Art and the New Biology: Biological Forms and Patterns || The Role of Patterning in Music

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The Role of Patterning in MusicAuthor(s): Dana WilsonSource: Leonardo, Vol. 22, No. 1, Art and the New Biology: Biological Forms and Patterns(1989), pp. 101-106Published by: The MIT PressStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1575147 .

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The Role of Patterning in Music

Dana Wilson

If the human organism can be explained, at least in part, in terms of forms and patterning, so can the means and results of human expression. Large- and small-scale patterns are the essential building blocks for a musical composition, be it improvised or slowly conceived and notated. It is

through the exploration, manipulation and synthesis of patterns that great musical works are created. Thus my purpose here will be to illustrate the ways in which such patterning is essential to the construction of the music of several cultures.

Why rigorous patterning exists in music has become a focus of much investigation by theorists concerned with perception and learning. One possible explanation may be to see music as an extension or reflection of patterning in the human body. Our heartbeat, breathing mechanism, gait, sexual activity, working-eating-sleeping schedule and the female menstrual cycle (and patterns within each, such as circadian rhythms) are among the more obvious examples of such patterning. EmileJaques-Dalcroze, a pioneer in the

development of rhythmic sense in music education, felt that the human heartbeat serves as the basis for rhythm [1]. There is substantial evidence that during the Renaissance, it was believed that the heartbeat underlay the spiritual as well as the physical pulse of human beings, and that therefore the pulse of music (i.e. tempo, or speed) should be related to it. Marches, work songs and the vast musical litera- ture referred to collectively as dances support the thesis that certain functional music serves to express, or at least reinforce, elements of human physical activity.

Another way to interpret musical patterning might be in terms of music as a language, for there is evidence that within a given culture, music can be heard to adopt much of the phrase structure, inflections and cadence patterns of the language of that culture. This may be because of the im-

portant role that text has played in the development of vir-

tually all musical styles, as the following examples attest. The ancient Greeks considered poetry and music inseparable, the term 'music' meaning 'of the muses' and referring to several arts combined. (Greek terms such as 'iambic' and

'dactylic' are still used to describe meter of both poetry and

music.) During the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, West- ern European music was firmly rooted in Catholic chant; later, folksong had a strong influence on the development of religious and 'art' music. In India, classical music is derived from the Vedic chant (intoning of the Hindu scrip- tures), and vocal music is so dominant that it was not until the twentieth century that instrumental music began to flourish by itself [2]. Jazz is directly related to the 'blues', which originally was a vocal genre with or without accom-

paniment. And, until recently, the Japanese term for music

composition was fushizuke, which means literally 'adding a

Dana Wilson (composer), Ithaca College, Ithaca, NY 14850, U.S.A.

Received 15January 1988.

? 1989 SAST Pergamon Press plc. Printed in Great Britain. 0024-094X/89 $3.00+0.00

tune' (to a text). If speech is reliant upon patterns for communication, then music may also be reliant upon correlative patterns, even if text is no longer present. Beyond this, we may one

day understand how music by itself might communicate 'mean-

ing' to a listener, in the same way that verbal languages are understood to communicate 'mean-

ing'. Finally, many gestalt psycholo-

gists claim that human internal forces tend toward the "produc- tion of a perception which has 'good form', 'good gestalt' or

'pragnanz'. What this seems to mean is that there is always a ten-

dency to see an object as being simple, regular, symmetrical, continuous, closed and the like" [3]. Perhaps the sense of order

suggested by patterns in a given composition brings a certain satisfaction to the listener, while

ABSTRACT

Patterning plays a major role in the construction of music and, apparently, in the communication of ideas. In this article, I first discuss the possible reasons for the evolu- tion of patterning in music. Then I examine patterning in Western European 'art' music, American jazz and non-Western musics. Finally, I suggest physiological links between patterning in a composition and emotive response in a com- prehending listener.

a temporary disruption of those patterns promotes a sense of drama. Whatever the reasons, composers (including im-

provising performers) of all cultures appear to strive to create patterns that are recognizable as such. To illustrate this point, I will next examine patterning in various styles of music. It is likely that most of the concepts could be applied to the other arts as well, regardless of cultural roots.

