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3ART OF RISINGCIVILIZATIONS

our journey through time and space con-tinues in this unit, where you will learn

about the arts of ancient Greece and Rome. Thesmall painting shown here was created by anunknown Roman artist. It once graced a wall ofa house in Herculaneum—a city destroyed by avolcanic eruption in A.D. 79.

Still Life with Peaches and Glass Vase. Roman fresco fromHerculaneum. c. A.D. 50. Museo Nazionale, Naples, Italy.Scala/Art Resource, NY.

Web Museum Tour The Classical Collection at theNorth Carolina Museum of Art Web site guides youthrough Greek and Roman antiquities, including ancientRoman wall paintings and virtual 3D views of a Greekamphora. Follow the link to Web Museum Tours atart.glencoe.com.

Activity Browse the Classical section and then chooseone Greek or Roman piece in the collection. Afterexamining the artwork, describe it and analyze theartist’s use of elements and principles. What feeling oridea do you think the artist was trying to communicate?

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166

hat do you know about the arts and artists of ancient Greece? Whatdid you learn about Greece when the Olympics were recently held in

Athens? Why do historians place so much importance on events that hap-pened over 3,000 years ago on a dry, stony peninsula in southeasternEurope? The answer to the last question is simple: it was on that peninsula,in Greece, that Western civilization was born. The contributions of Greekcivilization to the arts and sciences have influenced humans for centuries.These contributions continue to enrich our lives today.

8greek art

Read to Find Out Read this chapter to find out what is importantabout the art of ancient Greece. Ask yourself how the Greek civilizationadded to the art and architecture of the world. Learn how Greek sculp-ture changed and evolved over time.

Focus Activity Examine the Greek temple shown in Figure 8.1. Whatdetails can you find out about it? Why do you think this building contin-ues to be admired today? Do you think the use of sculptures in place ofcolumns adds to the building’s visual appeal? Why or why not?

Using the Time Line Greek art is grouped into one of four periods,each with its own style. Notice where the temple appears on the TimeLine. It was built during Greece’s Classical period. As you read the chap-ter, identify characteristics of art in each period of Greek history. Whatfeatures in Figure 8.1 are characteristic of the Classical period?

W

c. 800 B.C.Homer writes theGreek epic poemsIliad and Odyssey

776 B.C.The firstOlympicGames areheld inAthens

c. 600 B.C.Geometric patternscontinue to appear

450–322 B.C.Socrates,Plato, andAristotledevelop philosophicalconcepts

c. 450 B.C.Myronsculpts theDiscobolus

900–700 B.C.Earliest Greek vasesare displayed withgeometric patterns

900–700 B.C.Geometric Period

600–480 B.C.Archaic Period

1000 B.C. 900 B.C. 800 B.C. 700 B.C. 600 B.C. 500 B.C.

167

■ FIGURE 8.1 Porch of the Maidens. 421–405 B.C. Erechtheum, Acropolis, Athens, Greece. Scala /Art Resource, NY.

421 B.C.Work begins on theErechtheum

405 B.C.Athenian Empire isdestroyed

c. 50 B.C.An unknownartist createsSeated Boxer inbronze

323 B.C.Euclid describesPythagorean theoremin Elements ofGeometry

c. 240 B.C.Dying Gaulshows featuresof the Hellenisticstyle Refer to the Time Line

on page H11 in yourArt Handbook for moreabout this period.

480–300 B.C.Classical Period

300–146 B.C.Hellenistic Period

400 B.C. 300 B.C. 200 B.C. 100 B.C. 0 B.C.

Vocabulary■ raking cornice ■ entablature■ cornice ■ column■ frieze ■ colonnade■ lintel ■ Doric order■ capital ■ Ionic order■ shaft ■ Corinthian■ stylobate order■ pediment

Artist to Meet■ Exekias

DiscoverAfter completing this lesson,

you will be able to:■ Identify the contributions of

the ancient Greeks to the historyof art.

■ Describe the three orders of decorative style that originatedin Greece.

he history of ancient Greece begins around 2000 B.C. At that timethe earliest people probably entered the land. The descendants of

these primitive peoples remained there, and in about 500 years a strongculture known as the Mycenaean had formed. However, the power of theMycenaeans eventually gave way to that of a stronger people.

After a series of invasions, the warlike Dorians took over the land inabout 1100 B.C. This event changed the way of life in many areas as theconquerors mingled with the native populations. Towns eventually grewinto small, independent city-states. Unlike many other civilizations, whichdeveloped as collections of city-states that formed kingdoms or empires,the Greek city-states remained fiercely independent.

The independence of Greek city-states can be accounted for, at least inpart, by geography. Greece is divided by mountains, valleys, and the sea.(See map, Figure 8.2.) These physical separations made communicationdifficult. In addition to these natural barriers, social barriers of local prideand jealousy also divided the city-states. These factors combined to keepthe Greek city-states from uniting to form a nation.

History of Greek City-StatesThere was continuing rivalry among the city-

states, but none ever succeeded in conquering theothers. The rivalry was so intense that the city-statescould not even agree to work together towardcommon goals. Fear alone finally united them longenough to fight off invaders from Persia during thefifth century B.C.

Suspecting further invasions by the Persians, severalcity-states joined together to form a defensive alliance.This alliance came to be known as the Delian Leaguebecause its treasury was kept on the island of Delos.The larger cities contributed ships and men to thisalliance, while the smaller cities gave money.

Because it was the most powerful member of theDelian League, Athens was made its permanenthead. Athenian representatives were put in charge ofthe fleet and were authorized to collect money forthe treasury.

Pericles, the Athenian leader, moved the treasuryfrom Delos to Athens. Before long, Pericles began touse the Delian League’s money to rebuild and beautifyAthens, which had been badly damaged by thePersian invaders.

