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ART HISTORY
Journey Through a Thousand Years
“Self-Evident Truths”
Week Nine: Neo-Classicism
Jacques-Louis David, “ Oath of the Horatii” - Joseph Wright of Derby, “A
Philosopher Giving a Lecture at the Orrery” – Soufflot, The Panthéon
(Church of Ste-Geneviève), Paris - The Death of Marat - Angelica
Kauffmann, “Cornelia Pointing to her Children as Her Treasures”- The
Formation of a French School: the Royal Academy of Painting and
Sculpture” - Key Paintings of the First Empire – The Death of General Wolfe
Giovanni Paolo Panini : Ancient Rome
Dr. Claire Black McCoy: “Jacques-Louis David, Oath of the Horatii”
From smARThistory (2016) The accurate history of Rome’s early days is obscured by the mists of time, but the legendary history of the days of the first seven kings of Rome was passed down lovingly. It contains stories of many adventures, including that of the three Horatii (sons of Horatius,) three young men who stood as the only hope of Rome against its enemies. When the great painter David captured this moment, he not only seared the definitive image of it onto the minds of all who saw it, but in a sense defined a new style of art: Neo-Classicism. Follow the link to find out more about this amazing work. Link to the article and video: https://smarthistory.org/jacques-louis-david-oath-of-the-horatii/ [New classics of the highest rank! This was the rallying cry of populations immersed in the 18th century Age
of Enlightenment who wanted their artwork and architecture to mirror, and carry the same set of standards,
as the idealized works of the Greeks and Romans. In conjunction with the exciting archaeological
rediscoveries of Pompeii and Herculaneum in Rome, Neoclassicism arose as artists and architects infused
their work with past Greco-Roman ideals. A return to the study of science, history, mathematics, and
anatomical correctness abounded, replacing the Rococo vanity culture and court-painting climate that preceded.
[…]
A landscape with Apollo guarding the herds of Admetus and Mercury stealing them (1645)
While Nicolas Poussin and Claude Lorrain were both French Baroque artists who spent most of their
working lives in Rome, it was their distinctive emphasis on a more classical approach that appealed to
Neoclassical artists. Claude, as he is commonly called, painted landscapes, using naturalistic detail and the
observation of light and its effects, with figures from mythological or Biblical scenes, as seen in his A landscape
with Apollo guarding the herds of Admetus and Mercury stealing them (1645) An effect of orderly harmony
was conveyed in many of his works, which appealed to Neoclassicism's belief that art should express the ideal
virtues.
Nicolas Poussin's The Death of Germanicus (1627) depicted the death and suspected
assassination of the popular Roman general as recorded by the Roman historian Tacitus.
While he was also a noted painter of religious subjects, Nicholas Poussin's mythological and historical scenes
were his primary influence on Neoclassicism. His The Death of Germanicus (1627) made him famous in his
own time, and influenced Jacques-Louis David as well as Benjamin West whose The Death of General
Wolfe (1770) draws upon the work. Though the works of Venetian Renaissance artist Titian influenced his
color palette, Poussin's compositions emphasized clarity and logic, and his figurative treatments favored strong
lines.
The Grand Tour - Neoclassicism was inspired by the discovery of ancient Greek and Roman archeological sites and artifacts that became known throughout Europe in popular illustrated reports of various travel expeditions. Scholars such as James Stuart and Nicholas Revett made a systematic effort to catalog and record the past in works like their Antiquities of Athens (1762). Wanting to see these works first hand, young European aristocrats on the Grand Tour, a traditional and educational rite of passage, traveled to Italy "in search of art, culture, and the roots of Western civilization," as cultural critic Matt Gross wrote. Rome with its Roman ruins, Renaissance works, and recently discovered antiquities became a major stop. Famous artists, such as Pompeo Batoni and Antonio Canova, held open studios as many of these aristocratic tourists were both avid collectors and commissioned various works. – “Neoclassicism,” from “The Art Story”]
Hubert Robert: Aqueduct in Ruins, 18th century, Oil on Canvas, Metropolitan Museum of Art –
Jacques-Louis David: Belisarius Begging for Alms, 1780 / 1781, Oil on Canvas, Palais des Beaux-
Arts de Lille
Jacques-Louis David: The Death of Socrates, 1787, Oil on Canvas, Metropolitan Museum of Art
Portrait d'Henriette de Verninac, 1799, par Jacques-Louis David, huile sur toile 145 x 112 cm, musée du Louvre
Dr. Abram Fox: “Joseph Wright of Derby, A Philosopher Giving a Lecture at the Orrery”
From smARThistory (2016)
Joseph Wright of Derby, A Philosopher Giving a Lecture at the Orrery (in which a lamp is put in place of
the sun), c. 1763-65, oil on canvas, 4′ 10″ x 6′ 8″ (Derby Museums and Art Gallery, Derby)
Two young boys, gazing over the edge of the contraption in playful wonder. A teenaged girl,
her arms resting on the machine, in quiet contemplation. A young man shielding his eyes
from the brilliance of the light emanating from the center, and a young woman staring
unblinkingly. A standing man taking copious notes on the proceedings. Another man leaning
back in his seat, listening intently to the gray-haired lecturer, captivating his audience like a
magician.
