Art History 1

Art History 2700, September 20th, 2012

Trompe l'oeil: Tricking the eyes within a piece.

← Prehistoric Europe

Palaeogeography: The science that helps establish the arrangements of continents over time, of how artifacts may have moved over time, etc. Theoretical maps are produced to show what things may have looked like over time.

Prehistoric art: Our understanding of what humans may have done throughout history through art. Anthropologist, archeologist, and art historians focus on this art. They take what they find (bones, artifacts, etc.) and shape an idea on how these objects were produced, who produced them, etc.

Historiography: An perception of an art piece made by someone in the past that is continued to be made.

Colonialism and post-colonialism may have an affect on these interpretations.

← Ex. Origin of the Species, published in 1859 and written by Charles Darwin, was a book that changed the perspective of how people came to be.

How colonists viewed things changed the context of certain art pieces. Art pieces were sometimes used as advertisements for hot springs and other places.

For our purposes, the Stone Age can be put into 2 sections: Palaeolithic (old stones, can be put as lower palaeolithic, the oldest, middle palaeolithic, the middle, and upper palaeolithic, the newest, they are classified by how far in the ground they are), and Neolithic.

When prehistoric cave art was found, scientist began to date the caves by figuring out what type of rock it is, what paint they used, etc. They are still trying to figure out who and how they were created.

Three techniques are believed to be used: the spraying technique (chewing and spitting the materials on the wall), drawing with their fingers using ocre, and dobbing/blotting. There are 3 steps they believed they did: engraving, colour wash using ocre or manganese, and adding other engravings.

The meaning of the images is still debated. Some say that they were ritual, some say they were ceremonial, they were sympathetic magic (producing an image to capture the well being/the spirit of an animal for a more successful hunt), a representation of a mating season, as well as teaching tools. This shows a developing hierarchy. The more important could possibly be the only ones allowed to see the art deeper in the caves. They could have been representations by shaman or healers. The hand prints in the art

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could have been a participant within the shamanic ceremony. The paintings could have been an addition to a whole ceremony.

The earliest known site for cave paintings was discovered recently (December 1994) in southeastern France, in Chauvet cave, discovered by Chauvet. There were over 400 rooms covered with images. One example is Lions and herd of rhinoceroses, created between 25000 and 17000 BCE. They found paintings of all kinds of animals, including humans (male and female) and extinct species. There were all kinds of hand prints. There were geometrical marking including circles, dots, lines. They could have been a type of communication. The floors were also covered with bones in specific shapes, which could have been used in ceremony.

Another example is Wall Painting with Horses, Rhinoceroses, and Aurochs, paint on limestone, c. 32000-30000, Chauvet, Vallon-Pont-d'Arc, France. As well as Bird-Headed Man with Bison, Pigment on limestone, length 2.75m, c. 15000 BCE, Lascaux, France. And, Crossed Bison, pigment on limestone, c. 15000-17000, Lascaux, France. As well as, Bison, ceiling, Altamira, Spain, c. 12500 BCE, paint on limestone, 2.5m. Women and Animals, facsimile detail of rock-shelter painting, c. 4000-2000 BCE.

Spotted Horse and Human Hands, Pech-Merle Cave, Dordogne. France. Horses 25000-24000 BCE; hands c. 15000 BCE. Paint on Limestone, individual horses over 1.5m in length (discovered 1949). This and other paintings from Pech-Merle were found in air tight rooms with tools surrounding the images.

← The formal and contextual analysis will be on Simone Martini and Lippo Memmi, Annunciation, atltarpiece made for Siena Cathedral, 1333. Tempera and gold on wood, 10' x 8'9", or Jan van Eyck, Double Portrait of Giovanni Arnolfini and his wife, 1434. Oil on wood panel, 33 x 22.5"' the National Gallery, London.

← Due October 16th. Choose one of the images. Provide a formal analysis and a contextual analysis. Use the information from your formal and contextual analysis and write a paragraph about the work of art.

Rock Art, Hand Stencils, Cueva de las Manos, Argentina, c. 7300 BCE.