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LESSON ONE

The Birthplace of Western Civilization

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Byzantium

Troy

Athens

Cyrene

Sparta

Byblos

Tyre

ASIA MINOR

EGYPT

GREECE

Cyprus

Crete

PHO

EN

ICIA

N

E

SW

AegeanSea

BlackSea

Red Sea

30°E20°E 35°E25°E

Nile

River

Hellespont

Greece 600 B.C.

MAP SKILLS■ FIGURE 8.2 The Greek city-states were separated from eachother by mountains, valleys, and the sea. How do you thinkthese separations affected interactions between the city-states?

The Peloponnesian WarThe greatness of Athens was not destined

to last long. Pericles’ actions were bitterlyresented by the other members of the DelianLeague, especially Sparta and Corinth. Finally,in 431 B.C., this resentment led to the Pelopon-nesian War. At first, Pericles successfullywithstood the challenge of Sparta and theother city-states, but in 430 B.C. a terribleplague killed a third of the Athenian popula-tion. A year later, Pericles himself was avictim of this plague. With the death of itsleader, Athens was doomed.

After Athens was defeated, a century ofconflict followed. One city-state, then anothergained the upper hand. This conflict so weak-ened the city-states that they were helplessbefore foreign invaders. In 338 B.C., Greecewas conquered by Macedonia.

Despite a history of rivalry, wars, and inva-sions, the Greek people made many importantcontributions to art. Their accomplishmentsin architecture, particularly temple architec-ture, were among their most enduring legaciesto Western civilization.

Greek ArchitectureThe Greeks considered their temples

dwelling places for the gods, who looked—and often acted—like humans. The Greeksbelieved that the gods controlled the universe

and the destiny of every person on Earth. Thehighest goal for the Greeks was doing whatthe gods wanted them to do. As a result, for-tune tellers and omens, which helped peoplediscover the will of the gods, were importantparts of religious practice.

Early Greek TemplesThe earliest Greek temples were made of

wood or brick, and these have since disap-peared. As the economy prospered with thegrowth of trade, stone was used. Limestoneand finally marble became the favorite build-ing materials.

The basic design of Greek temples did notchange over the centuries. Greek builders chosenot to alter a design that served their needs andwas also pleasing to the eye. Instead, they madesmall improvements on the basic design inorder to achieve perfection. Proof that they real-ized this perfection is represented in templessuch as the Parthenon. (See Figure 8.1, page166 and Figure 8.3.) It was built as a house forAthena, the goddess of wisdom and guardian ofthe city named in her honor.

The Parthenon■ FIGURE 8.3

In 447 B.C., using funds from the treasuryof the Delian League, Pericles ordered workto begin on the Parthenon. Ten years later the

Chapter 8 Greek Art 169

■ FIGURE 8.3 Greekarchitects used the post-and-lintel method of con-struction. Identify theposts and lintels in thistemple. How would youdescribe the overall balance of this building?What adjective bestdescribes this temple?

The Parthenon, Acropolis,Athens, Greece. c. 447 B.C.

building was basically finished, althoughwork on the exterior carvings continued until432 B.C. The construction of such a buildingin just a decade is impressive. Still, it wasfinished none too soon. The last stone washardly in place before the PeloponnesianWar started.

The Parthenon made use of the most famil-iar features of Greek architecture: post-and-lintel construction; a sloping, or gabled roof;and a colonnade. Like all Greek buildings, theparts of the Parthenon were carefully plannedto be balanced, harmonious, and beautiful.

Greek Temple ConstructionLike most Greek temples, the Parthenon is

a simple rectangular building placed on athree-step platform (Figure 8.4).

The Parthenon consisted of two rooms (Figure 8.5). The smaller held the treasury ofthe Delian League, and the larger housed acolossal gold-and-ivory statue of Athena. (SeeFigure 8.17, page 180.) Few citizens ever sawthis splendid statue. Only priests and a fewattendants were allowed inside the sacredtemple. Religious ceremonies attended by thecitizens of Athens were held outdoors in frontof the buildings.

170 Unit Three Art of Rising Civilizations

DETAILS OF GREEK TEMPLE CONSTRUCTION

Examine the illustration and locate each of the following:• Raking cornice. The raking cornice is a sloping element that

slants above the horizontal cornice.

• Cornice. A cornice is a hori-zontal element above thefrieze.

• Frieze. This is a decorativeband running across theupper part of a wall.

• Lintel. The lintel is a cross-beam supported bycolumns.

• Capital. The top element ofa column.

• Shaft. The shaft is the mainweight-bearing portion of acolumn.

• Stylobate. Find the stylo-bate at the top step of thethree-step platform.

• Pediment. This is the triangu-lar section framed by the cor-nice and the raking cornice.

• Entablature. The entablatureis the upper portion, consisting of the lintel, frieze, and cornice.

• Column. A column is an upright post used to bear weight.

• Colonnade. A colonnade is formed by a line of columns.

LOOKING Closely ➤

RakingCornice

Cornice

Column

Entablature

Pediment

Three-StepPlatform

Frieze

Lintel (Architrave)

Capital

Stylobate

Shaft

■ FIGURE 8.4

Features of Temple Construction

Exterior Design of the ParthenonBecause few people were allowed inside

the temple, there was no need for windows orinterior decorations. Instead, attention cen-tered on making the outside of the building asattractive as possible.

It is hard to see with the naked eye, but thereare few, if any, perfectly straight lines on theentire structure. The three-step platform and theentablature around the building look straightbut actually bend upward in a gradual arc, sothat the center is slightly higher than the ends.This means that the entire floor and ceilingform a low dome that is slightly higher in themiddle than at the edges. The columns alsocurve slightly outward near their centers. Likemuscles, they seem to bulge a bit as they holdup the great weight of the roof. In addition,each column slants inward toward the center ofthe building. The columns were slanted in thisway to prevent a feeling of top-heaviness and toadd a sense of stability to the building.

Use of ColorThe Greeks preferred bright colors to the

cold whiteness of their marble buildings. Forthis reason, they painted large areas of mostbuildings. Blue, red, green, and yellow wereoften used, although some details were coatedwith a thin layer of gold. Exposure to theweather has removed almost all of the colorfrom these painted surfaces. If you lookclosely at the more protected places of theseancient buildings, however, you still mightfind a few faint traces of paint.