A key idea of the Age of Enlightenment—that empirical observation grounded in science
and reason could best advance society—is expressed by the faces of the individuals in Joseph
Wright of Derby’s A Philosopher Lecturing on the Orrery.
The Age of Enlightenment
Wright’s painting encapsulates in one moment the Enlightenment, a philosophical shift in
the eighteenth century away from traditional religious models of the universe and toward an
empirical, scientific approach. It is important to note the term given this new way of
thinking. “Enlightenment” indicates an active process, undertaken by an individual by group.
The age of Enlightenment is most closely associated with scientists and inventors, but
writers and artists also played major roles. They helped spread enlightenment concepts via
the written word and printed image, and inspired others to think rationally about the world
in which they lived. The provincial English painter Joseph Wright of Derby became the
unofficial artist of the Enlightenment, depicting scientists and philosophers in ways
previously reserved for Biblical heroes and Greek gods.
Joseph Wright of Derby
Joseph Wright of Derby was born in the town of Derby in central England, and save for
short stints in Liverpool and London, lived in that city his entire life. He was known even
during his lifetime as Joseph Wright of Derby, to distinguish him from another artist of the
same name. Even though Wright of Derby was the more talented of the two, he was stuck
with the geographical identifier on his name.
Other than Thomas Gainsborough, who spent much of his career in the high-society resort
town of Bath, Wright was the most prominent English painter of the eighteenth century to
spend the majority of his career outside of London. Operating without the constraints of the
mainstream London art world, Wright was free to explore a general interest in science with
his friends, a group that included Erasmus Darwin (grandfather of Charles) and other
members of the Lunar Society of Birmingham, an informal learned society which met to
discuss scientific topics of the day.
Wright was known for his deft depiction of the contrasts between light and dark, also known
as chiaroscuro, and his unflinching portrayal of the true personalities of his subjects. This
trait caused his downfall when he attempted to work as a portraitist—few wanted a portrait,
warts and all.
The intensity of scientific discovery
In the 1760s Wright began to explore the traditional boundaries of various genres of
painting. According to the French academies of art, the highest genre of painting was history
painting, which depicted Biblical or classical subjects to demonstrate a moral lesson. This
high regard for history panting was adopted by the British—Benjamin West’s The Death of
General Wolfe is a prominent example.
Johan Joseph Zoffany, The Gore Family with George, third Earl Cowper, c. 1775, oil on canvas (Yale
Center for British Art, Paul Mellon Collection)
Wright took this noble, aggrandizing method of portraying events and applied it to a
composition showing a contemporary subject in A Philosopher Lecturing at the Orrery.
Rather than a moral of leadership or heroism, this painting’s “moral” is the pursuit of
scientific knowledge. With its collection of non-idealized men, women, boys, and girls
informally arranged in a small physical space around a central organizing point, Wright’s
painting mimics the compositional structure of a conversation piece (an informal group
portrait) like Zoffany’s Gore Family (above), but with the dramatic lighting and scale
expected from a major religious scene.
In effect, A Philosopher Lecturing at the Orrery does depict a moment of religious
epiphany. Much like the central figure in Caravaggio’s Calling of Saint Matthew (below), the
figures listening to the philosopher’s lecture in Wright’s painting are experiencing
conversion…to science.
Heroizing the search for knowledge
Orrery, c. 1750 (British Museum)
An orrery is a mechanical model of the solar system, a miniature, clockwork planetarium.
Each planet, with its moons, is a sphere attached to a swing arm which allows it to rotate
around the sun when cranked by hand. When in motion, the orrery depicts the orbits of each
planet, as well as their relative relationship to each other. The orrery depicted by Wright has
large metal rings which can simulate eclipses, and give the model a striking and exciting
three-dimensionality.
Orrery, c. 1750 (British Museum)
Although each of the figures in the painting is clearly modeled on a specific person, Wright’s
work was not meant to be a conversation piece in the eighteenth century sense of the word,
and so we can only guess at the identities of each person. Most likely the man standing and
taking notes is Wright’s friend Peter Perez Burdett, and the man seated at the far right may
be Washington Shirley, 5th Earl Ferrers, the initial owner of the work.
Several identities have been proposed for the philosopher delivering the lecture. The most
tempting theory is that his face is modeled on that of Sir Isaac Newton, the great English
scientist whose work helped herald in the Enlightenment. Another possibility is that it is a
member of the Lunar Society of Birmingham.
Jesus beckoning to Matthew (detail), Caravaggio, Calling of Saint Matthew, c. 1599-1600, oil on canvas,
322 cm × 340 cm (San Luigi dei Francesi, Rome)
The events depicted, although exciting, do not give A Philosopher Lecturing at the Orrery its
high dramatic impact. That responsibility falls on the paintings strong internal light source,
the lamp that takes the role of the sun. Wright mimics Baroque artists like Caravaggio, who
inserted strong light sources in otherwise dark compositions to create dramatic effect. Most
of these earlier works were Christian subjects, and the light sources were often simple
candles. Wright flips the script with his scientific subject matter. The gas lamp which acts as
the sun pulls double duty in the painting. It illuminates the scene, allowing the viewer to
clearly see the figures within, and it symbolizes the active enlightenment in which those
figures are participating.