WESTERN EUROPEAN 'ART' MUSIC An excellent starting point for an investigation of patterning in Western culture is the music of J. S. Bach (1665- 1750). During the period in which he was composing, there existed a general aesthetic concern referred to as the 'doctrine of affections'. The affections were rationalized emo- tional states or passions. During Bach's time, the composition of vocal music sought to express the affection of the text; in turn, instrumental compositions (or each movement of multimovement works) 'meditated' on one affection by restricting itself to one short, clearly defined pattern. The second movement of Bach's Brandenburg Concerto No. 2 is representative of this practice. If one examines the melodic patterns on which the passage is based (Fig. la), it can be seen that the second and third patterns are actually derived from the first. In the passage from the movement's

opening (Fig. lb), I have circled, dotted and squared the three patterns respectively to illustrate the degree to which

LEONARDO, Vol. 22, No. 1, pp. 101-106, 1989 101



6',r IIZJ' n1 A Lr I Lr LJCi II

3A'r ir' 11 Fig. 1. (a) (above) The melodic patterns inJ. S. Bach's Brandenburg Concerto No. 2, second movement. Brackets indicate similarity of material to illustrate how the second and third patterns are derived from the first. (b) (right) The

beginning of Bach's Brandenburg Concer- to No. 2, second movement. The three

patterns are delineated by a solid circle (pattern 1), a square (pattern 2) and a dotted circle (pattern 3).

4lb jl J l ij I ; IM l I

Fig. 2. Beethoven's Fifth Symphony, first movement: (a) (above) the opening four- note idea, and (b) (right) measures 6-21 (violin I and II and viola parts only), in-

dicating the deployment of the main idea of the composition.

Bach 'restricts' himself to this material. The lowest line of the excerpt, played by the cello, defines the under-

lying pulse and charts the harmonic

progression in order that the affection can be meditated upon in almost static fashion by the instrumental lines above. (In each of my examples, the

points should be clear from the visual

aspect of the music notation, even if the reader cannot 'read' the notation

per se. Also, all the points discussed can be easily heard in performance and are not merely theoretical con- structs.)

Perhaps the most popular work from the Western European tradition is the first movement of Beethoven's Fifth Symphony (1807). One reason for its great popularity may be due to its simple yet ingenious use of patterning. The work begins by isolating and

repeating the main idea of the entire

composition (Fig. 2a). Immediately thereafter, the patterning begins spin- ning a heroic, ascending gesture among the sections of the string orchestra, but in such a way that the clar-

uIa. Ilgv1 C I r I 'tL - uL

ity of the four-note idea is maintained, as is indicated by the circles in Fig. 2b.

Needless to say, this four-note idea becomes the melodic and rhythmic idea for the entire movement. Fur- thermore, the groupings, such as those shown in Fig. 2b, return intact at various points in the movement, thereby creating larger-scale identi- fiable patterns, which in turn help the listener absorb larger gestures and the movement's formal structure.

To represent patterning in the

European art music of the Romantic

period, let us turn to Richard Wagner (1813-1883), whose use of patterns in his gargantuan music dramas in- cluded the evocation of extra-musical

phenomena. The patterns, which he referred to as 'leitmotifs', each made

specific reference to characters or

concepts involved in the music drama.

[The leitmotifs] are for the most part short, concentrated, and (in inten- tion, atleast) so designed as to charac- terize their object at various levels of meaning: the motifs associated with Loki (in Wagner's Ringcycle), for example, not only depict the flickering

of flames but also suggest the un- stable, slippery character of Loki who is the god of lies and deceitful clever- ness, as well as of fire .... Wagner's leitmotifs are the essential musical substance of the work; they are used not as an exceptional device, but con- stantly, in intimate alliance with every step of the action [4].

Through repetition and transfor- mation, the patterns unify the work as

they serve the unfolding of dramatic events.

Wagner's 'music drama' Tristan and Isolde is about passionate love that cannot be consummated on earth due to social considerations. Therefore, the

prelude to the music drama is devoted

largely to the leitmotif representing desire, or longing. Shown in Fig. 3a, this leitmotif is actually in two parts, the second (y) merely an inversion of the first (x).