The Parthenon has been put to a variety ofuses over its long history. It was a Christianchurch in the fifth century and a mosque in the15th century. Its present ruined state is due toan explosion that took place in the 17th cen-tury. The ruins have now been restored asmuch as possible with the original remains.

The Acropolis■ FIGURE 8.6

The Parthenon was only one of severalbuildings erected on the sacred hill, orAcropolis, of Athens. The Acropolis (Figure 8.6)is a mass of rock that rises abruptly 500 feetabove the city. Like a huge pedestal, it wascrowned with a group of magnificent build-ings that symbolized the glory of Athens.

Chapter 8 Greek Art 171

■ FIGURE 8.5 Plan of the Parthenon

Treasury

MainRoom

East Front

StatueofAthena

CellaWall

■ FIGURE 8.6 The sacred hill, or Acropolis, was crowned with agroup of buildings symbolizing the glory of Athens. Why do you thinkthe Athenians chose this location for their religious buildings?

View of the Acropolis today. Athens, Greece.

Covering less than 8 acres, the Acropoliswas filled with temples, statues, and greatflights of steps. On the western edge was ahuge statue of Athena so tall that the tip ofher gleaming spear served as a beacon toships at sea. The statue was created by thelegendary sculptor Phidias, and it was said tohave been made from the bronze shields ofthe defeated Persians. Today, the crumblingbut still impressive ruins of the Acropolis area reminder of a great civilization.

The Three Orders of Decorative Style

Over the centuries, the Greeks developedthree orders, or decorative styles (Figure 8.7).Examples of these orders can be seen in vari-ous structures that were built by ancientGreeks and still survive today.

The Doric OrderThe Parthenon was built according to the

earliest decorative style, the Doric Order. Inthe Doric order, the principal feature is asimple, heavy column without a base, toppedby a broad, plain capital.

The Ionic OrderThe Greeks later began using another

order, the Ionic. This order employed columnsthat were thinner and taller than those of theDoric. In the Ionic order, columns had anelaborate base and a capital carved into dou-ble scrolls that looked like the horns of a ram.This was a more elegant order than the Doric,and for a time architects felt it was suitableonly for small temples. Such a temple was thelittle shrine to Athena Nike (Figure 8.8), builton the Acropolis between 427 and 424 B.C.

172 Unit Three Art of Rising Civilizations

Doric Order Ionic Order Corinthian Order

■ FIGURE 8.7 Three Orders of Decorative Style

■ FIGURE 8.8 Compare this temple with the Parthenon (Figure 8.3). How are the twotemples alike? What are the most importantdifferences? What do you think accounts forthose differences?

Temple of Athena Nike, Acropolis, Athens, Greece.427–424 B.C.

The more they looked at the new Ionic order, themore the Greeks began to appreciate it. Soon theybegan using it on larger structures such as theErechtheum (Figure 8.9), a temple located directlyopposite the Parthenon. This building was namedafter Erechtheus, a legendary king of Athens whowas said to have been a foster son of Athena.

An unusual feature of the Erechtheum is thesmaller of two porches added to its sides. On thePorch of the Maidens, the roof is supported bysix caryatids, or columns carved to look likefemale figures.

The Corinthian OrderThe most elaborate order was the Corinthian,

developed late in the fifth century B.C. In theCorinthian order, the capital is elongated anddecorated with leaves. It was believed that thisorder was suggested by a wicker basket overgrownwith large acanthus leaves found on the grave of ayoung Greek maiden.

At first, Corinthian columns were used only onthe inside of buildings. Later, they replaced Ioniccolumns on the outside. A monument to Lysicrates(Figure 8.10) built in Athens about three hundredyears before the birth of Christ is the first known

Chapter 8 Greek Art 173

■ FIGURE 8.9 Notice the two types of columns on this building.What order of columns is found on the stylobate?

Erechtheum, Acropolis, Athens, Greece. 421–405 B.C.

■ FIGURE 8.10 The columns on this monument are the firstknown example of the Corinthian order on the outside of abuilding. Describe the form of this structure. How does it differfrom the form used for the Temple of Athena Nike (Figure 8.8)?

Monument to Lysicrates, Athens, Greece. c. 334 B.C.

use of this order on the outside of a building.The Corinthian columns surround a hollowcylinder that once supported a trophy won byLysicrates in a choral contest.

Greek Vase Decoration■ FIGURES 8.11 and 8.12

The earliest Greek vases were decoratedwith bands of simple geometric patterns cov-ering most of the vessel. Eventually the entirevase was decorated in this way (Figure 8.11).The years between 900 and 700 B.C., when

this form of decoration was being used, arecalled the Geometric period.

Early in the eighth century B.C., artistsbegan to add figures to the geometric designson their vases (Figure 8.12). Some of thebest of these figures were painted on largefuneral vases. These vases were used inmuch the same way as tombstones are usedtoday, as grave markers. The figures on thesevases are made of triangles and lines, andlook like simple stick figures. Several figuresoften appear on either side of a figure repre-senting the deceased, as though they arepaying their last respects. Their hands areraised, pulling on their hair in a gesture ofgrief and despair.

174 Unit Three Art of Rising Civilizations

■ FIGURE 8.11During theGeometric period,patterns of thiskind were foundon Greek vasesand jugs. Whatdetails help yourecognize this jugas an examplecreated late in theGeometricperiod?

Geometric Jug.Seventh century B.C.Terra cotta. 41 cm(16�). Indiana UniversityArt Museum,Bloomington, Indiana.

■ FIGURE 8.12 The figures here are related to thepurpose of this funeral vase. How are the decora-tions here similar to the geometric patterns on thevase in Figure 8.11? How are they different?