Woman from Willendorf, Austria, c. 24000 BCE. Limestone, height 11cm, Naturhistorisches Museum, Vienna. It's the most famous figure from prehistoric art. It could represent reproduction, matrimony, communication, spiritual beliefs. It is unsure if it was men or women who created these types of work.

Marija Gimbutas was a archaeologist who believed that there were matriarchal societies. The figures could have been female deities.

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Woman from Dolni Veštonice, Moravia, Czech Republic, 23000 BCE, Fired Clay, (11x4.3cm), Moravske Museum, Brno, Czech Republic. This shows when humans started to use fired materials to perfect a figure. The earliest performance material piece known today. Shards were found around these figures, which shows evidence that there were more that were fired too much. They could also have been destroyed for religious ceremonies or for performance art.

Stonehenge, Salisbury Plain, Wiltshire, England, c. 2900-1500 BCE. One of the most powerful megalithic pieces known. It was probably used for ceremonial use for nomadic people. It could also be a burial site for certain individuals. It's dated within the Neolithic period. People think it was either built for powerful individuals or for collaboration so that everyone can use it. Research suggest that there were villages built around it and that it was used for ceremonies. There have been others like this, but with wood, that could have been burned for ceremonies. There have been around 8 different building periods that have stretched over a millennia. The materials consist of sarcen stone that are found in large quality around the Salisbury Plain. They were configured into trilitons, which are pairs of upright stones, and topped with a lintel. The ingest of the trilitions is about 8m, while the lintels are 5m. They are about 1.5m in width. The stones are over 25 tonnes. The stones are tapered at the top and the lintels are jointed together with mortise and tenon joints, which consist of a conical shape at the top of the lintel. It's meant to fit in the hole of the mortise. There are also blue stones, which had to be transported 150miles from Wales. This suggest a spiritual or religious significance, or could have been from an older space. Stonehenge could have also been a celestial calendar.

Between the 1850s and 1890s, it was a tourist attraction and wasn't cared for. The original owner of the land was Sir Edmund Antrobus. He protected the land and cared for it. When he died, his nephew tried to sell it to the government. They didn't buy it, so he offered it to other countries. Since no one wanted to buy it, he fenced it off and had people pay to enter. This kept it from being destroyed. It also helps keep it in England. There were men who asked to excavate it.

Today it's very closely monitored and Druids continue to practice there.

← Greek Art

The Archaic Period, c. 600-480 BCEThe Early Classical Period, c. 480-450 BCEThe High Classical Period, c. 450-400 BCEThe Late Classical Period, c. 400-323 BCEThe Hellenistic Period, c. 323-31/30 BCE

Fact number one: the sculptures were actually painted, not white.

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They worked with metal and ceramics very early on. They traded and became good merchants. They also colonized. Because of this, they became a powerful, religious, military, commercial powerhouse. Because of that, artisans took advantage of it. Over time, they became aware of ideal figures. The ideal beauty was focused on the human body. It was in line with the artists' personification of the gods and goddesses. They were perfectly proportioned and had no flaws. They believed the god with immortal and superhuman strength. They believed heavily in religion and had sanctuaries for their gods. They even started to build specific temples dedicated to the gods. This is all thanks to their wealth. To attach things to the sculptures, they would add lead, bronze, wood, hair extensions, etc.

Metropolitan Kouros, Attica, c. 600 BCE, marble, 1.84m, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, Fletcher Fund, 1932. It's very stylized. The body is out of proportion and shows an ideal body type. The face has an archaic smile, and the body is very rigid.

Berlin Kore, Cemetery at Keratea, Athens, c. 570-560 BCE, marble with red paint, 1.9m, Staatliche Museum zu Berlin. Compared to the former sculpture, she is clothed (as the female body, in that time period, was not suppose to be seen naked). She is very stylized and is posed.

Anavysos Kouros, cemetery at Anavysos, Athens, c. 530 BCE, marble with paint, 1.93m, National Archaeological Museum, Athens. It is a lot more proportioned and the arms are sculpted all the way up to the armpit. This shows how the artists are improving. It's a lot more muscular. It was a monument to fallen war heroes, so it was one of the earliest memorial for fallen soldiers.