John Flaxman: Monument to Vice-Admiral Horatio Nelson, 1808-18,
Marble, St. Paul's Cathedral, London
John Flaxman: The Apotheosis of Homer
Daniella Berman: “The Formation of a French School: the Royal Academy of
Painting and Sculpture” From smARThistory (2020)
Jean-Baptiste Martin, A Meeting of the Royal Academy of Painting and Sculpture at the Louvre, c. 1712–
21, oil on canvas, 30 x 43 cm (Louvre)
In a room filled to the brim with painting and sculpture, well-dressed men in powdered wigs
assemble around a desk while stragglers chat with their neighbors. Jean-Baptiste Martin’s
small painting depicts a meeting of the distinguished French art academy without an artist’s
tool in sight—only the ornate room situates the scene in the Louvre palace. The choice to
not show the artists at work, but rather as fashionable gentlemen engaged in sociable
intellectual exchange speaks directly to the early history of the French Royal Academy.
The Académie Royale de Peinture et de Sculpture (Royal Academy of Painting and
Sculpture) was established in 1648. It oversaw—and held a monopoly over—the arts in
France until 1793. The institution provided indispensable training for artists through both
hands-on instruction and lectures, access to prestigious commissions, and the opportunity to
exhibit their work. Significantly, it also controlled the arts by privileging certain subjects and
by establishing a hierarchy among its members. This hierarchical structure ultimately led to
the Académie’s dissolution during the French Revolution. However, the Académie in Paris
became the model for many art academies across Europe and in the colonial Americas.
Foundation
This preeminent training organization for painters and sculptors was founded in response to
two related concerns: a nationalistic desire to establish a decidedly French artistic tradition,
and the need for a large number of well-trained artists to fulfill important commissions for
the royal circle. Previous monarchs had imported artists (primarily from Flanders and Italy),
to execute major projects. In contrast, King Louis XIV sought to cultivate and support
French artists as part of his grander project of self-fashioning, with art playing a vital role in
the construction of the royal image.
The Académie quickly rose to prominence, in conjunction with the Ministry of Arts
(responsible for construction, decoration, and upkeep of the king’s buildings) and the First
Painter to the King—the most prestigious title an artist could achieve. Two men were
integral to the institution’s early history: Jean-Baptiste Colbert, an increasingly influential
statesman who acted as the institution’s protector, and the artist Charles Le Brun, who
would go on to be both First Painter and the Académie’s Director. Both men sought to
elevate the status of artists by emphasizing their intellectual and creative capacities, and both
sought to differentiate members of the Académie—academicians— from guild members
(guilds were a medieval system that strictly regulated artisans). The Académie, whose
members were financially supported by the King, moved into its permanent location at the
Louvre Palace in 1692, further reinforcing the institution’s status. Given such institutional
preoccupations, Martin’s decision to show artists as gentlemen socializing rather than as
artisans laboring takes on new significance.
Hierarchies
From its inception, the Académie was structured around hierarchy. There were distinct levels
of membership that an artist could advance through over time. In art, too, there was a
hierarchy: painting was prioritized over sculpture, and certain subjects were considered more
noble than others. To become a member, artists submitted work for evaluation by
academicians, who accepted them at a certain level, based on the kind of subjects they
aspired to paint. If they passed this first phase, applicants would execute a “reception piece”
depicting a subject chosen by the academicians.
The Académie divided paintings into five categories, or genres, ranked in terms of difficulty
and prestige:
History Painting—encompassing highbrow subjects taken from the classical tradition, the
bible, or allegories, this type of painting was considered the highest genre because it
required proficiency in depicting the human body, as well as imagination and intellect to
depict what could not be seen. These were often large-scale multi-figure paintings.
Benjamin West: The Burghers of Calais, 1789, Oil on canvas, 100 x 153 cm
Royal Collection, Windsor
Benjamin West: La batalla de La Haya
Portraiture—focusing on capturing likeness, this genre was prestigious, and certainly
lucrative, but less so than history painting. Portraitists were derided for “merely” copying
nature rather than inventing (an oversimplification as few portraits were executed entirely
from life).
Andrea Appiani: Josephine Bonaparte de Beauharnais incorona il mirto sacro a Venere
1796
Genre Painting—depicting scenes of everyday life, this genre included the human figure
but ostensibly did not represent grand ideas, although many genre paintings had
moralizing undertones. Genre paintings were smaller in size than history paintings,
further detracting from their prestige.
Theodore Gericault: The Plaster Kiln, 1822-23, Oil on canvas, 50 x 61 cm
Musée du Louvre, Paris
George Stubbs: William Anderson with Two Saddle-horses, 1793, Oil on canvas,
102,2 x 127,9 cm
Royal Collection, Windsor
Landscapes—consisting of all representations of rural or urban topography, real or
imagined, this genre became especially popular during the eighteenth and nineteenth
centuries.
Joseph Wright: Illumination of the Castel Sant'Angelo in Rome
Joseph Wright: The Cloister of San Cosimato
Still Life Painting—often indulging in the juxtaposition of colors and textures, these
paintings represented inanimate (often luxury) objects and drew heavily on the
seventeenth-century Dutch tradition of such subjects. While at times other moralizing
symbols such as memento mori (reminders of human mortality) were included, these
were not an intrinsic part of the genre, which was considered to require no invention on
the part of the artist (since, they were painting what they could see).
