are ancient.1 During thepast fifteen years many traditionaltropical agroforestry systems, whosehistorical existence has been confirmed in the oral traditions of theindigenous people who practice them,have been identified and subjected tointensive research.! Most contemporary agroforestry systems are modifications of traditional practices used intropical regions. In contrast to tropicalagroforestry, little is known aboutindigenous agroforestry systems intemperate regions.'

One example of indigenous agroforestry is in the tree-based agriculturalsystems developed in the temperateregions of the Roman Empire. Manypeople in agrarian Italy and adjacentareas of the Mediterranean still relyon various agroforestry techniques forsubsistence.' Several Roman agriculturalists recorded descriptions of Romanagroforestry systems, and their writ-

ings provide a unique opportunity tounderstand ancient Roman agroforestry. The four most prominent havebeen translated into English and arethe focus here: Marcus Porcius Cato(234-149 B.C.), Marcus TerentiusVarro (116-17 B.C.), Lucius JuniusModeratus Columella (?-c. A.D. 70),and Pliny the Elder (A.D. 23-79).5 Thetranslated texts of Cato, Varro, Columella, and Pliny have been of concernprimarily to Latin scholars and agricultural historians; they have been ofless interest to contemporary agroforesters studying temperate climates.'Calo, Varro, Columella,and Pliny

While Pliny's goal was to "describethe entireworld of nature," Cato,Varro, and Columella wrote to offerRoman landowners practical advice,"Social, political, and economic conditions at the time each book was written created important differences bothin style and intended audience.

Cato, a statesman and soldierwho endured a severe upbringing ona small farm near Reate, eventuallyacquired large plantations that wereworked by slaves." But in his writingCato "was not thinking primarily ofthe peasant farmer with a holding ofless than ten acres, nor of the verylarge ranches, but of medium-sizedestates with substantial farm buildingsand a variety of crops."? Varro wasperhaps the most learned Roman ofhis time. Like Cato, he was heavilyinvolved in the affairs of war and government, as well as in the operation ofhis estates. Varro maintained largeherds of sheep and horses in Apuliaand at Reate, and he sustained a deepinterest in his estates throughout hislife. Varro traveled widely as a soldierand often took the opportunity tolearn more about agriculture in theplaces he visited. Varro started hiswork on agriculture in 37 B.C., whenhe was eighty years old. HistorianRussell Meiggs wrote of Varro:

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Grapevines woven into the branches of trees planted specifically as living trellises. Diagramreprinted from TheRedand theWhite,byLeoA. Loubere, by permission of the StateUniversity ofNew York Press 1978 StateUniversity of New York. All rights reserved.

In formhisbookwasverydifferentfromCare's. Cato had simply provideda practicalhandbook of recommendationsbasedon experience, set downwithout any serious consideration ofhowhismaterialcouldbest beorganized. Varro's book wasa literaryworkin dialogue form, designed to interestaswellas instruct.The bookwas dividedinto threesections-agriculture proper,sheep andcattle, birds,and other lesseranimals. Hismaterial,he tellsus,wasdrawnpartlyfromother authors, partlyfromconsultation with experts,andpartlyfromhis ownexperience."Columella, unlike Cato, Varro,

and Pliny, was a professional agriculturalist who had little involvement inaffairs of state. He was born in Spain,held a junior command in the army,and spent most of his lifemanaginghis estates in Italy. Columella's bodyof work constitutes the Roman writers' most comprehensive and systematic treatise on agriculture."

Pliny was born in Comum innorthern Italy but spent most of hislife in Rome or on imperial service inthe provinces. Eventually Pliny commanded the main Roman naval baseat Misenum, where he died in 79 A.D.while attempting to rescue refugeesfrom the eruptingMt. Vesuvius. Plinycompleted Natural History, thirty-sevenbooks on a variety of subjects, inA.D. 77. He claimed to have consultedapproximately two thousand othervolumes while writing his work, andhe listed one hundred twenty-threeauthors in his six books on trees. Plinyaddressed trees before agricultural cropsbecause he believed human beings firstturned to trees for food."The Role of Trees inRoman Agriculture

Cato, Varro, Columella, and Plinyviewed trees as an integral part ofagriculture, and they adapted agroforestry systems to temperate climatesof the Mediterranean region. Althoughinadequate distribution of rainfall andsummer drought hampered Romanfarmers, the combination of cerealcrops with olives, vines, and orchardtrees allowed for an efficient agricultural system." The specific agroforestry techniques that Cato, Varro,Columella, and Pliny describe include

trees used as living trellises and fences,trees grown with annual food crops,and tree products used in livestocksystems, fertilizers, farm chemicals,and medicine.Arbustra

Arbustra were Roman vineyardsthat used trees as living trellises."They were formed byweaving grapevines into the branches of trees plantedspecifically for this purpose. Catolisted a productive arbustrum as onecriterion for a good farm, advisingfarmers to trim trees carefully so thebranches would spread out and notblock sunlight." In trellising grapevines to trees, Cato instructed readershow best to prepare willow bark so itcould be used as tape for tying vinesto tree branches."

Writing several decades afterCato, Varro emphasized the importance of tree arrangement in arbustra.His ideas for managing system components demonstrate an appreciationfor manipulating the phenology ofthe agroforestry systems he studied.Varro claimed that trees planted inrows received more sun, thus increasing yields and shortening the timerequired for fruit to ripen." In addition,he explicitly stated that vines shouldbe protected toward the north by theprop (whatever was used to hold upthe vine, usually a tree acting as a living trellis).