"Peplos" Kore, Acropolis, Athens, c. 530 BCE, marble, 1.21m, Acropolis Museum, Athens. Same date as the former. She's clothed, but her breast are more pronounced. She also has a belted waist. Peplos means a type of garment for a young girl.

Kritios Boy, Acropolis, Athens, c. 480 BCE, marble, 1.17m, Acropolis Museum, Athens - (Beginnings of Contrapposto). Though it is a boy, he is very muscular, which sows ideal beauty. There is a calmness of the figure. It is asymmetrical compared to the rest of the figures of the past. The right leg is bending and the shoulders are dropped. Contrapposto posing, which is a method of showing standing figures with alternative movements. There is also a opposition of tense and relaxation.

Humanism: the idea that only human interest, values, and their dignity are important. The humans are responsible for their own selves. reason above the imagination, scientific inquiry, the fact that humans were considered separate from the natural world, ethical concepts and how humans were separate from the gods.

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Rationalism: based on the ideas of consumerism and materialism. The idea of accepting reason and science as the supreme determiner over everything.

Idealism: the highest reason and the highest order of perfection, physically, mentally, and nobility. Perfection of the highest order.

At the same time, they were worshipping gods.

Charioteer, Sanctuary of Apollo, Delphi, c. 470 BCE, bronze, copper (lips and lashes), silver (hand), onyx (eyes), 1.8m, Archeological Museum, Delphi. It showed the development of bronze statue making. It was done with lost wax. Though it is stiff, there is movement in the clothing. It was buried due to earthquakes. They also worked with modeling to create more realistic poses. One of the only authentic Greek bronze sculptures. There isn’t an archaic smile on the individual. The folds of the clothing are still stylized, but they are becoming more fluid. The figure has realistic feet.

We’ll be watching Ancient Worlds: The Making of a Civilisation (The Greek Thing).

Lost Wax: A wax mould is covered with clay, which is then fired and the wax is melted. The metal is poured into the clay, which is then broken and played with until the favoured shape is created.

Warrior, Italy, c. 460-450BCE, Bronze with bone and glass eyes, silver teeth, and copper lips and nipples, 2.05M, National Archaeological Museum, Reggio Calabria, Italy. The figure is posed in a Contrapposto. It was found in the sea in 1972, yet it was in very good condition. The figure is a lot more muscular and taller. He has a beard, which causes the viewer to think of him as more savage. Due to the posing of the hands, a sword and shield may be missing from the piece, as well as possibly a helmet. There appears to be a bit of corrosion to the piece. The hair appears a lot more articulated. The idea of the idealized and the realistic have been crossed in this figure, which was a start to naturalism. There are even veins in the figure.

Polykleitos, Spear Bearer (Doryphoros), Roman copy of original bronze of c. 450-440BCE, marble, 2.12m, tree trunk and brace strut are Roman additions, National Archeological Museum, Naples. This figure was known as the figure in which showed the Greek’s ideal body of man.The figure is posed in a Contrapposto pose. The facial structure was even considered ideal.The skin appears smooth, and the body is athletic. Polykleitos of Argos was a theorist. He developed a set of rules on the ideal human. He called it Canon: Mesure-Rule Law.

Praxiteles or his followers, Hermes and the Infant Dionysos, Hellenistic or Roman copy after Late Classical original, marble with red paint on the lips and hair, 2.15m, Archeological Museum, Olympia. It is the first time that we saw the sculptures were interacting. It was made around the same time that Alexander the Great rolled in. This sculpture, unlike those of the past, is a lot slimmer and taller. There is an exaggerated Contrapposto pose, which shows that the artist began to play around with balance.

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Praxiteles, Aphrodite of Knidos, composite of two similar Roman copies after the original marble of c. 350BCE. Marble, 2.04m, Vatican Museums, Museo Pio Clementino, Rome. It is the first Greek sculpture of a woman that was in the nude. It was also created by a male artist. The pose is known as Venus Pudica, which draws attention to the pubic area. There is no character to the face. The figure is grabbing her clothes after bathing, so it shows voyeurism in art. The pose is a very passive pose. The torque on the arm symbolizes slavery.

Contrapposto vs. Venus Pudica After Botticelli, Birth of Venus, original c. 1484-1486, Tempera and gold on canvas, 1.8x2.8m, Florence and Donatello, David, 1440s, 1.58m.