Anne Vallayer-Coster: Attributes of Music , 1770, Department of Paintings of the Louvre
Jean-Baptiste Oudry, The White Duck (1753), stolen from Houghton Hall in 1990
Training
Benoît-Louis Prévost, after Charles-Nicolas Cochin, “The School of Art” (“Ecole de dessein”), planche
I. Recueil de planches sur les sciences, les arts libéraux, et les arts mécaniques, avec leur explications, volume
3 (Paris, 1763) […]
Academic instruction was centered on drawing (following the precedent of Italian drawing
schools established in the sixteenth century). The Académie maintained a rigid curriculum to
instruct artists, as recorded in contemporary accounts and depictions. An etching illustrating
a 1763 description of the “school of art” shows how students first learned to draw by
copying drawings and engravings (seen on the left) before moving on to drawing plaster
casts to learn how to translate the three-dimensional form into two dimensions (seen at
center). Students would then copy large-scale sculpture (as seen at the right-most edge)
before being allowed to draw the live […] model (as seen in the middle-right portion, slightly
set back from the foreground). Drawing the [human] form was the bedrock of
the Académie’s curriculum, an essential building block for painters, particularly those
destined to produce history paintings. Students produced many single-figure[…] studies,
known as académies, such as this example from Nicolas Bernard Lépicié. Props could be
added subsequently to transform the posed bodies into identifiable figures[…]
Outside of the Académie’s official spaces, academicians would provide advanced students
opportunities to draw nude female models. In addition to supervising drawing education,
each professor selected students to be part of his studio. This is where artists actually learned
to paint or sculpt by emulating their teacher, often contributing to his large-scale
commissions. Studio practices varied, and not all studio members were necessarily
enrolled Académie students.
Both academicians and students attended lectures addressing theoretical and practical aspects
of artistic practice, such as the importance of expressions or how to apply paint to ensure
longevity. These were offered by professors and so-called amateurs. These
honorary Académie members were not professional artists but art lovers and “friends of
artists”—often from the nobility—who advised artists on questions of composition,
aesthetics, and iconography and often championed certain artists, sometimes as patrons or
collectors.
The draw of Rome
The classical tradition was central to the Académie’s curriculum. In 1666,
the Académie opened a satellite in Rome to facilitate students’ study of antiquity. In 1674,
the Académie established the Prix de Rome (Rome Prize), a prestigious award that allowed
its most promising artists to study in Rome for three to five years. While the focus of the
French Academy in Rome was facilitating the study of classical antiquity, students also drew
after important Renaissance and Baroque artworks, as seen in Hubert Robert’s red chalk
drawing depicting an artist copying Domenichino’s fresco in a Roman church.
Hubert Robert, Draftsman in the Oratory of S. Andrea, S. Gregorio al Celio, 1763, red chalk,
32.9 x 44.8 cm (Morgan Library & Museum)
While in Rome, these Académie students—called pensionnaires—studied canonical artworks
and regularly sent their drawings and copies after important works back to Paris to
demonstrate their progress. Although not part of the formal curriculum, most artists
explored the Roman environs, taking inspiration from the rich landscape, diverse
topography, and colorful scenes of peasant life. Important connections were forged in Rome
with other artists, patrons, and supporters.
Salons and the rise of public opinion
Beginning in 1667, the Académie established exhibitions to provide members with the
crucial opportunity to display their work to a wider audience, thereby cultivating potential
patrons and critical attention. Held annually and, later, biannually, these exhibitions came to
be known as Salons, after the Louvre’s salon carré where they took place after 1725. The
Salon became a significant space of artistic exchange and an important opportunity to view
art prior to the formation of the public art museum.
Pietro Antonio Martini, View of the Salon of 1785, 1785, etching, 27.6 x 48.6 cm (image), 36.2 x 52.7
cm (The Metropolitan Museum of Art)
Artworks in the Salon were selected by a jury of academicians. Paintings were displayed
according to size and genre, with larger works (history painting and portraiture) occupying
the more prestigious higher levels, as can be seen in an engraving of the Salon of 1785
where Jacques-Louis David’s Oath of the Horatii features prominently in the center. With
the 1737 introduction of a broader public to the Salon came the advent of public opinion
and the emergence of art criticism. The Académie published a booklet that listed the
displayed works, organized by the artist’s rank, called the livret. Art collectors and learned
Salon-goers penned opinions analyzing the artistic and intellectual merit of the exhibited
artworks; some of these, like those written by philosopher Denis Diderot, were meant for a
small community of like-minded individuals both in France and beyond, but increasingly art
criticism was printed in newspapers for access by a broader public.
Genders and genres
The Académie was a male space, for the most part; some painters accepted female students
in their studios, particularly in the last quarter of the eighteenth century. […] During its 150-
year long history, the Académie only welcomed four women as full members: Marie-Thérèse
Reboul was admitted in 1757; Anne Vallayer-Coster was admitted in 1770; Adélaïde Labille-
Guiard and Elisabeth Vigée-LeBrun were both admitted in 1783.