Columella also emphasized theimportance of site characteristics whenlocating arbustra. He wrote that "in asoil which isexposed to dew and mistthe elmsmust beplanted in such a waythat their branches may be directedtowards the east and west, in orderthat the middle of the trees, to whichthe vine is applied and fastened, mayreceivemore sunlight. "18 Furthermore,"[i]n very hot localities the plantsshould be attached to the tree on thenorth side, in cold places to the southside...so that they may not have toendure the sun or the shade all day.'?"Columella also encouraged usingleaves and woven palm-leaf mats toprotect vines."

Varro mentioned that many treespecies, especially maples and figs,were used in arbustra in other regionsof the Mediterranean." Pliny wrotethat" [i]n Campania they attach thevine to the poplar: embracing the treeto which it isthus wedded, the vinegrasps the branches with its amorousarms, and as it climbs, holds on withits knotted trunk, till it has reachedthe very summit...." Pliny believedthat vines grown on living trellisesproduced the finest wines:

The experience of ages,however, hassufficiently proved that the winesof thehighestqualityare onlygrownuponvines attachedto trees,and that eventhen the choicest winesare producedbytheupper part of the tree, theproduce

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Old olivetrees intercroppedwith durumwheatand ready for plowingin Greece's Mace-donia Province. lntercropping wascommonin theMediterranean until 1900. Photosaccompanying thisarticle appear courtesy of Christian Dupraz.

of the lowerpart beingmoreabundant;such being the beneficial results ofelevating the vine."Columella preferredthe poplar,elm,and ash (in that order), but alsosaid "[t]hereis another kind of plantation found in Gaul,which iscalledthatof dwarftrees. It requiresa low andnot veryleafytree, and the guelderrosetree seems to be the most suitable

for this purpose, a treewhich closelyresembles thecornel-tree."23 Columellathoughtmanagementtechniques couldbeused to produce dwarf trellises:The elmcan alsobe adapted to thispurposeby havingitstop cut offwhile itisstillyoung,so that isdoesnot exceedtheheightof fifteen feet; for I havenoticedthat theplantation dwarftree isusually so ordered that the "stories"arearrangedat the heightof eightfeetindry,slopingplaces, and twelve feet onflat,marshyground.Butusually this treeis divided up intothreebranches, uponeachofwhichseveral arms areallowedto growon both sides; then almostallthe rods are pared off at the timewhenthe vines are pruned, sothat theymaynot causea shade."Romanagriculturalists demonstratedtheir awareness of the dangerof allelopathic effects of trees. Speaking of theuse of cypress treesas props,Yarrawarned farmers to be "carefulnot toplantthevines nearthem, because they

are hostile to eachother."25 Accordingto Columella, sometrees, suchaswillows, could causegrapesto develop anundesirable taste." Plinywarned that"[b]etweenthe quercusand the olivethereexistsa hatred so inveterate, thattransplanted, eitherof them,to a sitepreviously occupiedby the other, theywill die.Thequercus too, ifplantednear thewalnut, willperish."27Intercropping

Asin contemporarytropical agroforestry systems, Romanfarmers intercropped treeswith food crops." Catoencouragedthis practiceespecially onmarginal land, saying"[w]hereverthere isa river bank or wet ground,plant poplar cuttingsand a reedthicket....Plant there alsothewildasparagus; for a reed thicketgoeswellwith asparagus, because it isworkedand burned over,and furnishes a shadewhenshade is needed. "29 Cato also

encouraged intercroppingleeks withwoodyperennials so farmers could reapearly profit fromvineyards andorchardsprior to their peakproductivity.3DLikeCato,Varro recognized theimportanceof increasing and diversifying crop yields:Some places aresuitableat thesametime for theplantingof other crops;thusin youngorchards,when the seedlingshavebeenplantedand theyoungtreeshavebeenset in rows,duringthe earlyyearsbefore the roots have spreadveryfar, someplantgardencrops,and othersplant other crops;but theydo not dothisafterthe treeshavegained strength,for fearof injuringthe roots."

Columella recognized intercroppingas a way of harvesting a cropannuallyfrom olive orchards, whichoften yielded decreased quantitieseverysecondyear:When theground underneathhasnotbeensewnwitha crop, thetreeisputtingforth its shoots;whenthe groundis fullof sowncrop, the tree is bearingfruit;the olive-grove, therefore, beingthusdivided, gives anequalreturnevery year."Columella not onlyrecommendedintercropping, he alsogave specificinstructions about methods.Concerningdwarf arbustra hewrote, "I f nocerealis sown amongst the dwarftrees, spaces of twentyfeetare leftoneither side; but if one indulges incrops,forty feetare lefton one sideand twentyon the other.r" Forolive

tree/cornintercropping he stated,"On groundwhich is richand fit forgrowingcorn the spacebetweentherowsought to besixtyfeetin onedirection and forty in the other: if thesoilispoor and not suitablefor crops,twenty-five feet."34Roman farmers usedvariouskindsof fences to delineate property boundaries,oneofwhichwas a living fenceor hedge." Varro gavea detaileddescription of living fences:The first type,the natural, is a hedge,usually plantedwith brushor thorn,having roots and being alive, and sowith nothingto fear from the flamingtorch ofa mischievous passer-by....

Furthermore, if thereare no enclosures,the boundaries of the estatearemademore secure by theplantingof trees,whichpreventthe servants fromquarrelling with theneighbors, andmake itunnecessary to fixthe boundaries bylawsuits. Some plant pinesaround theedges, asmywifehasdoneon herSabine farms; othersplant cypresses, asI did onmyplaceonVesuvius; and stillothers plantelms, asmanyhavedonenearCrustumeria. Wherethat is possible, asit istherebecause it isa plain,thereis no better treefor planting; it isextremely profitable, as it oftensupportsandgathersmanya basketof grapes,yields a mostagreeable foliage for sheepandcattle,and furnishes railsfor fencing,and wood for hearth and furnace."