Figure 3b is the opening of the prelude. The patterning created by the leitmotif is clear, yet the composer in- troduces a sense of urgency (perhaps of despair) by gradually reducing the statement to just y (over a hidden x in

102 Wilson, The Role of Patterning in Music

1

2

Flanto.

Oboe.

Viollno.

Violoncello e Cembalo.

Uln. I

Uln.



Fig. 3. Wagner's Tristan and Isolde: (a) (above) the first leitmotif, divided into two parts, the second (y) being merely an inversion of the first (x), and (b) (right) the opening of the prelude (circles indicate deployment of the leitmotif through its x and y components, and fragments thereof).

measure 12), and then to just a frag- ment of y in measures 14 and 15.

It is important to note that this

pattern pervades the opera. At the

opera's very end, Isolde sings the famous 'love-death' aria, whose main motive clearly is derived from the leitmotif above. This not only creates uni-

fying 'pillars' on opposite ends of the

opera but also elucidates the dramatic intent: only in death can the desire be fulfilled.

'Art' music of the twentieth century continued the patterning principle, sometimes even more rigorously than its predecessors, so that coherence could be maintained when such patterning elements as dance rhythms or chord progressions were no longer employed. One technique that became important to the century, beginning with Arnold Schoenberg, is known as serialism. This is simply the

deployment of motifs, or 'cells', com-

prised of a few or several pitches or

rhythms (or, later, of other parameters such as dynamics), throughout a

composition. Interest was provided by inverting (an upward leap became a downward leap, for example), retro- grading (lines were played 'back- wards') and retrograde-inverting, as well as by manipulating other musical

parameters such as tone-color (instru- mentation). Another notable shift in aesthetic sense began in the 1960s with such composers as Philip Glass and Steve Reich. Through different tech- niques, their music restricts musical elements to very simple, repeated melodic patterns (thereby earning the label 'minimalism' used to describe the aural result), so that subtle shifts in materials are perceived as relatively major events, and complexity results not from melodic development but from rhythmic interplay.

AMERICAN JAZZ The various styles of jazz are musically definable largely in terms of the patterns upon which they rely for unity and expression. Furthermore, a study of the drums, bass, piano and melodic instrument (or voice) would reveal that each instrument has a specific role that is based largely on the type of pattern it performs. As the essence of jazz lies in improvisation, the restric- tive parameters are generally greater than the presuppositions considered in written composition-not fewer, as is commonly perceived. The patterns generated by these parameters are fairly audible in jazz that is firmly rooted in folk tradition, such as the so- called 'Dixieland'-style music. As jazz evolved away from the comfortable patterns of dance music (such as 'riffs'-simple figures repeated over and over in much big-band music of the 1930s and 1940s), some of the organizational patterns of the newjazz became rather abstruse for the general public.

Charlie Parker, one of the most

daring and inventive pioneers of jazz in the 1940s and 1950s, developed a style of playing referred to as 'bebop'. Due to its angularity, chromaticism (use of notes not immediately called for by the scale of a given passage) and intensity, this style was at first inacces- sible to the general public. Nonethe- less, his patterning is remarkably clear, both in its repetition of specific figures and in its delineation of phrase structure. Figure 4 is from an improvised Parker solo using the given chord patterns found in the first section of the

song "Cherokee". All the note possi- bilities essentially are predetermined by the given chord patterns, but how those notes are arranged to form fresh, coherent melodies is the chal- lenge to the improvisor. Without going into technical detail, I would

point out that the brief motif x per- meates the passage and ends every phrase, that the passage y is repeated exactly and that the remainder of the solo is comprised of motifs a, b and c. The solo continues far beyond the excerpt cited here and restricts itself essentially to these ideas.

The reader is reminded that be- neath this solo, the piano, bass and drums are also providing patterned gestures that serve to unify and propel the music. Finally, such patterns as illustrated in Fig. 4 are typical of the bebop style, and so in listening to several solos, one becomes aware of the pattern vocabulary, which serves to communicate through this musical style a certain stance and aesthetic.

