Arranged Marriage - Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia

8/19/2019 Arranged Marriage - Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia

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3/20/2016 Arranged marriage - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

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Arranged marriageFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Arranged marriage is a type of marital union where the bride and groom are selected by their families.

Contents

1 History

2 Comparison

2.1 Types

3 Causes and prevalence

3.1 Child marriage

3.2 Poverty

3.3 Late marriage

3.4 Limited choices

3.5 Physical disabilities

3.6 Tradition

3.7 Custom

3.8 Politics

3.9 Wealth and inheritance issues

3.10 Bride-wealth

3.11 Religion

4 Controversy

4.1 Sham marriages

4.2 Human rights

4.3 Stability

4.4 Love and respect in arranged versus autonomous marital life

5 See also

6 References


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7 External links

History

Arranged marriages were very common throughout the world until the 18th century.[1] Typically,marriages everywhere were arranged by parents, grandparents or other relatives. Some historicalexceptions are known, such as courtship and betrothal rituals during Renaissance period of Italy[2] and

Gandharva marriages in Vedic period of India.[3]

In China, arranged marriages (baoban hunyin,包辦婚姻) - sometimes called blind marriages (manghun,盲婚) - were the norm before the mid 20th century. A marriage was a negotiation and decision between

parents and other older members of two families. The boy and girl, were typically told to get married,

without a right to consent, even if they had never met each other until the wedding day.[4][5][6]

Arranged marriages were the norm in Russia before the early 20th century, most of which wereendogamous.[7]

Until the first half of the 20th century, arranged marriages were common in migrant families in the

United States.[8] They were sometimes called picture-bride marriages among Japanese Americanimmigrants because the bride and groom knew each other only through the exchange of photographs

before the day of their marriage. These marriages among immigrants were typically arranged by parents,or relatives from the country of their origin. As immigrants settled in and melded into a new culture,arranged marriages shifted first to quasi-arranged marriages where parents or friends made introductionsand the couple met before the marriage; over time, the marriages among the descendants of theseimmigrants shifted to autonomous marriages driven by individual's choice, dating and courtship

preferences, along with an increase in interracial marriages.[8][9] Similar historical dynamics are claimed

in other parts of the world.[10][11]

Arranged marriages have declined in prosperous countries with social mobility, ascendancy of individualism and the nuclear family; nevertheless, arranged marriages are still seen in countries of Europe and North America, among royal families, aristocrats and minority religious groups such as in

placement marriage among Fundamentalist Mormon groups of the United States. In most other parts of the world, arranged marriages continue to varying degrees and increasingly in quasi-arranged form,

along with autonomous marriages.[1]

Comparison

Marriages have been categorized into four groups in scholarly studies:[1][12]

parents or guardians select, the individuals are neither consulted nor have any say before themarriage (forced arranged marriage)

parents or guardians select, then the individuals are consulted, who consider and consent, and each

individual has the power to refuse; sometimes, the individuals meet - in family setting or privately- before engagement and marriage as in shidduch custom among Orthodox Jewsindividuals select, then parents or guardians are consulted, who consider and consent, and parentshave the power to refuseindividuals select, the parents or guardians are neither consulted nor have any say before the

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shidduchhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Placement_marriagehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endogamoushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gandharva_marriage


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The Ambitious Mother and the

Obliging Clergyman - a cartoon byCharles Dana Gibson caricaturingarranged marriages in early 20thcentury United States. A parent insiststheir daughter marry a man ongrounds of wealth or aristocratic title,without considering the girl's wishes.

The clergyman is caricaturedofficiating the marriage with a blindfold.

marriage (autonomous marriage)

Gary Lee and Lorene Stone suggest that most adult marriages inrecent modern history, are some gradation between extremeexample of either ideal arranged or ideal autonomous marriage,

in part because marriage is a social institution.[13] Similarly,Broude and Greene, after studying 142 cultures worldwide, have

reported that 130 cultures have elements of arrangedmarriage.[14]

Extreme examples of forced arranged marriage have beenobserved in some societies, particularly in child marriages of girls below age 12. Illustrations include vani which is currentlyseen in some tribal / rural parts of Pakistan, and Shim-puamarriage in Taiwan before the 1970s (Tongyangxi in China).