Élisabeth Louise Vigée Le Brun, “Self Portrait in a Straw Hat,” oil on canvas, after 1782, The National
Gallery,
Despite their acceptance to the Académie, these women had limited options. Painting
primarily still-lifes (like Reboul), Vallayer-Coster elevated that genre with large-scale ornate
compositions. Labille-Guiard led a large studio of female students and was well-known as a
prominent portraitist. So too did Vigée-LeBrun, who pushed the boundaries of genre and
her gender by occasionally painting allegories, including her reception piece for
the Académie. Familial connections (in the case of Reboul, Labille-Guiard, and Vigée-
LeBrun) or royal protectors (in the case of Vallayer-Coster, Labille-Guiard, and Vigée-
LeBrun) played vital roles in their success. Without such champions, female artists were
unable to penetrate the patriarchal institution of the Académie. Still, their work and personal
lives were subjected to undue public scrutiny and their achievements were often maligned.
Abolition and afterlives
In the 1780s, the Académie came under attack by members and outsiders for politicizing the
distribution of prizes and honors. Its rigid hierarchies, inequitable structures, and rampant
nepotism were incompatible with the Revolution’s core values of Liberty and Equality.
Major artists who had benefited from the institution lobbied for its dissolution. With the
overthrow of the monarchy and Louis XVI’s execution, institutions with indelible royal
connections were scrutinized and deemed irrelevant. The Académie was abolished on
August 8, 1793 by order of the National Convention.
After several years of hardship for artists brought about by the erosion of royal, noble, and
ecclesiastical patronage during the Revolution, the Directory government revived many of
the structures of the Académie in establishing a National Institute of Sciences and Arts
(Institut nationale des sciences et des arts, subsequently Institut de France) in 1795. The new
organization’s membership included many former academicians, who reinstated certain
aspects of the now-defunct Académie, such as the Rome Prize in 1797. The hierarchy of
genres, inculcated in the Académie’s members and audiences, remained central to
understanding the arts throughout the nineteenth century.
Dr. Paul A. Ranogajec: “Soufflot, The Panthéon (Church of Ste-Geneviève), Paris”
From smARThistory (2016)
Jacques-Germain Soufflot, Church of Ste-Geneviève (now Le Panthéon), 1755-90, Paris (France)
An imposing portico and dome
As you leave the Luxembourg Gardens and head east along the Rue Soufflot in Paris’s dense
Latin Quarter, the imposing portico and dome of the Panthéon draws you forward. It is an
irresistible sight. One of the most impressive buildings of the Neoclassical period, the
Panthéon, originally built as the Church of Ste-Geneviève, was conceived as a monument to
Paris and the French nation as much as it was the church of Paris’s patron saint.
Jacques-Germain Soufflot, its architect, was highly praised for the design—although a few of
his contemporaries thought he went too far in defying tradition and structural necessity.
Soufflot was heralded during his life as the restorer of greatness in French architecture and
the building was lauded, even before it was completed, as one of the finest in the country.
Left: Henri Labrouste, Bibliothèque Sainte-Geneviève , 1838-50 (across from the Panthéon’s north side);
right: Saint-Étienne-du-Mont, dedicated 1626 (to the northeast of the Panthéon)
Encountering it today as its lofty dome rises far above surrounding buildings—including two
of its most important neighbors: the small but influential Bibliothèque Sainte-Geneviève
(1838-50) by Henri Labrouste, and the enchanting late-medieval and Renaissance church of
St-Étienne-du-Mont (both, above)—it remains as awe-inspiring as it must have been in the
late eighteenth century, despite some important changes since its opening. A century and a
half of French political history can be tracked with unusual precision in the original design
and subsequent changes in the Panthéon’s function and title.
150 years of French history
Soufflot’s Ste-Geneviève was built to replace a decrepit medieval abbey, an idea first
proposed during the time of King Louis XIV. The project fit, however, with Louis XV’s
program to aggressively promote his role as avatar of the nation’s greatness. The king saw
the church’s rebuilding as a token of his munificence and as material confirmation of the
French Catholic Church’s quasi-independence from the pope. And more specifically, the
church was the fulfillment of Louis XV’s pious vow, made in 1744 to his mistress, Madame
de Pompadour, to rebuild the church if he recovered from a fever and illness so severe that
he had been administered the Last Rites (a Catholic ritual of prayer for those considered
close to death). Soufflot’s Ste-Geneviève, then, was meant to focus the nation’s piety on an
unmistakable symbol of national and royal significance.
The church’s dedication to Saint Genevieve was important to its original political
significance. She had become one of France’s most important historical religious figures well
before the eighteenth century. According to legend, she had been instrumental in repelling
Attila’s Huns before they reached Paris in 451, and her relics were said to have miraculously
helped Odo, the ruler of Paris, resist a Viking attack in 885. A monastery was eventually
formed around the site of her burial in a church built originally in the early sixth century by
Clovis, the first king of the French territory, although it underwent many changes through
the twelfth century. The site, then, was the spot of an ancient and venerable shrine—and
vitally important to the identity of Paris through many centuries.
The purity of Greek architecture and the daring of Gothic
Thanks to the Marquis de Marigny, the Director of Royal Buildings, Louis XV appointed
Soufflot architect of the new church in 1755. By that time, Soufflot had achieved high
standing in the French architectural profession, having recently completed a number of
important buildings in Lyon, France, as the city’s municipal architect. Soufflot had earlier
established close ties to the French court when he accompanied Marigny as an architectural
tutor on a journey through Italy. Marigny and the king calculated that Soufflot was the best
candidate to give them the kind of memorable and forward-looking building that they
wanted for their interconnected political and religious purposes.