NON-WESTERN MUSIC Patterning is also essential to the construction of music in other cultures, although aesthetics, language and musical function may determine the 'meaning' of those patterns. It should also be noted that much Western music written in the twentieth century has been influenced dramatically by the patterning principles of non-West- ern cultures-most notably African and Indian and, to a lesser degree, Japanese and Indonesian.

Rasa, the classical Indian theory of aesthetics, classifies human emotions and is concerned both with how emotions are expressed and with how they can be aroused in the listener [5]. (This is not dissimilar to the Baroque 'doctrine of affections', or, for that matter, to Aristotle's 'doctrine of ethos'.) To suggest these emotions, each of which is bound up with a spiritual state and time of day or season of the year, melodic patterns known as 'ragas' have evolved over the centu- ries. These ragas are projected in time by means of complex rhythmic cycles

Wilson, The Role of Patterning in Music 103



known as 'talas'. Together, the raga and tala form the framework for the

composition, which is largely improvised.

Due to the participatory nature of most music in African societies, the in- dividual elements of their musics may appear on the surface to be quite sim-

ple. Perhaps because of the music's link to dance and hand-clapping, great importance is given to rhythmic patterning, although melodic and, even to some degree, harmonic patterns are clearly present.

The complexity comes in the layering (aural superimposition of one pattern upon another) of deceptively simple rhythmic patterns so that a

complex composite emerges. The fact that each pattern is often projected by an instrument of a unique tone color or pitch adds to the aural complexity and density. Figure 5, a passage from a Ghanaian piece for double bell (top line) and three shakers, illustrates this

layering [6]. To appreciate the intri-

cacy of the passage, one should place a straight-edged instrument vertically to the left of the passage and then move it steadily to the right across the

passage: at the points notated, the

given instrument or combination of instruments is struck or shaken.

These patterns are heard both in-

dividually and as a whole. Not notated

(except in Western scholarly articles), the patterns traditionally are learned

by rote and then altered according to the preconceived composition or im-

provised direction of a master drum- mer. (It is ironic that early European missionaries in Africa, unfamiliar with

patterns of such rhythmic complexity, described the music as incoherent and its practitioners as lacking rhythmic sense! It is also worth mentioning that this West African practice of layering rhythmic patterns is one of its most

important contributions to jazz and, later, to jazz's step-child, rock music.)

On the Indonesian island of Bali, art, religion and social living are inte-

grated to an unusually high degree. As in Africa, to reflect and reinforce the social web, the music of the gamelan- the traditional ensemble of gongs, metal xylophones, drums and the like-is structured so that everyone can take part in performance. This means that fairly simple patterns are

superimposed, one upon the other, such that the higher-sounding instruments are responsible for faster patterns while the lower-sounding instruments play the slower patterns. This

hierarchy of sound is represented in

Fig. 6. The patterns are heard not so much as being juxtaposed to one another, as in the African examplejust discussed, as they are heard being sup- portive of one another, allowing the

composite to bring shimmering depth to the music and the points of intersec- tion to provide structural delineation.

Gagaku,Japanese court music-and

probably the oldest ensemble music still in existence-has become struc-

turally formalized. It is based on two basic scale (pitch) structures derived from Chinese and Buddhist musical traditions and on three basic rhythmic structures, depending on whether the

piece is slow, medium or fast. What is

especially curious to many Western listeners, is that within this rigorous patterning, "both the formal and pro- gressive elements (seem to) have been minimized, leaving only the beauty of sound, the exotic creature in a slightly clouded drop of amber" [7].

LARGE-SCALE FORM The repetition of sections, which pro- vides formal structure for a composition, is, in a sense, patterning on a

large scale. Therefore, since micro- cosmic patterning is so crucial to musical coherence, as I have suggested, it follows that the macrostructure of

compositions relies heavily on patterning. Indeed, all of the common structural formulas used in Western music

rely on this relationship, as the follow-

ing examples illustrate: Variation form (often referred to as

theme and variations) is perhaps the form that is the most obviously de-

pendent upon the patterning principle, for each section of a piece is related by definition to the first section, or theme. This form is used not only in compositions bearing the name 'variation' but also in symphonic movements (e.g. Brahms's Symphony No. 4, last movement) and even in

operas (e.g. Berg's Wozzeck). It is also the underlying principle of traditional

jazz improvisation. Sonata-allegro form incorporates the

repetition of the first section, or ex-

position, both at the start of and toward the end of a movement to provide a certain symmetry. This is the fundamental form of virtually all first movements of symphonies from the Classical period (e.g. the symphonies of Mozart, Haydn and early Beethoven).