Types

There are many kinds of arranged marriages, some of these

are:[15][16][17][18]

Arranged exogamous marriage: is one where a third party finds and selects the bride and groomirrespective of their social, economic and cultural group.Arranged endogamous marriage: is one where a third party finds and selects the bride and groomfrom a particular social, economic and cultural group.Consanguineous marriage: is a type of arranged endogamous marriage.[19] It is one where the

bride and groom share a grandparent or near ancestor. Examples of these include first cousin

marriages, uncle-niece marriages, second cousin marriages, and so on. The most commonconsanguineous marriages are first cousin marriages, followed by second cousin and uncle-niecemarriages. These types of arranged marriages are most common in Muslim communities of theworld. Between 25 to 40% of all marriages in parts of Saudi Arabia and Pakistan are first cousinmarriages; while overall consanguineous arranged marriages exceed 65 to 80% in various regionsof the Middle East, North Africa and Islamic Central Asia.[20][21]

The bride and groom in all of the above types of arranged marriages, usually do have the right toconsent; if the bride or the groom or both do not have a right to consent, it is called a forced marriage.

Non-consanguineous arranged marriage is one where the bride and groom do not share a grandparent or near ancestor. This type of arranged marriages is common in Hindu and Buddhist South Asia, Southeast

Asia, East Asia and Christian Latin America and sub-Saharan Africa.[22]

Consanguineous marriages are against the law in many parts of United States and Europe.[23] Whileconsanguineous arranged marriages are common and culturally preferred in Islamic countries andmigrants from Muslim countries to other parts of the world, they are culturally forbidden or considered

undesirable in most Christian, Hindu and Buddhist societies.[24] Consanguineous arranged marriageswere common in Jewish communities before the 20th century, but have declined to less than 10% in

modern times.[25][26]

Causes and prevalence

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forced_marriagehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cousin_marriagehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consanguinityhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shim-pua_marriagehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vani_(custom)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Dana_Gibsonhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:The_Ambitious_Mother_and_the_Obliging_Clergyman.jpg


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"Marriage à-la-mode" by WilliamHogarth: a satire on arrangedmarriages and prediction of ensuingdisaster

Over human history through modern times, the practice of arranged marriages have been encouraged by

a combination of factors such as the practice of child marriage,[27] late marriage, tradition,[28][29] culture,

religion, poverty and limited choice, disabilities,[30] wealth and inheritance issues, politics, social and

ethnic conflicts.[31][32][33]

Child marriage

Child marriage, particularly those below the age of 12, does not prepare or provide the individual much opportunity to make aninformed, free choice about matrimony. These child marriages

are implicitly arranged marriages.[34] In rural areas of sub-Saharan Africa, South Asia and Latin America, poverty and lack of options such as being able to attend school leave little choice

to children other than be in early arranged marriages.[27]

According to Warner, in nations with the highest rates of child

marriages, the marriage of the girl is almost always arranged byher parents or guardians.[35] The nations with the highest rates of arranged child marriages are: Niger, Chad, Mali, Bangladesh,Guinea, Central African Republic, Afghanistan, Yemen, andPakistan. Arranged child marriages are also observed in parts of

the Americas.[36][37]

Poverty

In impoverished communities, every adult mouth to feed becomes a continuing burden. Arranging amarriage of a daughter, scholars say,[38] is a means to reduce this burden. Poverty, thus, is a driver of arranged marriage.

This theory,[39][40] is supported by the observed rapid drop in arranged marriages in fast growingeconomies of Asia. The benefit parents received from the contributions from their earning single

daughters has been cited[41] as a reason for their growing reluctance to see their daughters marry at tooearly an age.