Jacques-Germain Soufflot, Church of Ste-Geneviève (now Le Panthéon), 1755-90, Paris
Soufflot’s pupil Maximilien Brébion stated that the church’s design was meant “to unite …
the purity and magnificence of Greek architecture with the lightness and daring of Gothic
construction.” He was referring to the way in which its classical forms, such as the tall
Corinthian columns and the dome, were joined with a Gothic type of structure that included
the use of concealed flying buttresses and relatively light stone vaulting.
Jacques-Germain Soufflot, Church of Ste-Geneviève (now Le Panthéon), 1755-90, Paris (photo: Velual,
CC BY 3.0)
Plan, Jacques-Germain Soufflot, Church of Ste-Geneviève (now Le Panthéon), 1755-90, Paris, France,
from A.D.F. Hamlin, A Text-Book of the History of Architecture, 1909
Inside, the unusually abundant rows of free-standing columns support a series of Roman
vaults and the central dome in a remarkably clear and logical expression of space and
structure—one of the artistic goals of Soufflot and certain other French architects of his
generation. Ste-Geneviève is a Greek cross in plan (nave, north and south transepts, and
choir are of equal dimensions), and originally the walls were pierced with windows in each
bay between the columns. This structure created a Gothic sense of openness out of the
classical columns and round-arched (as opposed to Gothic pointed-arch) vaults. Together
these elements endowed Soufflot’s building with stark order and light-filled spaciousness.
The relative lack of decorative adornment contributed greatly to the sense of spatial clarity
and austere grandeur.
Looking to the past to solve modern problems
Inspired by both recent archaeological excavations of ancient architecture and a new-found
concern for the medieval heritage of France—primarily the great Gothic cathedrals—
Soufflot and other architects, including the influential theorist Julien-David Leroy, sought to
update French architecture by incorporating lessons from the most impressive and
authoritative models of the past. In particular, Soufflot modeled aspects of Ste-Geneviève on
three earlier, highly-esteemed churches: St. Peter’s Basilica in Rome (especially its dome by
Michelangelo); St. Paul’s Cathedral in London; and, in Paris, the church of the Invalides
Hospital.
Right: Numerous architects, Saint Peter’s Basilica, begun 1506, Vatican City; center: Christopher Wren,
St. Paul’s Cathedral, London, begun 1675; Left: South facade, Hôtel National des Invalides, Paris, begun
1671 (photo)
Architectural historians have interpreted this approach to historical models as stemming
from the Enlightenment’s view of history, which saw the past as an unfolding, linear
progression of events that could be studied in a rigorous, almost scientific way to extract
lessons or models useful to the present generation. Older buildings were not to be copied
directly—Ste-Geneviève is no mere facsimile—but were to be measured, drawn, and closely
examined for the lessons they might hold for solving modern problems.
Moving away from the Baroque
Basilica of Notre-Dame-des-Victoires, Paris, consecrated 1666
Ste-Geneviève updated architectural traditions in more specific ways, too. Other recent
churches in Paris, such as Notre-Dame-des-Victoires and Saint-Roch, had used a Baroque
formula borrowed from well-known seventeenth-century churches in Rome. These churches
had tripartite fronts that rose up in the center, all usually articulated with profuse sculptural
decoration. Their facades played sophisticated formal design games with engaged columns
and flat pilasters, creating varied and dynamic surfaces that Neoclassical architects regarded
as bizarre and licentious. With the neoclassical focus on the supposedly purer or more
“natural” architectural forms of antiquity—a view exemplified, for instance, in Marc-Antoine
Laugier’s radically reductive Essai sur l’architecture (1753)—free-standing and orderly rows
of columns, centralized plans, and restrained ornament were favored over the Baroque
models. Soufflot’s rejection of these models put him at the forefront of Neoclassicism and
also symbolically supported the king’s antagonism toward the Roman Catholic Church. Ste-
Geneviève thus marked a new direction for both religious and state buildings in France.
Inscription, “To the Great Men [from] a Grateful Fatherland” (Aux grands hommes la patrie
reconnaissante), Jacques-Germain Soufflot, Church of Ste-Geneviève (now Le Panthéon), 1755-90, Paris,
France
Shortly after Ste-Geneviève’s completion, the tumultuous politics of the French Revolution
in 1789 and its repercussions throughout the nineteenth century led to alterations in the
building’s form and meaning. In 1791, at the height of the Revolution, the country’s
National Constituent Assembly decreed that Soufflot’s church be converted to a secular
Temple to Great Men. The original inscription on the portico’s frieze (a dedication to the
patron saint by Louis XV), was replaced with the one still visible today (above): “To the
Great Men [from] a Grateful Fatherland” (Aux grands hommes la patrie reconnaissante).
The church became a pantheon—Le Panthéon— honoring illustrious modern French
citizens, starting with the widely influential Enlightenment philosophers Rousseau and
Voltaire.