Ternary form has a three-part structure, usually ABA, where A represents the first large section, which returns at the end, and B represents a middle, contrasting section. Many songs are in this form, even several of the extended arias from Wagnerian operas.

Rondoform is an extension of ternary form in which additional contrasting sections are interjected, creating, for

example, the structure ABACA. Many last movements of classical concerti are in this form, allowing the soloist to be featured during the contrasting sections while the orchestra returns for the A statements. It should be noted that the materials of the con-

trasting sections are related to the patterns found in the A sections, so that, on a higher level, the entire movement expresses a unified thought.

Non-Western formal structure is also readily apparent. Indian classical music relies heavily on two-part forms, the first to explore the raga that will be

employed in the second, improvised section. African music relies on such

principles as 'call and response', whereby a soloist is 'answered' peri- odically by a group's patterned re-

sponse, and 'ostinato', the device of constant repetition of a patterned gesture over which a melody or other patterns are gradually layered. Balinese

gamelan music relies upon repetition of entire sections, while Japanese gagaku relies primarily upon the ABA form.

PATTERNING, COHERENCE AND EXPRESSION It probably should not be left to a musician to speculate as to the nature of the link between such patterning and human artistic expression. None- theless, the implications from the above discussion point to some tempt- ing if not obvious conclusions.

The physical attributes of sound-

frequency, intensity, wave form and time-have physiological correlates in

pitch, loudness, timbre and duration. (Frequency and wave form are them- selves constructed of physical patterns.) They travel through the hear-

ing mechanism to the brain, which "is

biologically fashioned in such a way that there is normally a balance between the cognitive and feeling aspects of experience. Man thinks (cortex) and feels (limbic system) con-




currently, although the balance may be disturbed" [8]. As for the cortex, "we may imagine (its) normal operation as a continuous interplay between prediction and sensory confirmation, with interspersed periods of pure pre- dictive operation, called thinking" [9].

Most composers working in the Western tradition, then, write in estab- lished styles and create patterns within a work to suggest predictability and to involve the listeners actively in predicting. In turn, the greater familiarity listeners have with a style, the more easily they can perceive patterns in a given piece in that style, and the sooner they can begin to become involved in the act of predicting. Such involvement does not imply exact prediction of an upcoming event; rather, it implies that persons use past ex-

periences to make sense out of new sit- uations. Conversely, unfamiliarity with a given style causes a lack of expectations, and consequently leads to a less

meaningful experience [10]. (This lat- ter point helps explain why music reliant upon a new aesthetic principle or style is difficult for an audience to

grasp.) On the other hand, too much ful-

fillment of such predicting leads to ha- bituation, the mechanism in the retic- ular system of the brain that keeps the brain from being bothered by continuous, unimportant signals [11]. This can lead to the mind's focusing on other things, or to boredom-even to drowsiness. Interestingly, too many contrasting or novel ideas can lead to a similar result-frustration and sleep [12]. Thus the composer must find the successful middle ground: en- couraging the listener's expectations and predictions through the repetition of patterns, and then manipulating those materials so that the expectations are either fulfilled or not fulfilled.

When the predicted events do not occur, the brain has to return to the memory store to search for alterna- tive clues. This process involves the limbic system.

When a sufficient mismatch between predictions and sensory input occurs, chemicals are released into the bloodstream. These chemicals, mostly hormones, cause physiological responses in the body (such as in- creased heart rate) which are moni- tored by the brain and perceived as emotion or affect [13].

Great composers walk this tightrope perfectly for a great number of

b Mftm

a

x

a iC

-v w rI - A* ? h \

y I b2 x x I

Fig. 4. An excerpt from Charlie Parker's improvised solo on the song "Cherokee" (letters illustrate pattern deployment).

y I b2 X

I c

b' c

x b2 a xx (c)

X

c b1 x al b

cIT r r 1

C

c Fig. 5. An excerpt from a Ghanaian piece for double bell (top line) and three shakers, illustrating the layering of patterns. Each instrument repeats its line over and over, sometimes with slight variation.

double bell 1

shaker 1 I

shaker 2

shaker 3

12 0

J i I J t

12: J , ] , ,1h J ? (Stems up = upward 5 p L i P motion; stems down

b . J J J j .: downwardmotion.)