Late marriage

Late marriage, particularly past the age of 30, reduces the pool of available bachelorettes for

autonomous marriages. Introductions and arranged marriages become a productive option.[42]

For example, in part due to economic prosperity, about 40% of modern Japanese women reach the ageof 29 and have never been married. To assist late marriages, the traditional custom of arranged marriagescalled Miai-kekkon is re-emerging. It involves the prospective bride and groom, family, friends and amatchmaker (nakōdo,仲人); the pair is selected by a process with the individuals and family involved(iegara,家柄); and typically the couple meet three times, in public or private, before deciding if they

want to get engaged.[43][44][45]

Limited choices

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miaihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Hogarthhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marriage_%C3%A0-la-mode_(Hogarth)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Marriage_A-la-Mode_1,_The_Marriage_Settlement_-_William_Hogarth.jpg


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Migrant minority ethnic populations have limited choice of partners, particularly when they arestereotyped, segregated or avoided by the majority population. This encourages homogamy and arrangedmarriages within the ethnic group. Examples of this dynamic include Sikh marriages between 1910 to

1980 in Canada,[46] homogamous quasi-arranged marriages between European descent South

Africans,[47] arranged marriages among Hasidic Jews,[48][49] and arranged marriages among JapaneseAmerican immigrants before the 1960s, who would travel back to Japan, to marry the spouse arranged

by the family, and then return married. In other cases, a girl from Japan would arrive in the United States

as a picture bride, pre-arranged to marry the Japanese American man on arrival, whom she had never met.[50]

Physical disabilities

Certain physical disabilities increase the likelihood of arranged, even forced marriages in some parts of

the world.[30][51] Okonjo says that a physical disability in a bride, and even more so, a groom is one of

the reasons for early arranged marriages in Nigeria.[52]

Tradition

Many cultures traditionally seek endogamous marriages. A prominent example of this practice is theHindu culture where the bride and groom belong to the same caste, but are non-consanguineous, that isthe bride and groom are not blood relatives nor extended family members. Other examples of cultures

following the endogamous arranged marriage tradition include Amish people in United States,[53][54]

Orthodox Jews in Canada, the United States, Israel, and Western Europe,[55][56] Arab Christians[57] such

as Coptic Christians in Egypt.[58] Arranged marriage is also the tradition of many Islamic nations of West Asia and North Africa, but with the difference that between 17% to majority of all marriages in

these countries are also consanguineous marriages.[59][60][61][62]

Endogamous non-consanguineous marriages limit the number of potential partners available, particularly when population size for the religion or caste or group is small; a limited marriagable poolmakes locating potential partners challenging, and encourages arranged or quasi-arranged

marriages.[63][64]

The practice of endogamous consanguineous marriage, dramatically limits the marriagable pool; itinherently encourages marriages arranged according to tradition and birth. Over 1.3 billion people,

predominantly of Islamic faith practice endogamous consanguineous arranged marriages.

[65][66]

Consanguineous arranged marriages are presently also observed, though to a much lesser extent, in some

ethnic groups of Africa, India, Indonesia, Polynesia and South America.[67] In Pakistan and SaudiArabia, majority (65%+) of all marriages are endogamous and consanguineous arranged marriages.More than 40% of all marriages are endogamous and consanguineous in Iraq, Iran, Jordan, Syria,Yemen, Kuwait, UAE, Oman, Sudan, Libya and Mauritania; and over 1 in 5 marriages in Turkey, Egypt,Algeria, regions of Nigeria, India and Malaysia with high Muslim populations are endogamous and

consanguineous arranged marriages.[65][68] Among these Islamic populations, arranged marriagesinclude endogamous and non-consanguineous marriages, and therefore exceed the above observed ratesof endogamous and consanguineous marriages.

Custom

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coptic_Christianshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arab_Christianshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orthodox_Judaismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amishhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hinduhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homogamy_(sociology)


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The arranged marriage in 1697, of Marie Adélaïde of Savoy, age 12 to

Louis, Duke of Burgundy, heir apparent to the throne of France, as aresult of the Treaty of Turin (1696).The marriage created an alliance

between Louis XIV of France and theDuke of Savoy.