Michelangelo, David, c. 1501, 5.17m, marble, Florence and Capitoline Venus - one version of many.

Lysippose, Man Scraping himself (Apoxyomenos), Roman copy after the original of c. 350-325BCE, marble, 2.06m, Vatican Museums, Museo Pio Clementino, Rome. The figure is actually created realistically. The figure is scraping himself clean after participating in sports. He has a wider stance and the arms are extended away from the body. Because the figure has been more human than the others, the viewer can engage with it more. The leaf was an addition in the 16th century, during the conversion of the Roman empire to Christianity, where the Council of Trent decided to cover sculptures.

Lysippos, The Weary Herakles (Farnese Hercules), a Roman copy by Glykon of the 4th century BCE bronze original, marble, 3.17m, Archeological Museum, Naples. It is a figure that depicts Herakles’ rest after his 12 labours.

Epigonos, Dying Gallic Trumpeter, Roman copy after the original bronze of c. 220BCE, marble, 93cm, Capitoline Museum, Rome.This sculpture shows a time period. It was also trying to illicit an emotional response from the viewer. The Hellenistic period shows a change in the sculptures. They started to stop sculpting the idealistic (anti-classicism). It is of a dying Gallic man. It’s called expressionism. It is a figure of a defeated Gaule in battle who was considered barbaric and uncivilized.

Hellenistic can be divided into two groups, one being anti-classicism and the other classicism.

Hagesandros, Polydoros, and Athenodoro of Rhodes, Laocoon and His Sons, probably original of 1st century BCE or a Roman copy of 1st century CE, marble, 2.44m, Musei Vaticani, Museo Pio Clementino, Rome. The piece is based on when the Greeks sent the wooden horse. It is very emotional and is a theatrical sculpture. It also is unified and diversified at the same time.

Nike (Victory) of Samothrace, Sanctuary of the Great Gods, Samothrace, c. 180 BCE, marble, 2.45m, Musee du Louvre, Paris. It is a very textured sculpture: there is a

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lot of fabric covering the smooth skin of the figure. It has a sense of lightness, but it weighs a lot. It is debated if the figure is of a woman or an allegory of victory and triumph.

Old Woman, Roman copy, 1st century CE, 1.25m, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. It is a sculpture from the Hellenistic period and displays an ordinary woman doing ordinary work. She doesn’t care that her breast or shoulders are showing. This is a very innovative piece, as it shows someone from everyday life. As most pieces of this period demonstrate youth, this piece is very demonstrative of aging.

Architecture

The Greeks were just as adept to architecture as they were to sculpture. Their buildings, which were made religiously into sanctuaries for the gods, were so good that the Romans also started to copy them. They brought their ideas of idealism into their architecture. They also brought mathematics, balance, and rhythm into their buildings. The architects treated each building like a different being that was meant to work with nature. The buildings were made to work with the landscape.

Sanctuary of Apollo, Delphi, 6th-3rd century BCE. It was built on Mount Parnasso. The sanctuary was renowned for being the sanctuary of Apollo, where he “communicated”.

The Treasury of the Siphnians, Sanctuary of Apollo, Delphi, c. 530-525 BCE. It was an independent part of the sanctuary, but important to the whole. It was used to hold the donations to the gods.

Some terms to know:

Pedestal - A platform or base supporting a sculpture or a block used to support a column - serves to raise object off of the ground.

Caryatid - Columns carved in the form of clothed women - used as support.

Capital - The sculptures block that sits on top of a column - includes different decorative elements.

Entablature - the horizontal element above the capital - most often divided to Achitrave, Frieze, Cornice.

Architrave - The bottom elements - beneath the frieze.

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Frieze - The middle element - between the architrave and the cornice - usually decorated with sculpture, painting, or moldings - also - a continuous flat band that features relief sculpture or painted decorations.

Cornice - The uppermost element of an entablature. Horizontal - usually projecting.

Pediment - Triangular gable.

The Greek Orders

Doric Order - fluted - height 5.5 to 7 times the diameter of the base - capital - plain and round.