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Widelyspacedoaks in a pasture, Portugal. The treecanopyis pruned (debris beneath trees)to stimulatepasture growth andacornproduction (for sheepand pigs).

Muti-purpose UsageVarro's last sentence demonstratesthat theRomans wereconcerned withmulti-purposes for trees. Whiletheuseof trees for constructionappearsto havebeenof minor importance toRoman farmers, Cato believed farmersshouldplantelms and poplars aroundthe borders of farms and alongroadsso theywouldhavetimber for build

ing, butmore importantlyso theywouldhave leaves for feeding livestock.Trees were also usedfor fuel.Cato emphasized that "both woodand small trimmings" couldbe soldfor firewood, and that extra woodcouldbe usedto make charcoal.37Pliny emphasized that manytreesyielded morethan one product." Aswith trees in arbustra, the locationoftreesin living fences was important.Varro believed treeson northernboundaries were especially importantbecause theydid not blockthe sun."Fodder

Roman agriculturalists usedperiods of low labor demand for cuttingand storingpoplar, elm, and oakleaves foruseas sheepfodder.Theyalso used fresh leaves and other products, suchas acorns and grape husks,fromwoodyperennials." Varroencouraged usingacornsas feed forswine: "Asthis animal feeds chiefly onmast,and next on beans,barley, andother grains, this food producesnotonlyfat but a pleasant flavour in the

flesh. "41 He alsosuggested plantingmast groves to provide swinewithnuts and leaves.Columella recommended cultivatingthe legume shrub-trefoil as a foddercrop because "it ismost useful forchickens, bees, sheep, goats,oxen andcattleof every kind,whichquicklygrowfat uponit and makeewes yielda very largequantity of milk;moreoveryoucouldalsouse it foreightmonthsof the yearas greenfodder and afterwards asdry."? Shrub-trefoil wasespecially useful since it grewin poorsoils and couldwithstand considerableabusefromthe elements. Columellaalso recommended plantingfoddertrees, especially elms because "[i]nthiswaywe shallalways have a mixtureoffoliage for useand thecattle, attractedbythis kindof seasoning for their food,willfinish offwith greater heartinessthe full rationallottedto them."43

Ashwas particularly well-suited as afoddertree because it could beplantedin rough and mountainous places andwas acceptable to goats,sheep, andoxen.Columella thought plantingfodder trees on marginal land wasa wiseuseof resources, and heclaimed thatmost people preferred usingthe elmbecause "it both accommodates itselfverywellto thevineand providesfoodmostacceptable to oxenandflourishes invarious kindsof soil. "44Pliny recommended thewillow becauseit could beplantedin moist soilandyielded stakes and bindings."

ApiariesRoman farmers oftenmaintainedextensive apiaries. Hives were commonlyformed in hollowed-out treesor manufactured fromwood.According to Varro, the besthives werethosemadeof bark; the worst weremadeof earthenware because theywereseverely affected byhot and coldtemperatureextremes. Treesalsoprovided

food for bees. Varro believed that beesshouldbe providedwith food so theywould not haveto travelgreat distances. He instructedfarmers to boilripe figs inwater and to rollthe figsinto lumpsthat could beplacednearthehive."According to Varro, somefarmers poundedraisins and figstogether, soakedthem in boiledwine,and madepellets from the mixture.Chemicals,Medicines,and FertilizersRomanagriculturalists made extensive useof tree products in manufacturing farmchemicals. One chemicalthat Cato,Varro,Columella, andPliny discussed and praisedis amurca,a byproductof olive dregs. Cato recommended it as a moth repellent, as afeed additive for horses, and asa pesticidefor weevils and other pests inthreshing rooms." He advised farmersto "[m]akea plasterof earth and oildregs ....With this thick plaster go overthe wholegranary.Later sprinkle withoil dregs all the plaster you haveputon. Whenit isdry, store the grain in itafter it iswellcooled. The wormwillnot harm it."48Cato recommended makingplasterfrom marbleand quicklime, or fromclaymixedwith grain chaffand oildregs. According to Cato, thismixture"does not allowmice and worms tobethere and makesthe grain soliderand harder."49 He alsodescribed apestrepellent usedfor preserving lentils. The liquidwas madebymixingvinegar, a solvent, with laserpidum,a gumresinwithan acrid,bitter tasteand strongodor." Cato mentionedseveral waysthat tree productscouldbe usedin humanmedicine. He recommended crushing juniperberriesand mixingthem withwine "if urineispassedwith difficulty." He also suggested using boiled juniper wood forlumbago, myrtle for indigestion and



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Intercropping of vineyards andolivetrees, Alpes-de-Haute-Provence, France.

colic, and groundpomegranates fordysentery and diarrhea.Pomegranatebuds,harvested prior to flowering,wereusedto purge tapeworms."Pliny's Natural History included onehundredtwentychaptersdevoted totreesthat yielded medicines and chem-icals. Within thesechaptershewrote:Not even are the forests and the spotsinwhich theaspect ofNature ismostrugged,destitute of theirpeculiarremedies; forso universally has that divine parentofallthingsdistributed her succours forthe benefit ofman,as to implantforhimmedicinal virtues in thetrees ofthe deserteven, while at every step shepresents uswithmostwonderful illustrations ofthoseantipathies and sympathies whichexistin thevegetable world.52Roman farmers alsousedtreeproductsas a sourceof organic fertil-izerto enrichthe soil. Cato suggestedthat olive dregs becarried into thefields in donkeys' packsaddles orplacedin trenches dugaround olivetrees. He further recommended usingleaves in compostpiles, especially theleaves of evergreen and deciduousoaks,whichhedid not value asananimal forage to the extenthe valuedthe leaves of other trees."Columella emphatically endorsedthe productionand useof fertilizer:Wherefore ifit is, asit would seem tobe,the thingof thegreatestvalueto thefarmer, I considerthat it shouldbestudied with thegreatestcare,especiallysince the ancientauthors,while theyhavenot altogether neglected it, havenevertheless discussed it withtoo littleelaboration....I appreciate that therearecertainkindsof farmson whichit isimpossible to keepeitherlivestock orbirds,yet even in suchplaces itisa lazyfarmerwho lacksmanure: for hecancollect leaves, rubbish fromthe hedgerowS ....54