Funerary Vase. Athens, Greece. c. Eighth century B.C. Terra cotta. H: 108.2 cm (425�8�). The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York,New York. Rogers Fund, 1914. (14.130.14)

Realism in Vase DecorationIn time, vase figures became more lifelike

and were placed in storytelling scenes. Anexcellent example of this kind of painting isprovided by a vase showing two figuresengrossed in a game (Figure 8.13). It wascreated by an artist named Exekias (ex-ee-kee-us) more than 2,500 years ago.

Vase with Ajax and Achilles Playing Morra (Dice)■ FIGURE 8.13

Have you ever become so caught up in agame that you failed to hear someone callingyou? It happens to everyone, no matter howimportant the person being called or howurgent the summons. Exekias painted such anevent on a vase.

Chapter 8 Greek Art 175

■ FIGURE 8.13 Notice how the artist has arranged this scene to complement theshape of the vase. What makes this an effective design? What kinds of changesin vase decoration had taken place between the time of the vase shown inFigure 8.12 and this vase by Exekias?

Exekias. Vase with Ajax and Achilles Playing Morra (Dice). c. 540 B.C. Museo Gregoriano Etrusco, Vatican,Rome, Italy.

Explore daily life in ancientGreece at art.glencoe.com.

Exekias’s vase shows two Greek generalsplaying a board game, probably one in whicha roll of the dice determines the number ofmoves around the board. The names of thegenerals are written on the vase. They are twogreat heroes from Greek literature, Ajax andAchilles. The words being spoken by thesewarriors are shown coming from their mouthsjust as in a modern cartoon strip. Ajax hasjust said “tria,” or “three,” and Achilles isresponding by saying “tessera,” or “four.”Legend says that these two great heroes wereso involved in this game that their enemy wasable to mount a surprise attack.

Exekias shows the informality of this sim-ple scene. The warriors’ shields have been setaside, and Achilles, at the left, has casuallypushed his war helmet back on his head.Ajax, forgetting briefly that they are at war,has removed his helmet and placed it outof the way on top of his shield. For a fewmoments, the Greek heroes are two ordinarypeople lost in friendly competition.

Exekias’s Use of RealismExekias also has added details to make the

scene as realistic as possible. An intricatedesign decorates the garments of the two gen-erals. The facial features, hands, and feet arecarefully drawn, although the eyes are shownfrom the front as they were in Egyptian art.

Exekias was not so concerned with realismthat he ignored good design, however. Thescene is carefully arranged to complement thevase on which it was painted. The figureslean forward, and the curve of their backsrepeats the curve of the vase. The lines of thespears continue the lines of the two handlesand lead your eye to the board game, which isthe center of interest in the composition.

At this stage in Greek vase design, decora-tive patterns became a less important element,appearing near the rim or on the handles.Signed vases also began to appear for the firsttime in the early sixth century B.C., indicatingthat the potters and artists who made anddecorated them were proud of their works andwished to be identified with them.

176 Unit Three

Reviewing Art Facts1. Evaluate Name two social or histori-

cal issues that contributed to keepingthe Greek city-states from uniting toform a nation.

2. Identify Name three features ofGreek architecture that were used inthe construction of the Parthenon.

3. Define What is a frieze. 4. Describe What decorative style is

used on the Erectheum?

Creating Visual Solutions Early Greek vase decorationemphasized geometric patterns and designs. Skilled artistswere able to create scenes that complemented the shapeand form of the vase, as shown in Figure 8.12, page 175.

Activity Fold a sheet of paper in half. With a pencil, out-line one half of a vase shape so that the fold runs down thecenter of the vase. Unfold the paper and complete the vaseoutline on the other half of the paper. Plan a decorativedesign that works within the basic shape you created. Beginby focusing on geometric patterns that balance within yourshape. Try adding figures and lifelike details.

LESSON ONE REVIEW

Visit art.glencoe.com for eFlashcards to practice art vocabulary.

Vocabulary■ contrapposto

Artists to Meet■ Myron, Phidias, Polyclitus

DiscoverAfter completing this lesson,

you will be able to:■ Explain how Greek sculpture

changed over time from theArchaic period, through the Clas-sical period, to the Hellenisticperiod.

■ Discuss the contributions ofMyron, Phidias, and Polyclitus toGreek sculpture.

he buildings on the Acropolis were constructed during the fifthand fourth centuries B.C. This was a time in Greek history known

as the Classical period. Like architecture, Greek sculpture also reached itspeak during this period. To understand and appreciate Greek accomplish-ments in sculpture, it is necessary to look back to an even earlier timeknown as the Archaic period.

Sculpture in theArchaic Period

From around 600 to480 B.C., Greek sculptorsconcentrated on carvinglarge, freestanding figuresknown as Kouroi and Korai.Kouroi is the plural form ofKouros, meaning “youth,”and Korai is the plural ofKore, or “maiden.”

Kouros■ FIGURE 8.14

The Kouros was a maleyouth who may have beena god or an athlete. Thisexample is from the Archaicperiod (Figure 8.14). Insome ways, the stiffness andthe straight pose of this fig-ure bring to mind Egyptianstatues. The only suggestionof movement is in the leftfoot, which is placed slightlyin front of the right foot.

Even though the Kouros isstepping forward, both feetare flat on the ground. Ofcourse, this is impossibleunless the left leg is longerthan the right. This problemcould have been corrected ifthe right leg had been bent

177

LESSON TWO

The Evolution of Greek Sculpture

T

■ FIGURE 8.14 The stiff figure ofthis Kouros recalls ancient Egyptiansculpture. Do you think this Kouroswas intended to represent a god oran athlete? Explain your reasons.

Kouros. c. 530 B.C. Marble. 200 cm (6�7�) high.The J. Paul Getty Museum, Malibu, California.

DETAIL:Head of Kouros

▼

slightly, but it is perfectly straight. Later,Greek artists learned how to bend and twisttheir figures to make them appear morerelaxed and natural.