Ionic Order - elongated proportions - height 9 times the diameter of the base - flutes are deeper and separated by flat surfaces (fillets) - the capitals are more decorative - distinctive spiral scrolls (volute).

Corinthian Order - slender fluted columns - capitals elaborate decorated with acanthus leaves and scrolls.

Each of the three Classical Greek Orders - Doric, Ionic and Corinthian constitutes a system of interdependent parts whose proportions are based on mathematical ratios. No element of an order could be changed without producing a corresponding change in other elements.

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Temple of Hera I, Poseidonia, Italy, c. 550-540 BCE. It has Doric orders. There is a cellae (the inside-centre of the building). The row of columns is called the peristyle.

Temple of Aphaia, Aegina, c.500 BCE, Height 5.18m. One of the best preserved buildings from its time. The roof was supported by additional columns on the inside. There are Doric orders. Unlike regular modern churches, the building was only entered to give a votive to the gods. The altair would be on the outside.

West Pediment of the Tempe of Aphaia, Aegina, c. 500-490 BCE, width apporximately 15m. There is a narrative of the piece. Athena stands in the centre and her followers at battle. There are idealized bodies dying heroically.

Dying Warrior, right corner of the West pediment of the Temple of Aphaia, c. 500-490 BCE, marble, 1.68m. Stylized fair with archaic smile. Also has an idealized body.

Dying Warrior, left corner of the East pediment of the Temple of Aphaia, Aegina, c. 490-480 BCE, marble, 1.83m. A lot more natural movement. It has an idealized body and a warrior beard. He’s also wearing a helmet. It’s a lot more flesh-like compared to the former piece.

Reconstruction of the Acropolis, Athens, c. 447-432 BCE. It was constructed during the Peloponnesian War against Sparta. Pericles, a good politician, was a leader of Athena between c. 460-429 BCE. He was very charismatic and a great supporter of the arts. He used Athena to bring wealth to the city. His idea was to get artist together to create a public image of wealth and power for Athens. It served as a fortress and a religious centre. Persian troops destroyed Acropolis during 480 BCE. After it was destroyed, the Athenians wanted to leave the rubles, but Pericles decided to rebuilt it, as he thought it was the centre of Athens. He asks a renowned Greek artist to create a visual expression, Pheidias. He used gold, ivory, exotic wood, and 20,000 tons of marble to recreate Acropolis. Because of its construction, Acropolis created jobs for construction. The Acropolis was finished building at the 5th century BCE.

The Parthenon, Acropolis, Athens, c. 447-432 BCE. It served as a sanctuary. With permission, people could go up to the peristyle and look. The people in the photo are used as staffage. Before it was finished, the Persians sacked it again. Two architects, Kallikrates and Iktinos, helped recreated it for Pericles. They used even more exotic materials to recreated it. It required extreme mathematical skills to create. Ratios of 4:9 are used in the structure. The building is made to look like it’s flowing with nature (i.e. the columns are sagging). The columns also tilt inward slightly from the bottom to the top to create a more natural, organic, living being. They used sculpture to decorate the inside of the building. Many of the sculptures used propaganda (idealized bodies). The pediment was set into the wall.

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Lapith Fighting a Centaur, Relief from the Doric frieze on the South side of the Parthenon, c. 447-432 BCE, marble, height 1.42m, British Museum London. It represents a battle between human and god. It can represent war, conquest, and idealogical ideas between Greek need and passion. There is no sense of time with the piece and the heads are missing. The forms aren’t that articulate compared to other pieces. It is also a very theatrical and narrative piece. It also has the appearance of a dance. The cloth also creates a contrast to the texture of the body and helps form it.

Horsemen, procession from Ionic frieze on the North side of the Parthenon, c. 447-432, marble, height 1.06m, British Museum London. It’s believed to be a description of a festival that took place in Athens every four years, where women created new clothing, such as peplos for women, and men would put theirs on and ride their horses. It is a propaganda piece, showing that the Greeks are a one, democratic, body of people and how they function as a group. One odd thing about this piece is that the humans are as big as the horses. As well, there is a big compression of space. The top of the frieze was further out from the wall so that people could see it properly. It was painted red, gold, and blue.