The Decline of RomanAgroforestryThroughoutRomanhistory, a largepercentage of the Romanpopulationengaged in some branch of agriculture.Agricultural historianKenneth D.White,who claimed that the RomanEmpire's entireadministrative struc-ture restedon the foundationof anagricultural surplus, noted:

The earliest evidence wehaveconcern-ingearlysettlement in and aroundRomepointsto a fairly largepopulation, mostofwhomwereengaged in subsistencefarming on smallplotsof land.Thepredominant features of soiland climatein this region, and the size of farmunits,tendedto promotethe growthof anintensive smallholding farm economy,suchas maystillbe foundinmanypartsof Italytoday.The variety ofcrops,thelimited size of farm units,and theneedto maximize productivity havecom-bined to spur on the husbandman toconserve the precious topsoil, to replen-ishits fertility, and to workwithspeedand ingenuity in face of a climate that ismore than ordinarily capricious.55While smallfarms survivedthroughoutRomanhistory, agricul-tural systems changed dramaticallyoverthespanof timethat Cato,Varro,Columella, and Pliny lived."Most notablewas the emergence of

vastplantations or latifundia, whichwereownedbyabsentee landlords andworkedby tenant farmers and slaves.Latifundia werecarved out of publiclands,especially in the caseof live-stockplantations, but alsoemergedfromthe ruinsof smaller farms wherethe conservation farming andagro-forestry described byRomanwritershad previously beenpracticed. Thedestruction of land resources andreduced agricultural yields resultingfromplantationagriculture causedPliny to declare that plantationswereruining Rome and its provinces."Seneca, oneofRome'srichest land-owners, asked "How far willyou

extend thebounds ofyour possessions?Alargetract of land, sufficient hereto-forefor a wholenation,is scarce wideenough for a single lord."58Columella was distressed bythewasteful farming practices foundonlatifundia, but he challenged land-owners' assumptions that loweryieldswerethe resultof reduced soil fertility.Instead he asserted that absentee land-lords' improperfarming techniqueswereto blame, and he lamented thelackof agricultural educationin theRomanEmpire.The decline ofRomanagroforestry andperhapsof the empireitself, while linked to the depletion ofsoiland other resources, was a socio-political phenomenon and not a phy-sical one.59Linking Roman Agriculturewith the Present

Overthepast two thousand years,interest in theworksof Cato,Varro,Columella, and Pliny has surfacedand resurfaced among agriculturalists,naturalists, and Latin scholars," VarroquotesCato frequently, andColu-mella refers often both to Cato andVarro. In the fourthcentury, Palladius"supplied thehornbook usedbytheagricultural monks throughout theDarkAges," apparently basing muchof it on theRomanagriculturalists."In the firsthalf of the sixth century,Isidore of Seville wrote a voluminousencyclopedia that waspartially attrib-uted to Varro's earlier work, andSt.Augustine made frequent reference to

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Traditional Mediterranean landscape inAgadir Province, Morocco. Almond, olive, andargan trees scattered throughout thearea havemultiple uses, but theirmainproduct is fruit.The trees are intercropped with cereals, mainlybarley, or alfalfa. .

An old,isolated walnuttreeina wheatfield in theDromeValley in France's DauphineProvince. Before 1850, isolated trees in fields comprised mostof Europe's agrojorestrysystems. Themove to line planting of trees permitted mechanized agroforestry practices,where themainbranches of trees were felled to allowharvesting underthe crown. Thisparticular tree wasnot shaped formechanized harvesting. During the 1940s, the concept of

tree crops resurfaced in other temperate regions of the world. BotanistConstance Eardley discussed the suitability of carob, mesquite, and honeylocust as supplementary fodder forlivestock in southern Australia. Severalcommentators described fodder treesuseful as stock feed in South Africa,where large areas are often strickenwith drought. A 1947 publicationdetailed uses of trees and shrubs asfodder, windbreaks, shade trees, andsoil conditioners throughout the British Commonwealth. Italian observersdescribed "coltura promiscua," apolyculture system in which pollarded

Corsican chestnut farming is typicalof that which covers many thousandsof steep and rocky acres in centralFrance...of Italy from end to end....Especially do I recall when crossing theApennines from Bologna to Florence,the marked and sudden increase ofpopulation that occurred at about twothousand feet elevation. The slopesbelow two thousand feet were treelessand on them were few evidences ofpeople. At two thousand feet, where thechestnut forests began, the villageswerenumerous, large and substantial."

marginal lands, and he illustrated scenarios in which tree crops could beused to help solve erosion problems,provide food for animals and humans,and serve as the foundation on whichlong-term ecological and social sustainability could be built.

