Art with a View FOCUS ON · a. Mural painting. b. Order for a work of art to be produced. c. Painting on paper with pigments suspended in a water-soluble vehicle. d. A person who

Art with a View

EXTRA ITINERARYItalian Reinassance Art

FOCUS ON

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Italian Renaissance Art

In the following pages you will focus on:

4 Giotto

4 Botticelli

4 Leonardo

4 Michelangelo

4 Tiziano

4 Giorgione

4 Raffaello

4 Caravaggio

01. OverviewFrom the 14th to the 17th Century, Italian artists were the greatest examples ofperfection and the models to imitate all over Europe. During the Renaissance,Italy imposed its culture and its tastes more than ever: in this chapter you willfind a roundup on some immortal geniuses and their masterpieces.

Match each picture with its title and its artist.

EXERCISE 1 Pre-reading

1. David, 1501-1504.

2. Venus of Urbino, 1538.

3. Boy with a Basket of Fruit, 1593.

4. Vitruvian Man, 1490.

5. Madonna del Cardellino,1506.

a. Leonardo da Vinci

b. Raffaello Sanzio

c. Michelangelo Buonarroti

d. Tiziano

e. Michelangelo Merisi (Caravaggio)

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…………

…………

…………

…………

EXTRAITINERARY

3

Overview

Match each term with its corresponding definition.

EXERCISE 2 Vocabulary

What do you already know about Giotto? Tick the artworks made by him.

EXERCISE 3 Reading

1. Canvas

2. Patron

3. Fresco

4. Commission

5. Watercolour

a. Mural painting.

b. Order for a work of art to be produced.

c. Painting on paper with pigments suspended in a water-soluble vehicle.

d. A person who gives financial or other support to an artist.

e. Support for oil painting, generally set on a wooden frame.

Giotto was a Florentine painter, architect and sculptor ofimmense talent. As the artist who first broke free from theconstraints of medieval and Byzantine art, he is considered thefirst genius of the Italian Renaissance. At the beginning of the14th Century, word of Giotto’s mastery reached Pope BenedictXI. The Pope sent a courtier to Florence to see who this Giottowas, with a view to commissioning some paintings for SaintPeter’s Basilica in the Vatican. The courtier first travelled toSiena to collect designs from other masters. He then went toGiotto’s studio in Florence and asked for a drawing to takeback to the Pope. Giotto took a canvas, dipped his brush in redpaint, pinned his arm to his side and drew a perfect circle withhis hand. He grinned and said “Here’s your drawing”. Thecourtier, feeling mocked, asked for another drawing. Giottoreplied “This is enough, and more than enough.” Although hesuspected that he was being taken for a ride, the courtier tookGiotto’s drawing back to the Pope along with the othermasters’ drawings. The courtier explained how Giotto haddrawn the circle unaided, and the Pope and his advisersrealised just how much Giotto surpassed all the otherpainters of the era. Giotto’s proof of his mastery was hisfree-hand circle. It was a concise way for him todemonstrate his enormous technical skill. Watching himdraw the circle, it probably looked easy, but undoubtedly ittook years, if not decades, of practice to get that kind ofdeft skill. Giotto got the job.

q

q

q

GLOSSARYbroke free (to break free): si liberò (liberarsi)courtier: cortigianodipped (to dip): intinse (intingere, tocciare)pinned (to pin): puntò (puntare, fissare)grinned (to grin): sogghignò (sogghignare)mocked (to mock): deriso (deridere)taken for a ride (to take for a ride): preso in

giro (prendere in giro)deft: lesta

GIOTTO’S CIRCLE2.

1.

3.

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EXTRA ITINERARY - Italian Renaissance Art

Put the following events in the correct chronological order.

EXERCISE 4 Reading comprehension

Answer the following questions.

1. What artistic styles were in vogue before Giotto’s revolution?

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

2. What was Benedict XI’s aim?

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

3. Why did the courtier feel mocked by Giotto?

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

4. Why did Giotto draw only a circle?

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………


Much of the business of art is a craft, and every craft has its Giotto’s O. As an artist, how wouldyou prove the mastery of your craft? Do you have your own equivalent of Giotto’s O?