Marshals and Young Women, detail of procession on East side of Parthenon, c.447-432 BCE, marble, 1.08m, Paris. It is a Hellenistic piece of ordinary women. The piece also focuses more on individuality.

Recreation of Pheidias’ Athena Parthenos, Gold and Ivory figure. She is holding the goddess Nike in her hands. It was made of gold sheets that could be removed (which it was to make weapons, feed soldiers, etc.). This is a recreation based on the writings of famous Greek writer Pausanias. This figure was also found on coins. They even engraved it on gems. The helmet is made of images of the Sphinx in the centre and griffons on either side. On her breastplate is the head of Medusa, which was done in ivory. The sculpture weighed tons. It had 2500lbs of gold on it.

The Etruscans

Took over Northern Italy and were important artistically. They earned their income using agriculture. They were also great metal workers. They farmed, sailed, as well as traded.

Bronze cinerary urn, reproduction of dwelling in use in the 8th and 7th century BCE, Rome.

Porta Agusta, Perugia, Italy, 3rd-2th century BCE. They based their city streets on grids. This method was important to modern day cities. They built these to get access to natural resources. Even their homes were shaped like a funerary urn. In the beginning. they used simple things such as mud, straw, etc to make their buildings, but soon started using stone. They would use terra cotta tiles to decorate. The entrances of the homes where located by the centre of the outside of the home. One of the few surviving Etruscan temples. The gate is known as a semi-circle archway. It has a square frame. There are circular roundels in the frieze, as well as pilasters.

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Reconstruction of an Etruscan Temple, based of descriptions by Vitruvius, University of Rome. Vitruvius was from Rome and wrote The Ten Books of Architecture. Lived from 80BCE-15BCE. Tufa, a volcanic rock, was often used in the Etruscan architecture. Etruscans also used the post and lintel structures. Their orders looked like doric orders. They were known as Tuscan Order. They did not have the same type of peristyle as the Greeks, as theirs were only in the front. There were 3 cellae within the buildings.They were also built off the ground. They also put their terra cotta on the top of the roof instead on the pediment.

Acroterias were statues found on top of Greek and Etruscan temples.

Vulca (?), Apollo, Temple of Minerva, Veii, c. 510-500 BCE, Painted Terra Cotta, 1.8m, Rome. The interesting thing about the Etruscan late Archaic period compared to the Greek is that there was more movement. The foot and the arms move forward. The hair is stylized and it has an archaic smile. It has a fairly muscular body and the sculpture is very decorative.

La Banditaccia, Cerveteri, Rome, Italy. These round building are actually tombs. They are replicas of original homes and surround each other, creating a community-like area. They put as much effort, maybe even more, into making the tombs as they did with the homes.

Boys Climbing Rocks and Diving, Tomb of Hunting and Fishing, Tarquinia, Italy, c. 6th century BCE. This drawing is a more fun representation of a boy diving into water in one of the tombs. It’s vibrant and active. The Etruscans had a good time; they enjoyed their lives. It could be a presentation of these people having a great time in the afterlife.

Dancers and Diners, Tomb of the Triclinium, Tarquinia, Italy, c. 480-470 BCE. This is an adult version of the former piece. They have elaborate costumes and are feasting. They are enjoying themselves. This is a painted frieze. Every single space is covered with something (waves, people, something active). Banquets like this are found quite often in Etruscan art. Women also have an equal part at these banquets; men and women are equal. It also demonstrates the wealth of the Etruscans.

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Detail of a painting on the back wall of the Tomb of Hunting and Fishing, Tarquinia, c. 6th century BCE. This painting shows people catering to a couple. There is a lot of colours and patterns.

Terra Cotta plaque from Naples showing male and female figures attending a banquet. It shows both men and women serving a couple. They are also making jewelry.

Burial Chamber, Tomb of Reliefs, Cerverteri, Italy, 3rd century BCE. There are a lot of detailed reliefs sculpted in this room. There were corridors called dromos, central halls, and several cellae. There are multiple pets sculpted on the walls. They were separated so that there was one for the woman of the house and one of the man of the house. They were also richly painted. They would use stucco to make things appear to be attached to the wall. There are also pillows in the bedroom. These were sculpted for the Matuna family. The more detailed the objects were, the wealthier the family was.