The remnants of Roman agroforestry described by Cato, Varro, Columella, and Pliny led to interest in establishing comparable tree-basedagricultural systems in the UnitedStates. In 1929 J. Russell Smith, in hisbook Tree Crops: A Permanent Agri-culture, outlined the concept of agriculture based on trees and shrubs."Many of Smith's views resulted fromhis travels and scientific observationsin the Mediterranean while he was aneconomic geographer. Smith documented the destructive results of erosion following cultivation on hilly,

It is no less surprising than unfortunate,that the Husbandry of the Ancients hasnot hitherto been made familiar to ourEnglish Gardeners and Husbandmen;since everyone who has maturelyconsidered the Works of Columella,Varro, Cato, Paladius, etc. must havediscovered many extraordinaryThings...unpractised in our Days; tho'in the ancient Times, they were of greatProfit to the Lords of the Soil.63

Varro in his work De Civitate Dei. 62While it is difficult to measure theimpact Cato, Varro, Columella, andPliny have had on Italian, other European, and North American agricultureover the past two thousand years,their treatises have probably beenmorewidely read than widely used. Writingin 1725, the Englishman RichardBradley noted:

Much agricultural knowledgethought to have been discovered during the past hundred years can befound in the works of these Romanauthors. A Virginia farmer writing in1913 commented that "[tlhe Romanshad learned many things which we arenow learning again, such as greenmanuring with legumes, soiling, seedselection...intensive cultivation of afallow as well as of a crop, conservation rotation...the preservation of thechemical content of manure and thecomposting of the rubbish of afarm...."64



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poplars are used as vine supports andalso provide fuel and lumber. Thiscontemporary Italian system, based onRoman agroforestry techniques, supports three to four-story cultures ofpoplars, grapes, and dwarf fruit trees,with an annual crop or forage speciesat the base."The use of tree-based agricultural

systems has been slow to gain acceptance in the United States despite concerns about conventional, high-inputand highly mechanized approachesto managing agricultural and naturalresources/" Trees on agriculturallands, where tolerated, are viewed asconservation measures and not incomeproducers."ConclusionCato, Varro, Columella, and Pliny

recognized that trees are a fundamental component of a sustainable society.The treatises of these Roman authorsprovided specific advice to Romanagriculturalists about agroforestrytechniques in the temperate Mediterranean climate. These authors suggested using trees for intercroppingwith food crops, as fences, as fodder,and in making fertilizers, other farmchemicals, and medicines.As Roman landholders consolidated their property into large plantations, they were less inclined to followthe practices of conservation farmingand agroforestry that the treatises recommended and smaller farmers hadused. The resulting destruction of landresources and decline in yields in partsof the Roman Empire was thereforearguably more a consequence of socialand political factors, which encouraged consolidation at the expense ofconservation, than of depletion of soiland other resources.Roman agroforestry principles have

influenced Western views of agricultural practices over the past two millennia, particularly in temperateregions." Some areas, such as modernItaly, have beenhighlyreceptive; others,such as the United States, have been.Iess receptive.Contemporary agroforestry techniques tend primarily to be adapta

tions of indigenous systems fromtropical regions. While useful to tropi-

cal agroforestry practitioners, few ofthese techniques are directly applicableto agriculture in temperate regions.The works of the Roman agriculturalists provide not only the first knownwritten description of agroforestrytechniques, they describe agriculturalsystems that can be implemented intemperate regions, whose often fragilesoils are characterized by poor regenerative capacity and deforestation.The works of Cato, Varro, Columella,Pliny, and other Roman agriculturalists have much to offer contemporaryagroforestry.

NotesI. Agroforestry is a namefor land usesystemswherewoodyperennials aredeliber-atelygrownon the samelandmanagementunit as agriculturalcropsand/or animals,either in spatialmixtureor temporalsequence. The objective of agroforestry isto optimizepositive interactions betweenwoodyand non-woody components inorder to achieve a moreecologically andsocially productive, sustainable, and diver-sified output fromthelandthan ispossiblewith conventional approaches. SeeBjornLundgren, "Introduction,"AgroforestrySystems 1 (1982): 3-6. In describing agroforestry systems, contemporaryagroforestersuse the phrase"woodyperennials"insteadof "trees" to acknowledge theimportantroleof vines, shrubs, and otherwoodyplantsnot commonly thought ofas trees.Romanlaw alsotreatedvines astrees.SeeMarcusPorcius Cato,Cato theCensor on Farming, trans. ErnestBrehaut(NewYork:ColumbiaUniversity Press,1933),p. 15. For an excellent overview ofthe historyof tree-based farming systems,seeK. F.S.King, "TheHistoryofAgroforestry," inH.A.Steppler andP.K.R.Nair,eds.,Agroforestry: A Decade ofDevelop-ment (Nairobi,Nigeria: InternationalCouncilfor Research in Agroforestry,1987),pp. 3-5.

2. P.K. R.Nair, Agroforestry Systems intheTropics (Dordrecht, The Netherlands:Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1989),pp.21-24.3. Michael A.Goldand JamesHanover,"Agroforestry Systems for theTemperateZone," Agroforestry Systems 5 (1987):109, 110; PeterR. Schaefer, "TreesandSustainableAgriculture," American Jour-nalof Alternative Agriculture 5 (1989):174.Agroforesters fromthe UnitedStatesandCanadahaverecently established theAssociation For Temperate Agroforestry(AFTA),an organizationfocused on temperatezoneagroforestry systems. Individuals interested in AFTA or its newsletter,TheTemperate Agroforester,maywriteto