6, , , J, , , J : T * LJ k- Li

Fig. 6. The hierarchy (based primarily on pitch) of sound patterns in Balinese gamelan music (rhythms not exact). The lower-pitched instruments are heard as supporting and grouping the higher-pitched instruments.

higher-pitched instruments

J J J ;J J J J ; J J J J

v J J -J J tJ J lover-pitched instruments

S .. .

listeners. The movement by Bach continues beyond the excerpt illustrated to spin the meditative affection that he apparently wished to convey; two- thirds of the way through, the pattern fragments, thereby suggesting uncer-

tainty, but then the complete pattern returns to provide the movement with a certain repose. In the remainder of the first movement of the Fifth Sym- phony, Beethoven manipulates his pattern in all sorts of tortuous ways until it finally emerges intact, repeating over and over to confirm the tri-

umph. The fragmentation and up-

ward reaching of Wagner's 'longing' motif, already begun in the opening of the prelude, prevents the fulfillment of the listener's expectations until the very end of the opera a few hours later.

The study of traditional Western music composition, performance and period is the study of this tightrope walk. To master these elements, the

composer works at pacing and balanc- ing the repetition and manipulation of patterns. The performer studies a score in order to interpret the composer's intentions and practices patterns, such as scales and etudes, in

Wilson, The Role of Patterning in Music 105

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order to play them 'automatically' (via the cerebellum) when they form part of a composition, thus allowing the cortex to focus consciously on larger- scale concerns. The improvisor practices scales and melodic and rhythmic patterns in isolation in order to insert them with facility into an improvisation so that a style can be evoked or musical ideas can be developed or connected instantaneously. The his- torian, musicologist and ethnomusi-

cologist help the listener to understand better the cultural determinants of a given style, and the listener thus becomes more involved in the predic- tive process-in hopes of sensing at the deepest level what the composer wanted to 'say'.

Becoming more aware of how patterning affects the brain will probably

not bring us closer to the meaning of music. Paradoxically, the stronger the musical message, the less likely it ever will be explainable verbally or perhaps even understood rationally. As Philip Glass commented when asked about the meaning of a rather abstract opera he had written in collaboration with the director Robert Wilson, "We don't know what it means; we only know it means something." That, apparently, is good enough.

References and Notes 1. EmileJaques-Dalcroze, Rhythm, Music, and Ed- ucation, H. F. Rubenstein, trans. (London: Chatto and Windus, 1912).

2. B. Wade, "Some Principles of Indian Classical Music", in Musics of Many Cultures, E. May, ed. (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1980).

3. D. W. Hamlyn, The Psychology of Perception (Lon- don: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1957) p. 53.

4. D.J. Grout, A History of Western Music (W.W. Norton and Co., 1960) p. 565.

5. Wade [2] p. 88.

6. A. K. Ladzepko and K. Ladzepko, "Anlo Ewe Music in Anyako, Volta Region, Ghana", in Musics of Many Cultures [2].

7. W. P Malm, Japanese Music and Musical Instru- ments (Rutland, VT: Charles E. Tuttle Co., 1974).

8. D. A. Hodges, Neurophysical and Musical Be- havior. Handbook of MusicPsychology (Dubuque, IA: Kendall/Hunt Publishing Co., 1980) pp. 214- 215.

9. V. Braitenberg, "Thoughts on the Cerebral Cortex", Journal of Theoretical Biology 46 (1974) p. 431.

10. Hodges [8] p. 210.

11. Hodges [8] p. 213.

12. K H. Pribram, "Neurological Notes on the Art of Educating", in Theories of Learning and In- struction, 63rd Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, E. R. Hilgard, ed. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1964) p. 84.

13. Hodges [8] pp. 210-211.




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Art and the New Biology: Biological Forms and Patterns || The Role of Patterning in Music