The consequence of some customs is arranged marriage. For example, in rural and tribal parts of Pakistan and Afghanistan, disputes, unpaid debts in default and crimes such as murder are settled by a

council of village elders, called jirga.[69] A typical punishment for a crime committed by males involvesrequiring the guilty family to marry their virgin girl between 5 to 12 year old to the other family. Thiscustom requires no consent from the girl, or even her parents. Such arranged child marriages are called

vani (custom), swara and sak in different regional languages of Pakistan.[70][71][72]

Another custom in certain Islamic nations,[73][74] such as Pakistan, is watta satta, where brother-sister pair of one family are swapped as spouses of brother-sister pair of another family. In other words, thewife is also the sister-in-law for the males in two families. This custom inherently leads to arranged formof marriage. About 30% of all marriages in western rural regions of Pakistan are by custom watta-satta

marriages, and 75% of these Muslim marriages are between cousins and other blood relatives.[75][76][77]

Some immigrant families prefer customary practice of arranged marriage.[78]

Politics

Arranged marriages across feudal lords, city states andkingdoms, as a means of establishing political alliances, trade

and peace were common in human history.[45][79][80]

Wealth and inheritance issues

Throughout most of human history, marriage has been a socialinstitution that produced children and organized inheritance of

property from one generation to next. Various cultures, particularly some wealthy royals and aristocratic families,arranged marriages in part to conserve or streamline the

inheritance of their wealth.[81]

Tongyangxi, also known as Shim-pua marriage in Taiwanese -literally child or little daughter-in-law - was a tradition of arranged marriage, in which a poor family would arrange andmarry a pre-adolescent daughter into a richer family as a

servant.[82] The little girl provided slave-like free labour, and also the daughter-in-law to the adoptivefamily's son. This sort of arranged marriage, in theory, enabled the girl to escape poverty and wealthy

family to get free labour and a daughter-in-law. Zhaozhui was a related custom by which a wealthyfamily that lacked an heir would arrange marriage of a boy child from another family. The boy wouldmove in with the wealthy family, take on the surname of the new family, and marry the family's

daughter. Such arranged marriages helped maintain inheritance bloodlines.[83] Similar uxorilocalarranged marriages to preserve wealth inheritance were common in Korea, Japan and other parts of the

world.[84][85][86]

Bride-wealth

In many cultures, particularly in parts of Africa and the Middle East, daughters are valuable on themarriage market, because the groom and his family must pay cash and property for the right to marry thedaughter. This is termed as bride-wealth and locally, by various names such as Lobola and Wine

Carrying.[87][88] The bride-wealth is typically kept by the bride's family, after the marriage, and is a

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source of income to poor families. The brothers, father and male relatives of the bride typically takekeen interest in arranging her marriage to a man who is willing to pay the most wealth in exchange for

the right to marry her.[89][90]

Religion

Some religious dominations recognize marriages only within the faith. Of the major religions of the

world, Islam forbids marriage of girls born to a devout parent to a man who does not belong to thatreligion. In other words, Islam forbids marriage of Muslim girls to non-Muslim men,[91] and the

religious punishment for those who marry outside might be severe.[92] This is one of the motivations of

arranged marriages in Islamic minority populations in Europe.[93][94]

Some Christian denominations allow marriage between Christian and a non-Christian. 1 Corinthians7:14 states that "the unbelieving husband has been sanctified by his wife, and the unbelieving wife has

been sanctified by her believing husband."

Controversy

Arranged marriages are actively debated between scholars. The questions debated include whether arranged marriages are being used to abuse international immigration system; whether arranged

marriages inherently violate human rights, particularly women's rights;[95] whether they yield more

stable marriages for raising children, the next generation;[96] and whether there is more or less loving,

respectful relationship for the married couple.[97]

Sham marriages

In the United Kingdom, public discussion[98] has questioned whether international arranged marriagesare a sham, a convenient means to get residency and European citizenship to some male or femaleimmigrants, who would otherwise be denied a visa to enter the country. These fears have been stoked byobserved divorces once the minimum married residence period requirement is met. MP Ann Cryer hasalleged examples of such abuse by West Asian Muslim families in her motion to the UK's House of

Commons.[99] The United States has seen a similar controversy with sham arranged marriages.[100][101]

Human rights

Various international organizations, including UNICEF, have campaigned for laws to ban arranged

marriages of children, as well as forced arranged marriages.[102] Article 15 and 16 of The Convention onthe Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) specifically cover marriage

and family law, which support such as ban.[103][104]

Arranged marriages are a matter of debate and disagreements. Activists such as Charlotte Bunch suggestthat marriages arranged by parents and other family members, typically assume heterosexual preferenceand involve emotional pressure; this drives some individuals into marriages that they consent under

duress.[95]