Fan handle, Palestrina, Rome, Ivory, c. 675-650 BCE. The detail of the piece shows how artistically talented the Etruscans were.

Ivory Comb, Marsiliana d’Albegna, Tuscany, Italy, c. 675-650 BCE. This is also from a woman’s tomb. It is also very detailed. It also demonstrates the wealth of the Etruscans.

Embossed Tintinnabulum, Bolognia, bronze, c. 625-600 BCE. The object has a few figures who appear to be women on it. It is also very detailed.

Variety of decorative whorls and spools, Populonia, 6th-7th centuries BCE. This also demonstrates that the Etruscans put details on everything they had. A hierarchy started to form, as the wealthier people had more detailed items.

Etruscan fan, from Populonia, central Italy, sheet bronze, c. 675-625 BCE, Florence. This also belonged to a wealthy women.

Trumpet (Litus), instrument of summons and in ceremonies and war - a status symbol. This item shows leadership in the military that not everyone would have. The item was not to be used; it was bent up. It also demonstrates how Etruscan society changed over time.

Kotyle from Bernardini Tomb, Rome, 675 BCE, Gold. It is polished to perfection. There are sphinx on the handle and it was made with the granulation technique. This pot is equated in status as fine jewelry. The granulation technique is a very skilled technique there small beads of gold are stuck together to create a surface. Only the most wealthy could have one of these pots.

Reclining Couple on a Sarcophagus, Cerveteri, c. 520 BCE, Terro Cotta, 2.06m, Rome. There is a lot of intricate carving. The people have archaic smiles. They are also

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awkwardly posed. They look inviting, which shows that they are happy in the afterlife. There appears to be elements that are missing from their hands.

Married Couple (Larth Tetnies and Thanchvil Tarnai) Embracing, lid of Sarcophagus, c. 350-300 BCE, marble, 2.13m, Boston. It’s carved from marble instead of clay. They are also keeping to themselves. These would have been wealthy people. The hair is very detailed, as well as the sheet on them. Both figures are also nude.

Chimaera of Arezzo, bronze, Arezzo Italy, c. 5th century BCE, Firenze. This object has many elements of narrative. It also shows how brilliant the Etruscans were with bronze. This fuses many bodies together: the tail of a serpent, the head of a goat on its back, and the rest is a lion. It appears to preparing to pounce on the viewer.

Novios Pllautios, The Focoroni Cista, c. 350-300 BCE, 78.6 cm, Rome. This piece demonstrates how the Etruscans have mastered engraving. It was used for domestic use. It was used as wedding gifts. It also demonstrates the wealth of the owner.

Some terms to remember:

Roundels

Pilasters

Vitruvius

Ten Books of Architecture

Tufa

Shaft

Dado

Plinth

Acroteria Statues

Sarcophagus

Cista

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The Romans

The Etruscan cities fall to Rome. Instead of killing everybody, the Romans only killed the ones who refused to work for and with the Romans. Many who agreed were artists who went to do Roman art. In the beginning, it was Etruscan kings who ruled, but who were overthrown by the Romans in 509 BCE. The Romans form a republic, a political system ruled by a body of citizens who elect the leaders. Under the republic, the Romans start to expand their territory and become an empire. One of the reasons they can do this is because they believe they are descendants of the gods. There are many legends that “supported” this.

The story of Romulus and Remus, the sons of the god Mars, were left of the Tiber River. When they grew up, they built Rome. This legend is one of the many taught about the beginning of Rome.

Virgil, a classical Roman poet, wrote Aenid, which tells the story of the son of Venus, Aeneas, and how he created Rome.

To help conquer, they married politics and religion.

As they continued to take over other cultures and assimilate them, the Romans’ beliefs started to mesh with these other cultures. For example, they would worship other gods such as Persian gods, Egyptian gods, and even the one Palestinian god.

509 BCE: Rome becomes a republic.

Two classes of Rome: the Patricians (the important, wealthy class), and the plebeians (basically the 99%). The Patricians started to become power hungry. Senators are elected by the population, though the Patrician’s vote would matter more, as they owned more land. More land = more power. The more the empire grew, the more powerful the Patricians became.