Pierre Puvis de Chavannes murals, begun 1874, for Jacques-Germain Soufflot, Church of Ste-Geneviève
(now Le Panthéon), 1755-90, Paris, France
The architect and theorist Antoine-Chrysostome Quatremère de Quincy was charged with
transforming the luminous church into a solemn mausoleum for the celebrated dead; instead
of a reliquary for the remains of Saint Genevieve, it was to be a receptacle for “the ashes of
the Great Men,” according to the Assembly’s decree. In fact, in 1793 the Revolutionary
government put the saint’s relics on trial—she stood accused of having spread religious
error—and symbolically exorcised her from the building. Quatremère de Quincy removed all
the symbols of the building’s church identity, including the bell towers at the east end. Most
dramatically, he bricked up the lower windows, turning the exterior walls into expansive
stone slabs and rendering the interior darker. This had the side-effect of providing extensive
interior wall surfaces for eye-level decoration, which eventually included the famous late-
nineteenth-century murals by Pierre Puvis de Chavannes illustrating the life of Saint
Genevieve (above). The other major post-Soufflot change to the building fabric was the
strengthening of the crossing piers that support the dome, carried out in 1806 by Soufflot’s
former collaborator, Jean-Baptiste Rondelet.
Antoine-Jean Gros, The Apotheosis of Saint Genevieve, 1811, dome, Jacques-Germain Soufflot, Church of
Ste-Geneviève (now Le Panthéon) 1755-90, Paris, France (photo)
Dome, Jacques-Germain Soufflot, Church of Ste-Geneviève (now Le Panthéon), 1755-90, Paris, France
The building’s dedication swung back and forth between church and secular temple
throughout the nineteenth century. After Quatremère de Quincy’s Revolutionary
transformation of 1791, it was reconsecrated as a church under Napoleon in 1806, the
occasion for the addition of Antoine-Jean Gros’ painting of The Apotheosis of Saint
Genevieve on the dome. It was then changed back to the secular Panthéon following the
July Revolution of 1830; turned into a remarkably idealistic Temple to Humanity after the
revolution of 1848; remade once more as Saint Genevieve’s church in 1851 under Louis
Napoleon; and, finally, conclusively secularized yet again in 1885. These successive changes
were marked especially by the building’s decoration, above all the sculpture in its pediment,
which was recarved four times. The final and still visible pediment sculptures are the
allegorical representations of the Fatherland, History, and Liberty by Pierre-Jean David
d’Angers, completed in the 1830s during the July Monarchy. As revolutions, kings, and
emperors came and went over the course of the nineteenth century, the Panthéon was there
as a silent but attentive witness.
The ultimate transformation of the church into a secular temple of Enlightenment was
confirmed in spirit, if not by final writ, when, in 1851, the scientist Léon Foucault hooked a
cable to the center of the dome, creating a huge pendulum that he used to experimentally
demonstrate the earth’s axial rotation. Since 1995, a replica of “Foucault’s Pendulum” has
been in place under the Panthéon’s dome, an unusual but appropriate coda to the history of
a building which from the start had broad significance extending beyond its place and time.
Dr. Beth Harris & Dr. Steven Zucker: Jacques-Louis David, “The Death of Marat”
From smARThistory (2016) Link to video:
https://smarthistory.org/jacques-louis-david-the-death-of-marat/
Dana Martin: Angelica Kauffmann, “Cornelia Pointing to her Children as Her Treasures”
From smARThistory (2016) A moment of moralizing
To the artists of eighteenth-century Europe, it was not enough to simply paint a beautiful
painting. Yes one could marvel at your use of colors, proportions, and how masterfully you
draped the fabric on your figures, but this was just not enough. The story that is represented
must also improve the viewer and impart a moralizing message. This was a common theme
even before the emergence of the Neoclassical trend (for example, Chardin’s canvases of
simple French country life or Hogarth’s painted commentaries on the wealthy classes of
England). When interest in the ancient cultures of the Mediterranean—more specifically
Rome—arose in the mid eighteenth century the moralizing theme segued to also include
stories from classical antiquity.
Angelica Kauffmann, Cornelia, Mother of the Gracchi, Pointing to her Children as Her Treasures, c. 1785,
oil on canvas, 40 x 50″ (Virginia Museum of Fine Arts)
The Swiss-born painter Angelica Kauffmann is just one artist to contribute to this genre.
Painted in 1785, Cornelia, Mother of the Gracchi, Pointing to Her Children as Her
Treasures, is her subject. Roman architectural influences frame two women portrayed
wearing what one can imagine is typical of ancient Roman dress, along with three children,
also wearing masterfully draped togas with thin leather sandals. They look like they might
have stepped directly off a temple’s pediment.
An example of virtue
If you compare Kauffmann’s simple presentation to the previous Rococo genre, with the
lush landscapes, frothy pastel pink frocks, and chubby frolicking cherubs, it is clear that art is
going in a different direction. This painting is an exemplum virtutis, or a model of virtue.
The story that Kauffmann painted is that of Cornelia, an ancient Roman woman who was
the mother of the future political leaders Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus. The brothers
Gracchi were politicians in second-century B.C.E. Rome. They sought social reform and
were seen as friends to the average Roman citizen. So where did these benefactors of the
people learn their exemplary ethics? That would be their mother, Cornelia.