Bunch suggests that marriages should be autonomous.In contrast, preventing arranged marriages may harm many individuals who want to get married and can

benefit from parental participation in finding and selecting a mate. For example, Willoughby suggests[97]

that arranged marriages work because they remove anxiety in process of finding Mr. and Ms. Right.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ann_Cryer


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Parents, families and friends provide an independent perspective when they participate in learning andevaluating the other person, past history, behavior, as well as the couple's mutual compatibility.Willoughby further suggests that parents and family provide more than input in the screening andselection process; often, they provide financial support for the wedding, housing, emotional support andother valuable resources for the couple as they navigate past the wedding into married life, and help raisetheir children.

Michael Rosenfeld says[97]

that the differences between autonomous marriages and arranged marriagesare empirically small; many people meet, date and choose to marry or cohabit with those who are similar in background, age, interests and social class they feel most similar to, screening factors most parentswould have used for them anyway, according to Rosenfeld. Assuming the pool from which mates arescreened and selected is large, Rosenfeld suggests that the differences between the two approaches to

marriages are not as great as some imagine them to be.[97] Others[105] have expressed sentiments similar to Rosenfeld.

Stability

Divorce rates have climbed in the European Union and the United States, with increase in autonomousmarriage rates. The lowest divorce rates in the world are in cultures with high rates of arranged

marriages such as Amish culture of United States (1%),[106] Hindus of India (3%),[97] and Ultra-

Orthodox Jews of Israel (7%).[107] In contrast, over 50% of self-arranged marriages in many parts of

Europe and United States end up in divorce.[108][109] This has led scholars to ask if arranged marriagesare more stable than autonomous marriages, and whether this stability matters. Others suggest that thelow divorce rates may not reflect stability, rather it may reflect the difficulty in divorce process andsocial ostracism to the individuals, who choose to live in a dysfunctional marriage rather than face the

consequences of a divorce.[97]Also, the perception of high divorce rates attributed to self-arranged

marriages in the United States is being called into question[110] and no authoritative data is available tosupport the theory that Hindus of India continue to enjoy low divorce rates.

There is a difference in observed divorce rates between various types of arranged marriages. The divorcerates in Islamic countries with consanguineous arranged marriages such as Saudi Arabia, Turkey, Egypt,

Qatar, Jordan is between 20% to 35%,[111] in contrast to less than 10% divorce rates in non-consanguineous arranged marriages among Amish people, Hindus and Orthodox Jews.

Love and respect in arranged versus autonomous marital life

Various small sample surveys have been done to ascertain if arranged marriages or autonomousmarriages have a more satisfying married life. The results are mixed - some state marriage satisfaction is

higher in autonomous marriages, others find no significant differences.[112] Johnson and Bachan have

questioned the small sample size and conclusions derived from them.[113]

Scholars[97][114] ask whether love and respect in marital life is greater in arranged marriages thanautonomous marriages. Epstein suggests that in many arranged marriages, love emerges over time.

Neither autonomous nor arranged marriages offer any guarantees. Many arranged marriages also end up

being cold and dysfunctional as well, with reports of abuse.[115][116][117]

See also


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Arranged marriage in the Indian subcontinentArranged marriages in JapanBride priceBride kidnappingChild marriageDowryLavender marriageMail-order bride

MarriageMarriage of convenienceMarriage of stateMarriage in PakistanMarriage in South KoreaMarriage marketMarriageable ageMarried at First SightMatchmakingMatrimonial websites

Redorer son blasonRoyal intermarriageShidduchShim-pua marriageShotgun weddingWedding celebrations in the Radom region

Log Kya Kahenge

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River Niger. Journal of Comparative Family Studies, 23(3), pages 339-360.53. Hurd, J. P. (1985). Kissing cousins: Frequencies of cousin types in "Nebraska" Amish marriages.Biodemography and Social Biology, 32(1-2), pages 82-89

54. McKUSICK, V. A., Hostetler, J. A., & Egeland, J. A. (1964). Genetic studies of the Amish. Bulletin of theJohns Hopkins Hospital, 115, 203-222.