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EXERCISE 6 Writing

A. The Pope chose

Giotto to paint

Saint Peter’s

Basilica.

B. Giotto drew a

perfect circle.

C. Pope Benedict

XI heard about

the ability of

Giotto.

D. The courtier

felt teased by

Giotto.

E. A courtier was

sent to Giotto

by the Pope.

1. ……………………………………………

2. ……………………………………………

4. ……………………………………………

3. ……………………………………………

5. ……………………………………………

The Primavera celebrates thearrival of spring and is filledwith mythological symbolism.Venus is in the centre of anorange grove; on her left Flora,Goddess of Flowers and theSpring, appears clad in garlandsof flowers. Next to Flora is thenymph Chloris, pursued byZephyrus, the Wind God, whohas a burning passion for her.On the right of Venus are thethree Graces, companions of theLove Goddess, who performtheir dance at the onset ofspring. Next to the Graces standsMercury, Messenger of theGods, who inspects the orangegrove and protects the garden from intruders. Floating overhead at the centre of the picture is Amor, the sonof Venus: he is blindfolded as he shoots his arrows of love, their flaming tips certain to intensify theemotion of love in whoever they strike.

02. Botticelli and the Ideal of Beauty

The Birth of Venus is probablySandro Botticelli’s most famousand appreciated work. Paintedaround 1485, the picture hung inthe country villa of the Medicialong with the Primavera,indicating that the work wascommissioned by the Medicifamily. Venus rises naked fromthe sea, looking like a classicalstatue and floating on a seashell.On Venus’ left the waftingwinds gently caress her hair, onher right a handmaid waits forthe goddess to dress her shybody. The meadow is sprinkledwith violets, symbol of love. Itis worth mentioning the exceptional technique and the fine materials used to accomplish the work. TheBirth of Venus is the first example in Tuscany of a painting on canvas. Moreover the special use ofexpensive alabaster powder, making the colours even brighter, timeless, is another characteristic thatmakes this work unique.

Botticelli and the Ideal of Beauty

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GLOSSARYmeadow: pratosprinkled (to sprinkle): cosparso (cospargere)grove: boschettoclad: vestita

pursued (to pursue): seguita (seguire)onset: inizioblindfolded: bendato

Sandro Botticelli, The Birth of Venus, 1482-85, Uffizi Gallery, Florence.

Sandro Botticelli, Primavera, 1478, Uffizi Gallery, Florence.

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A Look Beyond

In The Birth of Venus we can find clear references to theStanzas, a famous poetic work by Agnolo Poliziano, acontemporary of Botticelli and the greatest Neoplatonicpoet of the Medici court. Neoplatonism was a current ofthought that tried to connect the classical cultural heritagewith Christianity. The Neoplatonic philosophical meaningis clear: the work signifies the birth of love and spiritualbeauty as a driving force of life. Behind the interpretationof the painting as a tribute to classical literature, we cancertainly read an ode to the wealthy Florentine family whocommissioned the work: the beginning of the reign of lovefinally comes to Florence thanks to the Medici, theirdiplomatic skills and their wide-ranging culture.

These paintings are surely some of the most 1. …………………………… images in art history: they

have become a 2. …………………………… of 15th Century Italian painting, so rich in meaning and

allegorical 3. …………………………… to antiquity. Botticelli used a girl called Simonetta as the

4. …………………………… for several women in his paintings, supporting the view that he was

actually in love with her. In fact Simonetta died at the young age of twenty-two and Botticelli

5. …………………………… a wish to be buried at her feet. It is thought that Simonetta was born

at Portovenere in Liguria: romantically this is the 6. …………………………… of the goddess Venus.

ARTISTIC • BIRTHPLACE • EXPRESSED • LANDMARK • MODEL • PAINTER • RECOGNISABLE • REFERENCES

Fill in the blanks with the correct word in the box. Two of them are not needed!




1. When was The Birth of Venus painted and who was it commissioned by?

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

2. Where was the Primavera?

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

3. Which technique did Botticelli use for his Birth of Venus?

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

4. Which mythological figures appear next to Primavera?

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Lorenzo de’ Medici, National Gallery of Art, Washington.