Except for the advancing left foot, theKouros is symmetrically balanced. Details ofhair, eyes, mouth, and chest are exactly alikeon both sides of the figure, just as they are onEgyptian statues. Unlike Egyptian figures, thearms of the Kouros are separated slightly fromthe body and there is an open space betweenthe legs. These openings help to break up thesolid block of stone from which it was carved.

No one knows for certain what the Kouroswas meant to be. Some say he represents thesun god Apollo, whereas others insist that heis an athlete. The wide shoulders, long legs,flat stomach, and narrow hips may supportthe claim that he is an athlete.

The face of the Kouros has a number ofunusual features that were used over and overagain in early Greek sculptures (Figure 8.14,detail, page 177). Among these are bulgingeyes, a square chin, and a mouth with slightlyupturned corners. This same mouth with itscurious smile can be found in many earlyGreek sculptures. Greek sculptors wantedtheir figures to look more natural, and thissmile may have been a first step towardgreater realism.

The Hera of Samos■ FIGURE 8.15

Korai were clothed women, often god-desses, that were also carved during theArchaic period. One of these goddesses, theHera of Samos (Figure 8.15), looks like astone cylinder. It has the same stiff pose asthe Kouros, but its right arm is held lightlyagainst the body and the feet are placedtightly together. The missing left arm wasbent and may once have held some symbolof authority. There is no deep carving here,and there are no open spaces. Instead, a sur-face pattern of lines suggests the garmentsand adds textural interest to the simple form.

178 Unit Three Art of Rising Civilizations

■ FIGURE 8.15 Notice how this figure’s pose differs from that of the Kouros. Which element of art seems most important here?

Hera of Samos. c. 570–560 B.C. 1.8 m (6�) tall. The Louvre, Paris, France.

Use of LineStraight vertical lines are repeated to sug-

gest a light lower garment. These contrastwith the more widely spaced and deeper linesof a heavier garment draped over her shoul-ders. The folds of the garments gently followthe subtle curves of the figure. There is littleto suggest action or movement. More than6 feet tall, the Hera of Samos must have beenan impressive symbol of authority and dignityto all who saw it.

Sculpture in the Classical Period

With each new generation,Greek artists became more boldand skillful. During the Classicalperiod, they abandoned straight,

stiff poses and made their figures appear tomove in space.

Myron’s Discus Thrower■ FIGURE 8.16

You can see how successful the sculptorswere by examining a life-size statue of a dis-cus thrower, or Discobolus (Figure 8.16), by asculptor named Myron (my-run). Gone is the

SHOWING ACTION INSCULPTURE

• The discus thrower isabout to put all hisstrength into a mightythrow, yet his face is com-pletely calm and relaxed.In this respect, the figure is moreidealistic than real.

• The athlete’s throwingarm is frozen for a splitsecond at the farthest

LOOKING Closely➤

blocky, rigid pose of the earlier Kouros.Myron has skillfully captured an athletein action.

Roman ReproductionsMyron’s chief material was bronze.

As far as is known, he never worked inmarble. Knowledge of his sculptures,however, comes from marble copiesproduced in Roman times. Not a singlecertified original work by Myron or anyof the great sculptors of Greece existstoday. Bronze works, which once num-bered in the thousands, were melteddown long ago. Even marble sculptureswere mutilated, lost, or ruined by neglect.What is known of the ancient Greekworks comes from copies made later byRomans, who used them to decorate theirpublic buildings, villas, and gardens.

Sculptures for the ParthenonIt is through Roman copies and

descriptions by ancient writers that theworks of Phidias (fhid-ee-us) are known.He was one of the greatest Greek sculp-tors and the creator of the gigantic statueof Athena in the Parthenon.

Athena Parthenos■ FIGURE 8.17

Anyone who walked into the dark-ened room of the Parthenon would havefaced Phidias’s colossal goddess, tower-ing to a height of 42 feet. Her skin wasof the whitest ivory, and over 1 ton ofgold was used to fashion her armor andgarments. Precious stones were usedfor her eyes and as decorations for herhelmet. A slight smile softened a facethat looked as if it could turn cruel andangry at any moment.

Today a full-scale re-creation ofthis statue stands in the NashvilleParthenon (Figure 8.17). SculptorAlan LeQuire worked with an interna-tional team of scholars to ensure thathis work would accurately represent the

180 Unit Three Art of Rising Civilizations

■ FIGURE 8.17 To prevent the head of this colossal Athena from appearing tiny when viewed from floor level, the proportions have beenexpanded from the waist up. Do you think that this careful re-creation ofan ancient statue is a work of art in its own right? Why or why not?

Alan LeQuire. Athena Parthenos. c. 1993. Fiberglass and gypsum cement, marble, paint, andgold leaf. 13 m (42�) high. The Parthenon, Nashville, Tennessee.

Discover more about Greek influences on Roman artat art.glencoe.com.

original. You can see this colossal AthenaParthenos, goddess of the Athenians, in a re-creation of the temple originally built for herin 447 B.C.

Other Sculptures by PhidiasIn addition to creating the original statue of

Athena, Phidias supervised the decorations onthe outside of the Parthenon. One of thesedecorations was a large relief sculpture thatshows 350 people and 125 horses taking partin a religious parade.

Every four years, the citizens of Athensheld a great celebration in honor of Athena.The celebration included a procession inwhich people carried new garments and otherofferings to Athena in the Parthenon. Thesegifts were given as thanks to the goddess forher divine protection. The procession wasformed in the city below the Acropolis andmoved slowly up a winding road through ahuge gateway, the entrance to the sacred hill.

Then it wound between temples dedicated tovarious gods and goddesses and past the hugebronze statue of Athena. The processionfinally stopped at the entrance to theParthenon where, during a solemn ceremony,the presentations were made.

On a 525-foot band, or frieze, Greek sculp-tors, under the direction of Phidias, show howthat parade looked more than 2,400 years ago.The frieze, which was over 3 feet high, ranaround the top of the Parthenon walls like agiant stone storyboard.

The processional frieze is no longer on the Parthenon. Badly damaged parts of it are housed in museums in London, Paris, and Athens. This is unfortunate, since theywere intended to go together to form a singlework of art.