The scene that we see in Kauffmann’s painting illustrates one such example of Cornelia’s
teachings. A visitor has come to her home to show off a wonderful array of jewelry and
precious gems, what one might call treasures. To her visitor’s chagrin, when she asks
Cornelia to reveal her treasures she humbly brings her children forward, instead of running
to get her own jewelry box. The message is clear; the most precious treasures of any woman
are not material possessions, but the children who are our future. You can almost feel the
embarrassment when you look at the face of the visitor, who Kauffmann has smartly painted
with a furrowed brow and slightly gaped mouth.
The lure of ancient Rome
Angelica Kauffmann, Angelica Kauffmann, c. 1770-75, oil on canvas, 73.7 x 61 cm (National Portrait
Gallery, London)
Born in 1740, Angelica Kauffmann received a first-rate artistic education from her father,
who was a Swiss muralist. She traveled through her native Switzerland, Austria, and
eventually Italy where she was able to see the work of the ancient artists with her own eyes.
She was following in the tradition of the Grand Tour, the educational excursion that many
wealthy Europeans took to marvel and study the art, architecture, and history of ancient
Rome.
The interest in ancient Mediterranean cultures was fueled not just by the cultural productions
of Rome, but also by the newly discovered remains of the ancient Roman cities of
Herculaneum and Pompeii, which were excavated beginning in 1738 and 1748, respectively.
Covered by the volcanic ash of Mount Vesuvius in August 79 CE, an almost perfect scene of
typical ancient life was preserved. These findings did not just spark a renewed interest in
classical antiquity in eighteenth-century art and architecture, but also inspired new fashions,
interior design, and even gardens and tableware. This was a find that one must see in person,
and Angelica Kauffman was lucky enough to take the Grand Tour like so many of her fellow
artists.
Enlightenment ideals
While the geometric symmetry and simplicity of the arts in antiquity might have greatly
inspired the work of Kauffman and other Neoclassical artists, these ancient societies also
aligned with Enlightenment ideals, which were often seen as the zenith of human
civilization. Greece and Rome—it was felt—were the cultures that gave us the enlightened
political systems of democracy and republicanism, as opposed to the modern monarchies,
which would be increasingly criticized as corrupt and arbitrary in the mid and late eighteenth
century. The ancients could instruct modern audiences in patriotism, civic virtue, and ethics,
and Kauffmann’s moralizing message is a wonderful example of this trend.
This revival of classical antiquity was a cultural phenomenon that affected not just artistic
practices, but also shaped the modern mind. Angelica Kauffman would eventually settle in
England where she enjoyed great success as a portrait artist and history painter. In an age
that can be described as patriarchal at its best and chauvinistic at its worst, Kauffmann
played a major role in the British art scene. She was a regular exhibitor at the prestigious
Royal Academy and had many aristocratic and even royal patrons. Cornelia Pointing to Her
Children as Her Treasures is truly one of Kauffmann’s most famous treasures, and
permanently positioned her as a pioneer of the Neoclassical movement.
Le Fondation Napoleon: “Key Paintings of the First Empire” From “Napoleon.Org: The Website of the Fondation Napoleon” Neo-classical art was frequently used as propaganda for the leaders of the day. Napoleon Bonaparte, general and later emperor of France after the Revolutionary and Directoire governments, frequently commissioned himself as subject of portraits that would shape the way both his subjects and enemies saw him. Visit the page – you will find a painting with a short discussion beneath it. Following these is a list of twelve different paintings that portray various moments in the life of Napoleon. Click through each – what ideas do you see shaped by the artist in each one? https://www.napoleon.org/en/history-of-the-two-empires/key-paintings-1st-empire/
Benjamin West: The Treaty of Penn with the Indians. 1771-72, Oil on canvas, 190 x
274 cm, Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts, Philadelphia
Benjamin West: “The Death of General Wolfe” From “The Art Story” Link to Article - You need only read the one on “The Death of General Wolfe.”
https://www.theartstory.org/movement/neoclassicism/artworks/
ATTRIBUTIONS
“Neoclassicism,” “The Art Story” Website, Accessed Nov. 3, 2020, https://www.theartstory.org/movement/neoclassicism/history-and- concepts/#:~:text=Neoclassicism%20was%20inspired%20by%20the,reports%20of%20va
rious%20travel%20expeditions.&text=Rome%20with%20its%20Roman%20ruins,antiquities%20became%20a%20major%20stop.
Dr. Abram Fox, "Joseph Wright of Derby, A Philosopher Giving a Lecture at the Orrery," in Smarthistory, January 8, 2016, accessed November 4, 2020, https://smarthistory.org/joseph-wright-of-derby-a-
philosopher-giving-a-lecture-at-the-orrery/. Daniella Berman, "The Formation of a French School: the Royal Academy of Painting and Sculpture,"
in Smarthistory, September 2, 2020, accessed November 3, 2020, https://smarthistory.org/royal-academy-france/.
Dr. Paul A. Ranogajec, "Soufflot, The Panthéon (Church of Ste-Geneviève), Paris," in Smarthistory,
January 8, 2016, accessed November 3, 2020, https://smarthistory.org/soufflot-the-pantheon-church-of-ste-genevieve-paris/.
Dana Martin, "Angelica Kauffmann, Cornelia Pointing to her Children as Her Treasures," in Smarthistory, January 7, 2016, accessed November 4, 2020, https://smarthistory.org/angelica-kauffmann-cornelia-
pointing-to-her-children-as-her-treasures/.
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