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Mona Lisa’s Smile

Following Leonardo da Vinci’s example, try to draw yourself as if you belonged to the opposite sex.Then mix up your picture with those done by your schoolmates and ask them to guess which is yourself-portrait.

EXERCISE 10 Activity



1. What are the two main mysteries around the Mona Lisa?

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

2. What does “Mona Lisa” mean?

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

3. What do people usually look at when they first see the painting?

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

4. Which is one of the reasons why the painting has remained an enigma so long?

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

03. Mona Lisa’s Smile

Every year, about 6 million people visit the Musée du Louvre inParis to see Leonardo da Vinci’s famous portrait, Mona Lisa. An oilpainting on poplar wood, the portrait was started by da Vinci in 1503and it took about four years to complete, although he is believed tohave continued working on it even after that. For centuries afterward,his talent sparked many debates and a multitude of theories strivingto uncover the mysteries behind the Mona Lisa. The two biggestmysteries are her identity and the nature of her smile.

Who is Mona Lisa? Many questions arose over the years as to thetrue identity of the woman in the portrait. The Italians call her LaGioconda, which means “the light-hearted woman.” In 1550 Vasariidentified Lisa del Giocondo, wife of a wealthy Florentine merchant,as the subject of the painting and pointed out that “mona” iscommonly used in place of the Italian word “madonna“, which couldbe translated into English as “madam”. A more recent thought is thatit is the feminine version of da Vinci himself. Digital analysis hasrevealed that Leonardo’s facial characteristics and those of thewoman in the painting are almost perfectly aligned with one another.

How does she smile? The enigmatic smile of the woman in thepainting has been the source of inspiration for many and a causeof desperation in others. When people look at the painting, theyfocus on her eyes, leaving the peripheral area over her mouth.Peripheral vision is less accurate and does not pick up details, sothe shadows in her cheekbones augment the curvature of hersmile. When the viewers look directly at the woman’s mouth,however, they do not pick up the shadows, and the portrait nolonger appears to be smiling. Thus, the appearance anddisappearance of her smile is really an attribute of the viewers’line of vision. This is one of the reasons why the painting hasremained an enigma to art enthusiasts and perhaps the mostfamous painting in the world.

GLOSSARYpoplar: piopposparked (to spark): ha provocato

(provocare, scintillare)striving (to strive): che si arrovellano

(arrovellarsi)aligned (to align): allineate (allineare)pick up (to pick up): coglie (cogliere)

Leonardo da Vinci, Mona Lisa, 1514,Museum of Louvre.

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In his best seller The Da Vinci Code, Dan Brown asserts that in Leonardo daVinci’s painting The Last Supper, the figure traditionally understood to be Johnthe Disciple is, in fact, Mary Magdalene. He points to the feminine features ofthe face and hands, as well as the body posture. While this conjecture might findfans among radical feminists, it fails to impress art historians, especially thosewho are experts on the paintings of Leonardo and Renaissance art in general.Brown and other conspiracy theorists have seen in the painting only what theywant to see and ignore certain facts about Renaissance art. To summarize, it wascommon for Leonardo and other artists of the period to depict certain men withfeminine features to symbolize innocence. You’ve probably seen pictures ofangels who are supposed to be male, but they have smooth faces, long curly hair,and no beard: they simply don’t fit our stereotypes. The figure of John inpaintings just prior to, during, and just after the Renaissance always looksfemale, but he has never been taken for Mary Magdalene. Dan Brown alsomisinterprets the compositional patterns of Jesus and the Disciples. He claimsthat Jesus and the alleged Mary Magdalene form a large V which, he explains,symbolizes both a chalice or cup and the shape of a woman’s womb. However,Leonardo simply used the large V shape for compositional spacing, balance andemphasis. There are other V shapes among the rest of the disciples as well. Arewe to interpret those as having special significance beyond compositional usage?Probably not. The problem with conspiracy theorists is they only use the part ofthe picture that fits their preconceived view and ignore what does not fit. It isunfortunate for the general public that the biased liberal news media andespecially book critics let him get away with his misinterpretation of Leonardo’sThe Last Supper. They should have protected us from this scam. Instead, theypromoted it.