In its original form, the scene begins on thewestern side of the Parthenon. There the pro-cession is seen taking shape in the city. Ridersprepare to mount their prancing horses. Others,preparing to march on foot, stand impatiently,

OLYMPICS. The ancient Olympicswere first held in 776 B.C. in Athens,to honor the god Zeus. In 1896, thefirst modern Olympics were held.

DISCUS. In Greece, the champion discus throwerwas considered the greatest of athletes. In ancienttimes the disc was made of stone or metal. It is now made of wood with a smooth metal rim.

Discussing. The Greekswere concerned with the harmony ofphysical and mental development.Discuss how this attitude is or is notpresent in today’s entertainment andsports events.

Activity

Ancient GreeceSee more Time & Place events on theTime Line, page H11 in your Art Handbook

800 B.C. 50 B.C.

COSTUMING IN PLAYS.When performing this Greekdrama, “Antigone,” written bySophocles in the fifth centuryB.C., players from all cultureswear the dress of early Greeks.This image is of a Romantroupe recreated in a mosaicfound in Pompeii.

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lacing their sandals or adjusting their garments.Farther on, the parade is under way.

Procession of Horsemen■ FIGURE 8.18

As they move, the figures bunch up in someplaces and spread out in others. At one point,an irritated horseman turns and raises his handin warning to the horseman behind him, whohas come up too quickly and jostled his mount(Figure 8.18). The rider behind responds byreining in his rearing horse. All along theparade, a strong sense of movement is evidentin the spirited prancing of the horses and thelighthearted pace of the figures on foot. Thispace seems to quicken as the procession drawscloser to its destination.

Perhaps movement is best suggested by thepattern of light and shadow in the carveddrapery. This pattern of alternating light and

dark values creates a flickering quality thatbecomes even more obvious when contrastedwith the empty spaces between the figures.

Sculpture from the Temple of Athena Nike

Another relief sculpture, this one from theTemple of Athena Nike, may remind you ofMyron’s discus thrower, since it also showsa figure frozen in action (Figure 8.19). Theunknown sculptor has carved the goddess ofvictory as she bends down to fasten her san-dal. A graceful movement is suggested by thethin drapery that clings to and defines thebody of the goddess. The flowing folds of thedrapery and the line of the shoulder and armscreate a series of oval lines that unifies thework. If you compare the handling of thedrapery here with that of the Hera of Samos,

182 Unit Three Art of Rising Civilizations

■ FIGURE 8.18 Find two axis lines in this relief sculpture. Notice how the use of these repeateddiagonals suggests movement. What other elements and principles of art has the sculptor used togive this work a sense of unity?

Procession of Horsemen, from the west frieze of the Parthenon. c. 440 B.C. Marble. Approx. 109 cm (43�) high. British Museum, London, England.

you can appreciate more fully the greatstrides made by Greek sculptors over a150-year period.

Polyclitus’s Spear Bearer■ FIGURE 8.20

Another famous Classical Greek sculptor wasPolyclitus (paw-lee-kly-tus). His specialty wascreating statues of youthful athletes such as hisDoryphoros (or Spear Bearer) (Figure 8.20).Polyclitus often showed these figures in con-trapposto, a pose in which the weight of thebody is balanced on one leg while the other isfree and relaxed. In the Doryphoros, the left legis bent and the toes lightly touch the ground.The body turns slightly in a momentary move-ment that gives the figure a freer, more lifelikelook. The right hip and left shoulder are raised;the head tips forward and turns to the right. Theresult is a spiral axis line, or line of movement,that begins at the toes of the left foot and curvesgently upward through the body to the head.

Action is kept to a minimum, but there is afeeling of athletic strength and prowess here.

Chapter 8 Greek Art 183

■ FIGURE 8.19 Notice how the entire body seemsnaturally involved in the movement of this figure.How has the sculptor created the impression that areal body exists underneath the drapery?

Nike Fastening Her Sandal, from the Temple of Athena Nike. c. 410 B.C.Marble. 107 cm (42�) high. Acropolis Museum, Athens, Greece.

■ FIGURE 8.20 The contrapposto pose makes this figure appear lifelike. Is this a successful work of art?

Polyclitus. Doryphoros (Spear Bearer). Roman copy of Greek original. c. 440 B.C. Life-size.Vatican Museums, Vatican, Rome, Italy.

Perhaps the figure is waiting his turn to testhis skill in a spear-throwing competition. Ifso, he looks relaxed and confident that he willbe victorious.

Sculpture in theHellenistic Period

The Peloponnesian War left the Greek city-states weakened by conflict. To the north,Macedonia was ruled by Philip II, a militarygenius who had received a Greek education.Having unified his own country, Philip turnedhis attention to the Greek city-states. Their dis-unity was too great a temptation to resist; in338 B.C. Philip defeated them and thus realizedhis dream of controlling the Greek world.

The Spread of Greek CultureBefore Philip could extend his empire fur-

ther, he was assassinated while attending hisdaughter’s wedding. His successor was his 20-year-old son, Alexander the Great, who soonlaunched an amazing career of conquest.

Alexander, whose teacher had been thefamous Greek philosopher Aristotle, inheritedhis father’s admiration for Greek culture.Alexander was determined to spread this culturethroughout the world. As he marched with hisarmy from one country to another, the Greekculture that he brought with him blended withother, non-Greek cultures. The period in whichthis occurred is known as the Hellenistic age. Itlasted about two centuries, ending in 146 B.C.when Greece fell under Roman control.

Expression in Hellenistic SculptureSculptors working during the Hellenistic

period were extremely skillful and confident.They created dramatic and often violentimages in bronze and marble. The sculptorswere especially interested in faces, whichwere considered a mirror of inner emotions.Beauty was less important than emotionalexpression. Because of this new emphasis,many Hellenistic sculptures lack the precisebalance and harmony of Classical sculptures.