Tiberius Gracus was elected in 333 BCE. He tried to reshape Rome so that all male citizens could have equal land. He also tried to put in place that all free Roman could vote. All of the fairness he tried to employ pissed off the wealthy, and he was murdered by a mob.

Gaius, Tiberius’ brother, tried to do the same this as his brother, but was murdered as well.

The reforms of General Marius of 104 BCE, established a new law which stated that people did not need to own land to become a soldier and would be given land. Because of this, the Generals of Rome became more powerful.

General Lucius Cornelius Sulla was a general who was elected to senate. He wants to take Marius’ power away, which causes a civil war. Marius’ army chases Sulla out of

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Rome. After Marius’ death, his soldiers continued to follow him. Sulla comes back after that with an army of his own and declares himself dictator in 82 BCE. This dictator last until 78 BCE. After he dies, Rome starts to freak out as they don’t know what to do. This when General Pompey takes over. The people of Rome loved him. General Crassus was another man who wanted complete control during the time that Pompey was trying to control. Enter Julius Caesar. He decided to group together these powerful men and created a secret alliance (the First Triumvirate). Out of the three, Caesar is the one elected consul. As Caesar starts to pass laws, Pompey and Crassus start to oppose him. Crassus is killed in battle, and Caesar creates an army and takes over completely between 55-53 BCE. As Pompey cannot protect his people, he runs away. Caesar now elects himself as dictator. He does okay for a while, but he is stabbed to death in 44 BCE. Gaius Octavius takes over.

Gaius changes his name to Augustus Caesar after he takes over. He’s a political genius. This establishes a power to be reckoned with. He was also an artist and supported the arts. This is how the arts made a comeback in Rome.

The Romans have life-like sculptures thanks to the Greeks.

Patrician Carrying Portrait Busts of Two Ancestors (Barberini Togatus), end of 1st century BCE or beginning of 1st century CE, marble, 1.75m, Palazzo de Conservatori, Rome. This piece coincides with the previous statements on how Romans believe their ancestors were gods. The main figure is an older man who is balding. He is holding the busts of his ancestors. It was believed that if you could link your lineage to powerful people such as Generals, they were related to gods. The busts are usually death masks, which is what verism was. Shrines were put in the home with these busts and they paraded with them. Compared to the Greek Idealistic Ideas, Roman artist sculpted every single detail, such as wrinkles, baldness, etc.

Portrait Head of an Elder, c. 80 BCE, marble life sive, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. This sculptures is in no way idealistic. The man has many wrinkles. This shows their love for sophisticated, powerful men.

Aulus Metellus (The Orator), c. 80 BCE, bronze, 1.8m, Florence. He is a Roman official. This can be shown by his robe and the pedestal that he is standing on. The hand is out of proportion, though it could have been done purposely to create control in the piece. It’s one of the earliest signs of propaganda. His name is engrave in the robe in Etruscan letters. The toga and leather boots indicate wealth.

Denarius with Portrait of Julius Caesar, 44 BCE, silver, 1.9 cm, American Numismatic Society, New York. This piece is a form of propaganda which states on the piece, “Julius Caesar, Dictator for Life”. Because of this successful dissemination, we continue to do this to this day on our money. Caesar craved power; he was a megalomaniac.

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Augustus of Primaporta, early 1st century, marble, 2.03m, Musei Vaticani, Braccio Nouvo, Rome. This piece shows how connected Augustus believed he was. He is a god on Earth. Octavius was adopted by Caesar and takes over Rome after Caesar’s death. He becomes a public manager. Because of this, he is able to stop the wars. He was named Augustus by the population; a name that said he was a god. Augustus’ wife, Livia, also ruled with him. Paxromana, roman peace, had happened for 200 years after Augustus’ death. Contributions such as city planning, administration, systems of law, architecture, civil engineering, and governmental and administrative structure. Augustus also pleased the plebeians by sharing the wealth. He created massive jobs and had very complex architectural building created. He creates sports, theatrical, and religious facilities. He even places aqueducts in the cities so that they have running water. The piece is very idealistic: Augustus was older during the time this piece was created, though he looks really young in the portrait. Because of his influence, the people took pride into their work. He also establishes great communication.