CULTURAL FRAMEDan Brown and The Last Supper

Leonardo da Vinci, The Last Supper, 1498, Santa Maria delle Grazie, Milan.

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There is another problem with Dan Brown’s treatment ofThe Last Supper: his reference to this picture as a fresco isa point that shows his lack of knowledge and researchabout the painting. The painting is not a fresco. A fresco ismade by applying watercolour to wet plaster, but Leonardoused a different technique using a mixture of oil, pigmentand egg yolk. This may seem to be a silly and picky point,but it is just one of many inaccuracies in a book that beginswith the claim: “All descriptions of artwork, architecture,documents, and secret rituals in this novel are accurate”.

Dan Brown and The Last Supper

GLOSSARYpoints to (to point to): sottolinea (sottolineare)patterns: schemiwomb: ventrebiased: parziali, prevenutiscam: truffayolk: tuorlopicky: pignolo


1. Why does Dan Brown claim that Saint John is in fact Mary Magdalene?

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

2. How were angels usually represented during the Renaissance?

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

3. What does the V pattern symbolize in Dan Brown’s vision of the picture?

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4. Who is responsible for the misinterpretation of the picture?

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Write a short summary about the three main reasons why Dan Brown is wrong in his theory,according to the passage above.

EXERCISE 12 Writing

Underline the sentences in the text that have the same meaning as those given below.

1. If this theory is successful within the feminist movement, it does not convince art experts.2. Should we also read them under a different light apart from the pictorial use?3. ... they just employ the aspects of the painting which support their biased idea...


CULTURAL FRAME

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GLOSSARYdemure: schivo, pudico,

contegnosobosom: senoskilled: abileglaring: lampanteoverrides (to override): annulla,

non tiene conto di (annullare)grime: sporciziaclumsy: maldestre, impacciate


Sophie turned to Langdon for help. “I’m lost. You told me the HolyGrail is a woman. The Last Supper is a painting of thirteen men.”“Is it?” Langdon arched his eyebrows. “Take a closer look.”Uncertain, Sophie made her way closer to the painting, scanningthe thirteen figures – Jesus Christ in the middle, six disciples onhis left, and six on his right. “They’re all men,” she confirmed.“How about the one seated in the place of honour, at the righthand of the Lord?”Sophie examined the figure to Jesus’ immediate right, focusing in.As she studied the person’s face and body, a wave of astonishmentrose within her. The individual had a demure face, flowing redhair, delicate folded hands, and the hint of a bosom. It was,without doubt... female.“That’s a woman!” Sophie exclaimed.“Surprise, surprise. Believe me, it’s no mistake. Leonardo wasskilled at painting the difference between the sexes.”Sophie could not take her eyes from the woman beside Christ. TheLast Supper is supposed to be thirteen men. Who is this woman?Although Sophie had seen this classic image many times, she hadnot once noticed his glaring discrepancy.“Everyone misses it,” Langdon said. “Our preconceived notions ofthis scene are so powerful that our mind blocks out theincongruity and overrides our eyes. It’s known as skitoma,” headded. “The brain does it sometimes with powerful symbols.Another reason you might have missed the woman is that manyof the photographs in art books were taken before 1954, when thedetails were still hidden beneath layers of grime and severalrestorative repaintings done by clumsy hands in the eighteenthcentury. Now, at last, the fresco has been cleaned down to DaVinci’s original layer of paint.”Sophie moved closer to the image. “Who is she?”, she asked.“That, my dear,” Langdon replied, “is Mary Magdalene.”

(Dan Brown, The Da Vinci Code, chapter 58, pp. 242-243)

Here you find a free adaptation from The Da Vinci Code by Dan Brown: Professor Langdon is showingLeonardo’s The Last Supper to Sophie and he is revealing to her the theory of Mary Magdalene.Read it aloud, trying to give sense to your words. Focus on pronunciation and emphasis.

Dan Brown and The Last Supper

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1. Which features make Sophie believe that Saint John is in fact a woman?

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

2. What is a “skitoma”?

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

3. What is the second reason why Sophie has missed the presence of a woman in the picture until that

moment?