The Dying Gaul■ FIGURE 8.21

Many of the features of the Hellenistic stylecan be observed in a life-size sculpture knownas the Dying Gaul (Figure 8.21). A Roman copyshows a figure that was once part of a largemonument built to celebrate a victory over theGauls, fierce warriors from the north. In thissculpture, you witness the final moments of aGaul who was fatally wounded in battle.

184 Unit Three Art of Rising Civilizations

■ FIGURE 8.21 Observe how this Hellenistic sculpture combines realistic detail and the expression ofpowerful feelings. What thoughts and feelings does this sculpture evoke in you? What aesthetic theoryof art seems especially appropriate to use in judging this piece?

Dying Gaul. Roman copy of a bronze original from Pergamum. c. 240 B.C. Life-size. Museo Capitolino, Rome, Italy.

Blood flows freely from the wound in hisside. The figure uses what little strength hehas remaining to support himself with hisright arm. He has difficulty supporting theweight of his head and it tilts downward. Painand the knowledge that he is dying distort thefeatures of his face.

Expression of EmotionWorks such as the Dying Gaul were

intended to stir the emotions of the viewer.You are meant to become involved in thisdrama of a dying warrior, to share and feel hispain and loneliness and marvel at his quietdignity at the moment of death.

The Nike of Samothrace■ FIGURE 8.22

About 2,100 years ago, an unknown sculp-tor completed a larger-than-life marble work

to celebrate a naval victory. The finishedsculpture of a winged Nike (goddess of vic-tory) stood on a pedestal that was made tolook like the prow of a warship. She may haveheld a trumpet to her lips with her right handwhile waving a banner with her left. A briskocean breeze whips Nike’s garments into rip-ples and folds, adding to a feeling of forwardmovement. Her weight is supported by bothlegs, but the body twists in space, creating anoverall sense of movement (Figure 8.22).

It is not known for certain what great victorythis sculpture was meant to celebrate. Alsouncertain is its original location. The sculpturewas found in 1875 on a lonely hillside ofSamothrace, headless, without arms, and in 118pieces. Pieced together, it is now known as theNike of Samothrace and commonly called theWinged Victory. It stands proudly inside the

Chapter 8 Greek Art 185

■ FIGURE 8.23 Comparethis figure with the Kouros

created some 600 years earlier.Notice how the abilities, interests,

and intentions of sculptorsdeveloped over that period.What are your feelings aboutthis figure? Is emotionalisman appropriate theory to use

in judging this work?

Seated Boxer. c. 50 B.C.Bronze. Roman copy.Museo Nazionale

Romano delle Terme,Naples, Italy.

■ FIGURE 8.22 Notice the excitement and action sug-gested by this figure. How has the artist created a feeling of forward movement?

Nike of Samothrace (Victory of Samothrace). c. 190 B.C. Marble. Approx. 2.4 m (8�). The Louvre, Paris, France.

main entrance to the Louvre, the great artmuseum in Paris.

The Seated Boxer■ FIGURE 8.23

Ten years after the Nike of Samothrace wasfound, a bronze sculpture of a seated boxer(Figure 8.23) was unearthed in Rome. It isnot as dramatic as the Dying Gaul nor as spir-ited as the Winged Victory, but its emotionalimpact is undeniable.

The unknown artist presents not a victori-ous young athlete but a mature, professionalboxer, resting after a brutal match. Few detailsare spared in telling about the boxer’s violentoccupation. The swollen ears, scratches, andperspiration are signs of the punishment hehas received. He turns his head to one side ashe prepares to remove the leather boxingglove from his left hand. The near-profileview of his face reveals his broken nose andbattered cheeks. There is no mistaking thejoyless expression on his face, suggesting thathe may have lost the match.

Stylistic Changes in Sculpture

The development of Greek sculpture canbe traced through an examination of the gods,goddesses, and athletes created from theArchaic period to the Hellenistic period.Sculptured figures produced during the Archaicperiod were solid and stiff. The Kouros, forexample, was created at a time when artistswere seeking greater control of their materialsin order to make their statues look more real.

By the Classical period, sculptors hadachieved near perfection in balance, proportion,and sense of movement. The Discus Throwerdemonstrates the sculptor’s ability to create arealistic work. A later Classical work, the SpearBearer, is an example of the balance, harmony,and beauty achieved by Greek sculptors.

During Hellenistic times, sculptures such asthe Seated Boxer reveal the artists’ interest inmore dramatic and emotional subjects.

The Demand for Greek ArtistsThe Romans defeated Macedonia and gave

the Greek city-states their freedom as allies,but the troublesome Greeks caused Rome somuch difficulty that their freedom was takenaway and the city-state of Corinth burned.Athens alone continued to be held in respectand was allowed a certain amount of free-

dom. Although the great creative Hellenisticperiod had passed its peak, Greek artists were

186 Unit Three

Reviewing Art Fact1. Identify What features are character-

istic of early Greek sculptures? 2. Compare Which aspects of Myron’s

Discus Thrower are realistic? Whichaspect is idealistic?

3. Describe What famous artist oversawthe work on the Parthenon’s frieze?What other contribution did he make?

4. Explain Describe the Hellenisticperiod of ancient Greece. Explain howit originated, how it ended, and itshistorical and cultural influences.

Art in Your Community Identify a building or monumentin your community that reflects Roman or Greek style. Youmight check with a local museum or the chamber of com-merce to find an appropriate building or location to visitwith your class.

Activity Create sketches or a digital photo display showingdifferent views of the building or monument. Bring the dis-play to class. Point out the historical and cultural influencesexpressed in the structure you chose. How do you think theaesthetic qualities contribute to the feeling created by thisartwork?

LESSON TWO REVIEW

Visit art.glencoe.com for study and review tools.

Materials• The drawing or sketch you completed in Lesson

Two Review• Tempera or acrylic paints• Brushes, mixing tray, and paint cloth• Water container

Use tempera or acrylic to paint a line drawing of thefeatures of Greek architecture. Use contrasting valuesto emphasize the most interesting or important parts ofyour painting. Choose hues that give your painting adefinite mood or feeling, such as pleasant and inviting,somber and forbidding, or dark and frightening.