AFTA do Michael A.Gold,Departmentof Forestry, MichiganStateUniversity,EastLansing, MI48824,U.S.A.4. Forthe best treatmentof Romanagroforestrypublishedto dateseeRussell Meiggs,"FarmForestryin theAncient Mediterranean," Social Forestry Network8b(Summer 1989): 1-12;and LouisHuguet,"Symbiosis ofAgriculture and Forestry,"Unasylva 31 (1979): 25-29.5. Dueto the linguistic limitations of theauthors, thisarticleexamines almostexclu-

sively English translationsof workswrittenin Latinand Italian.Muchhas beenwritten thiscenturyin Italianthat wouldinterest temperate-region agroforesters. Littleisknownabout thepersonalhistoryof Columellaexceptthat whichcanbegleanedfrom incidental references hemakesin hiswritings. Based on informationabout hisknown contemporaries, Columella mayhavediedaround A.D. 70. See LuciusJuniusModeratusColumella, DeReRustica, trans.EdwardS. ForsterandEdwardH. Heffner(Cambridge, Massachusetts: HarvardUniversity Press, 1954),2:xiv;Palladius, whowrotehis treatiseonagriculture morethan threecenturies laterthan Columella, isnot addressed in thisarticlebecause, according to Kenneth D.Whiteand Russell Meiggs, muchof hiswork follows Columella closely. Meiggsbelieves themaincontributions Palladiusprovidedarehis listof building timbersandhismentionof theuseof chestnutinbuilding during the lateRomanEmpire.See Russell Meiggs, Trees andTimberin theAncientMediterranean World(Oxford,England: ClarendonPress, 1982),p. 270;Kenneth D.White,Roman Farm-ing(Ithaca, NewYork:CornellUniversityPress, 1970), p. 30. Chestnutcultivationsuffered a reverse at theendof theRomanEmpire, but itsuse in buildingmayhavehad someeffecton farming systems thatreliedon chestnutsfor food.See ChrisWickham,"EuropeanForestsin the EarlyMiddleAges: Landscape andLandClearance," in ChrisWickham,L'AmbienteVegetale Nell'Alto Medioevo (Spoleto,Italy:Presso LaSede DelCentro, 1990),pp.479-545.

6. Kenneth D.Whiteclaimsthat historiansgive Romanagriculture in general onlycursorytreatment.See Kenneth D.White,Roman Farming, pp. 10, 11.Care'swork,DeReRustica,maybe theoldestprosein the Latin language. See Cato, DeReRustica, trans.William DavisHooperandHarrison Boyd Ash (Cambridge,Massachusetts: HarvardUniversity Press, 1934).William DavisHooper andHarrisonBoydAshalsotranslatedMarcusTerentiusVarro'sDeReRustica in thesamevolume.See Cato, Cato theCensor on Farming,p. xiii.Romanagroforestry practices canbeseeninmanyworksofart fromtheRomanEmpire, especially in frescoes atPompeii andNorthAfrica. Manyof Ken-nethD.White's bookson Romanagricul-turecontainphotographsof thesefrescoes.

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One anonymousreviewerof this articlementionedthat statues at the CapitolineMuseumin Romeincluderepresentationsof coppicedand heavily pruned trees.Thisreviewer also noted that a longhistoryoflandscapepaintingsin Italyreveals, asbackgroundfeatures, the historical continuityof manyagrofarestrypractices developed duringthe RomanEmpire.

7. Meiggs, Trees andTimber, p. 21.8. Cato,DeRe Rustica, p. ix.9. Meiggs, "FarmForestry," p. 4.

10. Meiggs, "FarmForestry," pp. 6, 7.11. Meiggs, "Farm Forestry," p. 7. Columella,DeReRustica, p. xvii.12. Meiggs, Trees andTimber, pp. 19-22.13. KennethD.White,A Bibliography ofRomanAgriculture (Reading, England:University of ReadingInstituteofAgriculturalHistory,1970);KennethD.White,RomanFarming, p. 47.]. Russell Smithalso recognized the important role treesplayedin the long-term sustainability ofthe agricultural and socialsystems of Italy,France,and Corsica. Between 1914andtheearly1950sSmithpromotedthe useof similartree-based land usesystems inNorth America asa wayofminimizing soilerosion,mitigatingenvironmental damage,and stabilizing rural communities. See

J. Russell Smith,Tree Crops: A PermanentAgriculture, rev. ed. (NewYork: Harper &Row, 1950),pp. 9, 10, 131-35.14. LeoLouberedescribes arbustra in somedetailand mentionsthat they are stillusedin parts ofItaly.He believes arbustra produceinferiorgrapesand loweryields butfailsto mention the benefits of arbustra,suchas multipleyields of diverse crops,protectionfor grapes fromtoomuch sun,and erosioncontrol. SeeLeoA. Loubere,TheRedand theWhite: A History of Winein France andItalyin theNineteenth Cen

tury (Albany: StateUniversity ofNewYork Press, 1978),pp. 89-90.Based oninformation inVarro's DeRe Rustica,FairfaxHarrisonclaimedthat Romanarbustra producedmore than twicetheamount ofwinethan did the Burgundyregionin 1913. SeeFairfaxHarrison,RomanFarm Management: TheTreatisesof Cato andVarro (NewYork:TheMacmillanCompany,1913), p. 61.15. Cato, DeRe Rustica, p. 49.16. Cato, DeRe Rustica, p. 51.Willows andreedsfor bindingvinesto props (used tohold up a vine,usuallytree limbsactingasa livingtrellis) wereconsidered so important to Romanvineyards that Columellasaida farmerwho could not growhisownhad bettergetout of farming. See Cato,Catothe Censor onFarming, pp.xxv,xxvi.17. Varro,DeRe Rustica, p. 195.18. Columella, DeRe Rustica, 2:49,51.19. Columella, DeReRustica, 2:57.20. Columella, DeReRustica, 2:39.21. Varro,DeRe Rustica, p. 199.LeoLouberesays that duringthe firsthalf of thetwentieth centurymulberrytreeswereusedinVenetianarbustra because the leaves couldbe usedas food in thesilkwormindustry.