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………


Work in pairs and discuss.

• Have you ever read The Da Vinci Code by Dan Brown? Did you like it?• Have you ever seen the film taken from the novel? Did you enjoy it?• Which version did you prefer and why?• What do you think about Dan Brown’s theory on this painting?• Have you ever visited the Cenacolo Vinciano at Santa Maria delle Grazie in Milan?

What was your impression in front of The Last Supper?

EXERCISE 16 Speaking

04. Michelangelo’s Sistine Chapel

The Sistine Chapel is without doubt one of the greatest art treasures of all time. It isthe last stop on the Vatican Museum tour, ardently awaited by the millions oftourists from around the world that go there every year to admire it. From theoutside, the Chapel is like an ancient massive strongbox guarding an extraordinarytreasure. The creative force behind all this fame and beauty is the unsurpassedgenius of Michelangelo.

The Sistine Chapel takes its name from the pope who commissioned it, Sixtus IV.The Vatican Palaces needed a new building to house religious celebrations and tohost the Conclave, the gathering of cardinals that elects the pope. The SistineChapel’s first years were not easy; however, it was an unfortunate event that led tothe creation of a masterpiece. At the beginning of the 1500s, new building sites hadgrown up around the edifice. The excavations for the foundations caused veryserious problems for the Chapel, so that an enormous crack appeared in the vaultedceiling. Bramante, the palace architect, was hurriedly called in for a consultation.The frescoes, unfortunately, had suffered such damage that the new pope, Julius II,had the idea of re-doing the ceiling. But why exactly did the pontiff chooseMichelangelo?

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According to gossip of the time, it was Bramante who suggested to the pope theidea of giving Michelangelo the job, although the rivalry between Michelangeloand Bramante was no secret. The innocent proposal to the pope was actually a wayto put the hated sculptor in a bad light since he had never done a fresco in his lifeand wasn’t familiar with the technique.

Michelangelo lived alone and in total poverty, notwithstanding all the wealth he hadaccumulated. He was presumptuous to others, always unhappy with himself,obsessed with anxiety about death and salvation. He was described as a genius hostileto the world. Michelangelo considered himself much more a sculptor than a painterbecause he thought painting was an inferior art. What’s more, they were asking himto paint on a ceiling that, at that time, was coloured blue and decorated with goldstars, a place he despised so much that he compared it to “the roof of a barn”.

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After much arguing, in 1508 the pope challengedMichelangelo to transform the “barn” into the jewel of theVatican. The artist accepted the challenge. The pope gave himtotal freedom. Thus Michelangelo made the ceiling muchmore complex than the artistic level of the pre-existingfrescoes on the lower walls. Since there were already storiesof Jesus and Moses on the side walls, to avoid repetition, hepainted biblical episodes that went from the Creation to Noah.

Michelangelo shut himself in the Chapel and began to workin complete solitude, he would let no one enter and evenchased out the pope. Michelangelo’s tormented and lonelywork went on for four interminable years, forced to work forhours high up on a dangerous catwalk lit only by candlelight,in an incredibly uncomfortable position, lying on his back orwith his arms continuously raised and his eyes fixed on theceiling. His sight was damaged forever after, not to mentionthe bother of the paint constantly dripping onto his face!Michelangelo twice fell off that catwalk, even breaking hisleg, but he continued to create. The most amazing thing is thathe managed to complete this artistic miracle all by himself!Normally, the artists of the time completed their artwork withthe help of assistants. The master personally worked oncertain parts of the piece while the apprentices finished offthe minor details. But in this case, all the beauty is incrediblythe work of one single human being.

In 1512 the Sistine Chapel was triumphantly inaugurated.Michelangelo, in those years of unbelievably hard, lonelywork, had transformed the walls into masterpieces that spoke.

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Michelangelo’s Sistine Chapel

Tick the right answer.EXERCISE 17 Reading comprehension


1. Which unlucky event led to the creation of the Sistine Chapel?

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

2. Why did Bramante suggest Michelangelo as the artist to paint the Sistine Chapel?

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

3. What trick did the pope use to convince Michelangelo?

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

4. How long did the work last?

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………


1. The pope who decided to re-paint the ceiling ofthe Sistine Chapel was called:q a) Sixtus IV;q b) Sixtus VI;q c) Julius II.