InspirationExamine Figures 8.3, 8.9, and 8.10 on pages 169

and 173. Use your imagination to picture how theseGreek buildings might have looked when they werepainted with bright colors. How would those colorshave contributed to the mood or feeling associatedwith those buildings?

Process1. Choose three or more neighboring hues on the

color wheel (see Figure 2.4, page 29) to make upyour analogous color scheme. Select hues that youassociate with a particular mood or feeling.

2. Use these colors to paint your detail drawing of abuilding exhibiting Greek architectural features.Add white and black to your hues to obtain a vari-ety of light and dark values. Use contrasting valuesto emphasize the portions of your drawing that youconsider most important or interesting.

Describe Point out and name the hues you selected foryour analogous color scheme. Are the shapes in yourcomposition painted precisely?

Analyze Does your painting include a variety of lightand dark values? Did you use contrasting values toemphasize the most interesting or important parts ofyour composition? Explain how the use of light anddark values adds to the visual interest of your painting.

Interpret Does your painting communicate a mood orfeeling? If so, what did you do to achieve this? Areother students in class able to identify correctly themood you were trying to communicate?

Judge Do you think your painting is successful? Whataesthetic quality or qualities did you turn to whenmaking your judgment?

187

Examining Your Work

■ FIGURE 8.25 Student Work

Painting Using AnalogousColors

For more studio lessons and student artwork, visit art.glencoe.com.

Greece preserves its most treasured symbol.

In the fifth century B.C., Athens reached great heights in art,

architecture, philosophy, andliterature. Nothing repre-sented those achievementsmore than the Parthenon—the temple built to honor theGreek goddess Athena.

Today, a team of 62 archi-tects, civil engineers, andstone cutters are piecingtogether the Parthenon’scrumbling structure. In theprocess, they are learninglessons in engineering and craftsmanship fromthe builders who worked here 2,500 yearsago. “It’s a school for us,” says Nikos Togani-dis, chief architect of the restoration project.“Every day we learn something from theancients—their secrets, how they did whatthey did, the perfection of their construction.”

The Parthenon remained basically intactuntil 1687, when explosives stored there blewoff the roof. In the early 1800s, Britain’s LordElgin removed the temple’s elaborate friezes and sold them to the British Museum. In the1930s the columns were restored with iron that eventually rusted. This material must now be replaced with titanium for strength.

The current project, which began in1984, will repair and restore the exist-ing Parthenon. The inside of the temple,off limits to tourists, is full of cranes,machines, blocks of marble, and thesound of traditional stone cutters atwork. Alexander Hoysakos, 30, is proudto be among them. “Today, there aremachines,” he says. “But a machinenever makes the same as the hand.” Headds, “This place was a symbol for theancient people, and it’s a symbol for us.”

188 Chapter 8 Greek Art

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Reconstructing the Parthenon with its scattered pieces is likeputting together a giant jigsaw puzzle. Even in the midst ofreconstruction, however, the Parthenon maintains its majesty.

TIME to Connect

The landmarks in your area are not as old as the Parthenonbut might need some restoration work. Using your local historical society or your local library, research structures orbuildings in your community.

• Choose one historic building and write about its history andits current status. Does it need to be restored in any way?Are efforts underway to do so? What would you do to savethe building or landmark?

• Plan a campaign to help save the structure. Prepare a letter to your school or local newspaper to promote therestoration efforts.

Standardized Test PracticeStandardized Test Practice

Read the passage below and then answer the questions.

8 REVIEW

Reviewing the FactsLesson One1. How did Athens rise to greatness? What caused

it to fall from power?2. Describe how the following features are used in

Greek temples: stylobate, capitals, lintels, frieze,and cornice.

3. Name and describe the three orders of decorativestyle that originated in Greece.

4. What types of designs were painted on early Greek vases?

5. What features characterize the figures found inlater Greek vase painting produced by artistssuch as Exekias?

Lesson Two6. Explain why Myron’s Discus Thrower would be

described as more idealistic than realistic.7. Since the works of ancient Greek sculptors no

longer exist, how do we know what they look like?8. What does the frieze on the Parthenon represent?9. Describe a pose that is considered contrapposto.

10. How did Alexander the Great influence thespread of Greek culture to neighboring countries?

Critical Thinking and Analysis1. ANALYZE. List similarities and differences

between the way the Egyptians and the Greeksthought of their temples. How did the worship ofthe gods influence Greek architecture and art?

2. INTERPRET. Look again at the sculpture inFigure 8.21 on page 184. What do you think thisfigure is doing? How would you describe hisfeelings at this moment? Explain your answer.

The ancient Greeks achieved perfection inthe proportions of their buildings and sculp-tures. The technique they applied is demon-strated in the geometric principle known asthe golden section, or golden mean.

The golden section has a numerical valueof 0.618. Expressed as a fraction, this equals 3⁄5.Greek sculptors used the golden sectionwhen sculpting human heads. They placedthe eyes along an imaginary line 3⁄5 (or 0.618)of the way down from the top of the head.

1. Where would this imaginary line occur on aportrait bust measuring exactly 12 inchesfrom the top of the head to the chin?

3.9 inches from the top

4.6 inches from the top

5.3 inches from the top

6.3 inches from the top

2. The Fibonacci numbers correspond to theratio used in the golden section. Thisnumerical series is comprised of the set ofnumbers 0, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13,… What wouldthe next number in this sequence be?

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Chapter 8 Review 189

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Collect your vase sketches, or digitalphotographs, and the painting you createdfor the Studio Lesson. Keep these in yourportfolio. If you have already begun yourdigital portfolio, place these artworks in afolder labeled Greek and Roman Influences.Keep notes on the historical and culturalinfluences of Greek and Roman styles in artof other periods. Refer to this section ofyour portfolio periodically and add morenotes as you find more examples.