SeeLoubere, TheRedand theWhite,pp. 89-90.Because botanicalnamesfortree species werenot central to thepurposeofthis article,and because ofthe difficulties involved in accurately identifying treespecies mentioned in Romanwritings, theauthors havenot included botanicalnamesoftree species mentionedbyCato,Varro,Columella, and PlinytheElder.This decision is supportedby Russell Meiggs, whonoted that "evenif theclaimsof precisionwereconsidered paramount it would notoftenbe possible to givethe botanicalname, because our sources rarelydistinguishbetweenthe variousspecies ofoakandpine andwhen theydo their judgement is not alwayssound." SeeMeiggs,Trees andTimber, p. 6.

22. Pliny, Natural History, trans. John Bostockand H. T. Riley (London,England:Henry G. Bohn,1761),5:218,3:512.23. Columella, DeRe Rustica, 2:67,69.24. Columella, DeRe Rustica, 2:69.25. Varro,DeReRustica, p. 247. Allelopathic

effects are harmful interactions betweenwoodyperennials and agriculturalcropsthat can causereducedyields or eventhecompletedestructionof a crop.26. Columella, DeReRustica, 2:69.27. Pliny, Natural History, 5:1.28. KennethD.Whiteclaimsthat theintercultivation of wheatwith vinesandolives wasnormal practicein theRomanEmpire. See White,RomanFarming.29. Cato, DeReRustica, p. 19.30. Cato, DeReRustica, p. 65.31. Varro, DeRe Rustica, pp. 243, 245.32. Columella, DeReRustica, 2:63;FairfaxHarrison mentionsin his1913work onRomanagriculture that arbustrawerecommonin Italyat the time, and thatthey yielded several crops fromthe sameground: "...everyone who has beenin Italy

willrecallthe endless procession of smallfields ofmaizeand ryeand alfalfathroughwhichserriedranks ofmulberryor featheryelmtrees, linkedwith thecharmingdrop and garland ofthe vines, seem todancetoward onein the brilliantsunlight,likeso manyGreekmaidenson a frieze."Harrison, RomanFarm Management,p.30.33. Columella, DeRe Rustica, 2:51,69.34. Columella, DeRe Rustica, 2:79.Clearly,Columella is not referring to maize.

"Frumentario" isthe Latinword inColumella'stext fromwhich"corn" istranslated.Frumentariohas beenusedtosignify maizeonlyduringthe past severalcenturies. Itsancient translation referstowheat or other cerealplants important to aparticular region. See Oxford LatinDictionary, s.v. "frumentarius."35. "The practicalfarmer, aswellas the loverof rural scenery, hascauseforregret thatAmerican agriculturalpracticehas not yethad the patienceto enclose the land within

live hedgesand ditches."Harrison,RomanFarm Management, p. 101.

36. Varro, DeRe Rustica, pp. 217,219.37. Cato, DeRe Rustica, p. 19, and Cato the

Censor onFarming, p. 65. According toBrehaut,who translatedthe secondwork,fuelwoodwas in short supplyduringCare'stime.38. Pliny,Natural History, 3:390.39. Varro, DeRe Rustica, pp. 245, 247.40. Cato, DeRe Rustica, p. 17. "The extravagant American farmerhas not yetlearnedto feed the leaves of trees, but in olderandmore economical civilizations the practiceis stillobserved."Harrison,RomanFarmManagement, p. 44. In his translationof

Cato the Censor onFarming, pp. xxviii,4,69, Brehautnotes that foddertreeswere important because of southernItaly'slackof natural pasture.According toBrehaut,fodder was so important thattimber from fodder treeswasconsideredonlya by-product.41. Varro, DeRe Rustica, p. 355.42. Columella, DeRe Rustica, 2:113.43. Columella, DeRe Rustica, 2:45, 113.44. Columella, DeRe Rustica, 2:45,47.45. Pliny, Natural History, 3:492-93.46. Varro, DeRe Rustica, pp. 507, 509, 515.47. SeeHarrison, RomanFarm Management,p.46.48. Cato, Cato the Censor on Farming, p. 97.49. Cato,Cato the Censor on Farming, p. 97.50. SeeCato, Cato the Censor onFarming,p.107.51. SeeCato, Cato the Censor onFarming,pp. 109, 110. Brehautsaidthat "[t]hisrecipemay be regardedas of valuesincethe commonjuniperis official in the Britishpharmacopoeiaand in that of theUnitedStates,yielding the oil of juniper,apowerfuldiuretic,distilled fromthe unripefruits." Brehautbasedhis statementon anarticleon juniperfound inEncyclopediaBritannica, s.v. "juniper." Speaking ofthepomegranate,Brehautwrote "Modern

medicine usesthe bark of the root and therind." SeeCato,Catothe Censor onFarming,p. 110.

52. Pliny, Natural History, 5:1.53. SeeCato, Cato the Censor onFarming,

pp.26,60,61.54. Harrison,RomanFarm Management,pp. 40, 41.55. See Kenneth D.White, Agricultural Implementsof the RomanWorld(Cambridge,England: CambridgeUniversity Press,1967), p. 1.56. KennethD.White,Farm Equipment ofthe RomanWorld(Cambridge, England:Cambridge University Press, 1975),p. 216.TimothyPotter suggests that theagricultural systems described byCato, Varro,and Columella wereconfinedto a portionofwest-central Italyand werenot foundthroughout Italy. See TimothyW. Potter,RomanItaly (Berkeley: University ofCalifornia Press, 1987),p. 98.57. Norman ScottBrienGras,A History ofAgriculture in Europe andAmerica (NewYork: F.S. Crofts, 1946),pp. 56, 57.58. Seneca livedbetween4?B.C. and A.D.65.