2. Michelangelo was poor,q a) although he had earned a lot;q b) since he had never had any money;q c) but he had a lot of friends and companions.

3. Michelangelo’s manner was:q a) charming, loving and kind;q b) depressed, miserable and lovesick;q c) presumptuous, anxious and hostile.

4. Bramante was:q a) the architect of the Sistine Chapel;q b) a relative to Michelangelo;q c) an avowed enemy of Raffaello.

5. Michelangelo:q a) worked with the help of assistants;q b) completed the ceiling all by himself;q c) let his apprentices finish the details.

6. Which of these facts did not happen?q a) Michelangelo’s sight was damaged;q b) he broke his leg, falling from the catwalk;q c) he burnt his face in the flame of a candle.

05. Sacred and Profane Love

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Sacred and Profane Love is Titian’s masterpiece,painted when he was about twenty-five to celebratethe marriage of a Venetian couple in 1514. Thebride, dressed in white sitting beside Cupid, isassisted by Venus in person. The figure with thevase of jewels symbolizes temporary happiness onearth and the one holding the burning flame ofGod’s love symbolizes eternal happiness in heaven.The title is the result of a late 18th centuryinterpretation of the painting, which gives amoralistic reading of the nude figure, whereas theartist intended this to be an exaltation of bothearthly and heavenly love. In fact, in theNeoplatonic philosophy Titian and his circle

believed in, contemplating the beauty of thecreation led to an awareness of the divineperfection in the order of the cosmos.In this painting of love in the open countrysideTitian has surpassed the delicate lyrical poetry ofGiorgione and attributes a classical grandeur tohis figures. In 1899, the Rothschilds, a wealthyfamily from Frankfurt, offered to buy this worldfamous work at a price that was higher than theestimated value of the Villa Borghese and all itsworks of art. However, Titian’s Sacred and Profane Love hasremained and virtually become the symbol of theBorghese Gallery itself.

Find synonyms for the following words you have read in the text.

1. marriage = ……………………………………

2. heaven = ………………………………………

3. nude = …………………………………………

4. earthly = ………………………………………

5. circle =…………………………………………

6. divine = ………………………………………


Work in small groups. Take some recent magazines about fashion, sport, TV, movies, art, gossip...and look for pictures that could represent the concept of Love today. Cut them and stick them on aboard to create a poster. Prepare a short presentation to describe your work and explain thereasons for your choices:

• Do the images of sacred and profane love overlap?• Is love still represented by a feminine figure? Why?• Have you chosen a photograph or a drawing? Why?

EXERCISE 20 Activity

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Sacred and Profane Love

After reading about both Sacred and Profane Love and The Tempest, write the questions to thefollowing answers.

1. …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………The figure holding the burning flame symbolizes sacred love, while the one with the vase of jewelssymbolizes profane love.

2. …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………No, it doesn’t. Tiziano wanted to exalt both earthly and heavenly love.

3. …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………They believed that contemplating the beauty of creation led to an awareness of divine perfection.

4. …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………Because it revolutionised the way landscape was represented.

5. …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………As a metaphor for the fragility and defencelessness of human beings.


A Look Beyond

Giorgione was the artist who painted TheTempest, marking a moment of capitalimportance in the renovation of therepresentation of landscape. This paintingis a true pictorial poem. Incrediblyevocative, the meaning of the picture is stillopen to many interpretations. The mostoutstanding element is the fascinatinglandscape caught at this particularatmospheric moment, the breaking of astorm. Anxious waiting seems tocharacterize the mood of both the naturalelements and the human figures: a youngwoman nursing her son and a young manmaybe protecting the young lady. Whilesome interpretations indicate that they mayrepresent Adam and Eve, the suckling babyCain, and the lightning God, others claimthat the figures are Saint Joseph, Mary andthe baby Jesus. There does not seem to beany sense or logical relation among thecomponents of the picture. Perhaps thispainting has a moral message, or perhapsGiorgione wanted to depict a metaphor forthe fragility and defencelessness of humanbeings when compared to nature. Orperhaps The Tempest is nothing more thana painting whose illogical and incontestablebeauty is closer to a musical melody than toa High Renaissance painting.

Giorgione, The Tempest, 1508, Gallerie dell'Accademia, Venice.

06. Raffaello and the Essence of the Renaissance

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Raffaello was highly admired by hiscontemporaries, although hisinfluence on artistic style in his owncentury was less than that ofMichelangelo. Mannerism,beginning at the time of his death,and later Baroque, took art in adirection totally opposed toRaffaello’s qualities; with Raffaello’sdeath, classical art – the HighRenaissance – subsided. He wassoon seen as the ideal model bythose disliking the excesses ofMannerism: Raffaello was the idealbalanced painter, universal in histalent, satisfying all the absolutestandards, and obeying all the ruleswhich were supposed to govern thearts, whereas Michelangelo was theeccentric genius, more brilliant thanany other artist in his particular field,the drawing of the male nude, butunbalanced and lacking in certainqualities, such as grace and restraint,essential to the great artist.Raffaello’s compositions werealways admired and studied, andbecame the cornerstone of thetraining at Academies of art. Hisperiod of greatest influence was fromthe late 17th to late 19th centuries,when his perfect decorum andbalance were greatly admired. Hewas seen as the best model for history painting, regarded as thehighest in the hierarchy of genres. He was praised for hissimple, grave, majestic dignity, whereas Michelangelo did notpossess so many points of excellence. Nobody excelledRaffaello in that judgement: besides his own observations onnature, he possessed the energy of Michelangelo, and thebeauty and simplicity of antiquity. Who ought to hold firstplace, Raffaello or Michelangelo? If the palm is to be given tothe one who possessed a greater combination of the highestartistic qualities, there is no doubt that Raffaello is the first.

GLOSSARYsubsided (to subside): finì

(cessare, calmarsi)restraint: controllo, contegnocornerstone: pietra angolarepraised (to praise): lodato (lodare)

Underline in the text above the expressions that describe Raffaello and his style as reflecting themood of the Renaissance.


Raffaello, Self-portrait, 1506, Uffizi Gallery, Florence.

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Raffaello and the Essence of the Renaissance

Rewrite the following sentences starting with the words given and without altering the meaning.EXERCISE 23 Reading comprehension

1. His influence on the art world was less than Michelangelo’s.

Michelangelo was…………………………………………………………………………………………………….

2. Historical painting was regarded as the highest in the hierarchy of genres.

The hierarchy of genres……………………………………………………………………………………………

3. Michelangelo did not possess so many points of excellence.

Michelangelo was not as …………………………………………………………………………………………

4. There is no doubt that Raffaello is the first.

Without ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

How much do you really know about Raffaello’s work? Match each work with its title.EXERCISE 24 Activity

a. The School of Athens (1510 – Stanza della Segnatura, Città del Vaticano)

b. Madonna della Seggiola (1514 – Palazzo Pitti, Firenze)

c. Young Woman with Unicorn (1506 – Galleria Borghese, Roma)

d. La Fornarina (1519 – Palazzo Barberini, Roma)

e. The Ecstasy of Saint Cecilia (1517 – Pinacoteca Nazionale, Bologna)

1.q

2.q

4.q

5.q

3.q

07. Caravaggio Master of Photography

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Italian painter Michelangelo Merisi, better known as Caravaggio, is beinghailed as the first artist to use photographic techniques 200 years before theinvention of the camera. Recent research has found that some works by the16th Century master Caravaggio, who was famed for his realistic style anddramatic “chiaroscuro” effect of light and shade, reveal mercury salt in thecanvases. The light-sensitive chemical turned his canvas into a basic film,“burning” the images before sketching. Famous contemporary British artistDavid Hockney, who investigated the theory, was already sure Caravaggioprojected images of his sitters: when he found mercury salt in his canvases,he had the proof that a luminescent powder made from crushed fireflies, atthe time used in the theatre, was used to “fix” the image. The same techniquewas later used by 19th Century photographers. Experts have long suspectedCaravaggio of using early darkroom techniques: he is said to have turned hisstudio into a giant camera obscura. He also used optical instruments tocompose his paintings, though the idea of using lenses and mirrors to projectan image was first written about by Leonardo Da Vinci nearly a centurybefore Caravaggio. The prolonged use of mercury, which can affect thecentral nervous system, is also a possible explanation for Caravaggio’snotorious bad temper. Thanks to technical progress, his paintings havegained a lot in depth of field over the years. We know that he worked in a

Caravaggio,The calling of St.