According to a statement Cicero (106-43 B.C.)attributed to his contemporaryPhillippus,therewere fewerthan two thousandprop-



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ertyownersin theentireRoman Empire.See Vladimir G.Simkhovitch, Rome's FallReconsidered (NewYork: Ginn& Company,1916),p. 201.Simkhovitch wasacolleague of J. Russell Smith at ColumbiaUniversity. Although thetwomensharedsimilar agricultural and geographic interests, thereis no recordthat SimkhovitchandSmith collaborated.59. AsSimkhovitch pointedout inhis1916workthat examined the relationship between thedegradation ofRome's physicalresources and the falloftheempire, "[tjhatfactor-the exhaustion ofRomansoilandthedevastation of Romanprovincessheds enough lightforus to behold thedreadoutlines of itsdoom."Simkhovitch,Rome's Fall Reconsidered, p. 243. See alsoDonaldR. Dudley, TheRomans: 850B.C.-A.D. 337, a volume of TheHistory ofHuman Society, ed. J. H. Plumb (NewYork: Alfred A.Knopf, 1970),p. 212.60. Bertha Tilly, speakingofVarro's impact,said"[w]riters of hisown ageandmanythat carne afterdrewuponhisworks....Varro'sbooksanddoctrine pervaded alllearning afterhis time: hisgreatmeritistobefoundin thevastmass of facts anddatawhich he preserved fromsources of everykind.Withoutwhatweknowandpossessofhim...ourknowledge ofRomanantiquitywouldbegreatlyimpoverished." SeeBertha Tilly, Varro theFarmer: A Selectionfrom theRaeRusticae (London, England:University TutorialPress, 1973),p. 13.61. Harrison,RomanFarm Management,pp. 4, 5.According to NormanGras,Palladius copied or paraphrased"thosewhohadgonebefore." See Gras,A History of Agriculture in Europe andAmerica, p. 33.

126 forest &Conservation History 38 (july 1994)

62. Ernest Brehaut, An Encyclopedist of theDarkAges: Isidore of Seville (NewYork:Columbia University Press, 1912),p. 16.Introduction to Cato's andVarro'sDeReRustica, trans.William DavisHooperandHarrisonBoyd Ash, p. xix.63. Richard Bradley, A Survey of theAncientHusbandry andGardening (London,England: B.Motte,1725).64. Harrison, RomanFarm Management, p.2.65. Smith, Tree Crops. Harrisonbriefly discussed theroleof treesinRomanagriculture inRomanFarm Management, published in theUnited States in 1913.Thereisno recordindicating that Smith wasfamiliarwithHarrison'stranslation of CatoandVarro.Smith makes no reference toCatoorVarroin hisbook.66. Smith, Tree Crops, p. 132.61. See Constance M. Eardley, "TreeLegumesforFodder,"Journal oftheDepartment ofAgriculture of South Australia 48 (1945):342-45; E.E.M. Loock, "ThreeUsefulLeguminous FodderTrees," Farming inSouth Africa 22 (1947): 7-12;J. SholtoDouglas, "3-D Forestry," WorldCrops19 (1967): 20-24;A.Jurriaanse, AreTheyFodder Trees?, PamphletNo. 116(Pretoria, SouthAfrica: Department ofForestry, 1947),pp. 1-3;Imperial ForestryBureau, "TheUse andMisuse of Shrubsand Trees as Fodder,"JointPublication10 (1947); E.J. Schreiner, "Poplars inForestryandLandUse,"FADForestry andForest Products Studies 12 (1958): 290,291;and Louis Huguet, "Symbiosis ofAgriculture and Forestry," Unasylva 31(1979): 28.68. L.H.MacDaniels andArthur S.Lieberman,"TreeCrops: ANeglected Source ofFoodand Forage fromMarginal Lands,"

BioScience 29 (1979): 173-75;GoldandHanover, "Agroforestry Systems for theTemperate Zone,"pp. 109-110.69. In an effortto countermisperceptions,broadencurrent thinking abouttree-based agriculture, andpromotetemperateagroforestry inNorthAmerica, a series ofbiennial North American agroforestry conferences began in 1989.See Proceedingsof the First Conference onAgroforestryinNorthAmerica, ed.PeterWilliams(Guelph, Ontario:University ofGuelph,1991).For information, contactPeterWilliams, Department ofEnvironmentalBiology, University ofGuelph, Guelph,OntarioNIG 2Wl, Canada.Also seeProceedings of TheSecond ConferenceonAgroforestry inNorthAmerica, ed.HaroldE.Garrett (Springfield: School ofNaturalResources, University ofMissouri,1991).For information contactGeneGarrett,School ofNaturalResources,University ofMissouri, Columbia,Missouri65211.AFTA co-sponsored theThirdNorthAmerican Agroforestry Conference inAmes, Iowa,August 1993.Theproceedings ofthe conference arenowavailable. See Opportunities forAgro-forestry intheTemperate Zone World-wide,ed.Richard C. Schultz andJoeP.Colletti (Ames: Department ofForestry,IowaStateUniversity, 1993).10. J. Russell Smith notedthat chestnut grovesonCorsica, firstintroduced byRomansoldiers, havesurvived formorethan twothousandyears. Chestnut treesin Corsicaproducefoodfor humanconsumption,leaves for animal fodder, branches for fuel,andtannin for processing leather. SeeSmith, Tree Crops, p. 131.

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