Matthew, 1600, S. Luigi dei

Francesi, Rome.

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Caravaggio Master of Photography

dark room and that he was fascinated by mirrors, and he was livingin Rome at a time when it was a hotbed of scientific inquiry. He wasfascinated by optics and the new physics, as was his contemporaryGalileo. The theory of Caravaggio, forerunner of photography, hasbeen criticized by many art historians, who say that it devalues theartist’s genius. On the contrary, his mastery of certain techniques inno way diminishes his genius: clearly, you can’t just project imagesonto a canvas and copy them to become a Caravaggio!

GLOSSARYhailed (to hail): salutato

(salutare)chemical: sostanza chimicasitters: modellicrushed fireflies: lucciole

schiacciatehotbed: focolaio


1. How did Caravaggio’s photographic technique work?

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

2. What did Leonardo do a century before Caravaggio?

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

3. How might Caravaggio’s notorious bad temper be explained?

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

4. Why do art historians criticize the theory?

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………


Caravaggio,Conversion on the Way to Damascous, 1601, S. Maria del Popolo, Rome.

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In the previous pages you have met some of the greatest Italian Renaissance artists. Have you caught the mood of this extraordinary period? Tick only the sentences which refer to the Renaissance.

q 1. The popularity of classical readings, combined with the availability of literature such as Dante’sDivine Comedy, led to an interest in mythology, pagan and secular themes.

q 2. In this period art complied with conventional, stylized themes and forms. Paintings weregenerally highly stylized (not natural-looking or painted from nature) and drew from apredetermined set of acceptable themes, such as the Ascension, Crucifixion, Virgin and Child,and saints.

q 3. It is the time of chiaroscuro, tenebrism, movement, drama and emotions.

q 4. Formally, it is characterized by naturalism, the use of expressive gesture and linearperspective. In painting, figures are placed in a three-dimensional, believable space, and theirpostures and gestures are part of a complex controlled arrangement.

q 5. It is a socially conscious art. A lot of artworks are connected with one issue or another:feminism, multiculturalism, globalization, bio-engineering come readily to mind as subjectmatter.

q 6. This was the time of a powerful and wealthy church, princely courts, and powerful patrons.While particular popes or patrons sought to be immortalized through art commissions, artistssought perfection and recognition.

q 7. The artists of this period used abstract shapes and forms not related to real light or objects.

q 8. The art of this period boasts some of the most enduring superstar artists who developed theirown original styles and earned their own individual fame for the first time in art history.

EXERCISE 28 TO SUM UP

Look at the pictures of The Calling of St Matthew and Conversion on the Way to Damascus: theylook like fragments of a scene from a movie. Choose one of them, describe it and try to deduce thestory it tells:• What happened in the previous sequence?• What has just happened?• What is happening at the exact moment captured in the painting?• What is going to happen next?

EXERCISE 27 Speaking

Match the beginning of each sentence with its logical ending. Beware: one sentence does not match!EXERCISE 26 Reading comprehension

1. Recent research...

2. Realistic and dramatic‘chiaroscuro’...

3. Renaissance theatricalscenographers...

4. Galileo Galilei...

5. Rome...

a. ...was a giant darkroom.

b. ...employed crushed fireflies to getlighting effects.

c. ...has found traces of mercury inCaravaggio’s canvases.

d. ...was as fascinated by optics andthe new physics as Caravaggio was.

e. ...is a typical Caravaggiocharacteristic.

f. ...was a centre for research into newphysics.

Documents

Art with a View FOCUS ON · a. Mural painting. b. Order for a work of art to be produced. c. Painting on paper with pigments suspended in a water-soluble vehicle. d. A person who