55. Schnoor, R. F. (2002). tradition and innovation in an ultra-orthodox Community: the hasidim of outremont.Canadian Jewish Studies/Études juives canadiennes, pages 55-56

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58. Somervill, Barbara (2007). Teens in Egypt. Capstone; ISBN 978-0756532949; page 41-43, 5759. Islam, M. M. (2012). The practice of consanguineous marriage in Oman: prevalence, trends and determinants.Journal of biosocial science, 44(5), 571

60. Hussain, R. (2005). The effect of religious, cultural and social identity on population genetic structure amongMuslims in Pakistan. Annals of Human Biology, 32(2), 145-153.

61. Saadat, M., Ansari-Lari, M., & Farhud, D. D. (2004), Short Report Consanguineous marriage in Iran, Annalsof human biology, 31(2), pages 263-269

62. Khoury, S. A., & Massad, D. (1992). Consanguineous marriage in Jordan, American journal of medicalgenetics, 43(5), pages 769-775

63. Brown, C. H. (1981). demographic constraints on caste: a Fiji Indian example.American Ethnologist, 8(2), pages 314-328

64. Adams, J. W., & Kasakoff, A. B. (1975). Factors underlying endogamous group size. Population and socialorganization, pages 147-17365. Hanan Hamamy (July 2012), Consanguineous marriages

(http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3419292/), Journal Community Genet. 3(3), pages 185–19266. Tadmouri GO, Nair P, Obeid T, Al Ali MT, Al Khaja N, Hamamy HA (2009), Consanguinity and

reproductive health among Arabs (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2765422/), ReproductiveHealth; pages 6:17

67. Khlat, M. (1997). Endogamy in the Arab world. OXFORD MONOGRAPHS ON MEDICAL GENETICS,30, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0195093056; pages 63-82

68. Bittles A. The global prevalence of consanguinity (http://www.consang.net); access date: September 201369. Vani verdict (http://tribune.com.pk/story/449221/vani-verdict/) The Tribune (IHT / New York Times Group),

Pakistan (October 9, 2012)70. Nasrullah, M., Muazzam, S., Bhutta, Z. A., & Raj, A. (2013). Girl Child Marriage and Its Effect on Fertility

in Pakistan: Findings from Pakistan Demographic and Health Survey, 2006–2007. Maternal and child health journal, pp 1-10

71. [ Vani a social evil] Anwar Hashmi and Rifat Koukab, The Fact (Pakistan), (July 2004)

http://tribune.com.pk/story/449221/vani-verdict/http://www.consang.net/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780195093056http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2765422/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3419292/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780756532949http://www.nps.gov/history/history/online_books/5views/5views4a.htmhttp://www.yivoencyclopedia.org/article.aspx/Hasidism/Everyday_Lifehttp://www.pbs.org/alifeapart/intro_3.htmlhttp://www.hanamiweb.com/omiai.html


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72. Ahsan, I. (2009). PANCHAYATS AND JIRGAS (LOK ADALATS): Alternative Dispute Resolution Systemin Pakistan. Strengthening Governance Through Access To Justice

73. Latif, Z. (2010), The silencing of women from the Pakistani Muslim Mirpuri community in violentrelationships. Honour, Violence, Women and Islam, 29

74. Beswick, S. (2012). Brian J. Peterson. Islamization from Below: The Making of Muslim Communities inRural French Sudan, 1880–1960. The American Historical Review, 117(4), Chapter 5, pp 1329-1360

75. Watta Satta: Bride Exchange and Women’s Welfare in Rural Pakistan(https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/7130) Hanan G. Jacoby and Ghazala Mansuri, World

Bank Policy Research Working Paper 4126, February 2007 (Washington DC)76. PAKISTAN: Traditional marriages ignore HIV/AIDS threat (http://www.irinnews.org/report/75716/pakistan-traditional-marriages-ignore-hiv-aids-threat) IRIN, United Nations press service (6 December 2007)

77. Charsley, K. (2007), Risk, trust, gender and transnational cousin marriage among British Pakistanis, Ethnicand Racial Studies, 30(6), pp 1117-1131

78. Arranged Marriage: Trapped Between Two Cultures (http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=95683604). National Public Radio. Retrieved on 2012-04-02.

79. Harris, B. J. (1989). Power, Profit, and Passion: Mary Tudor, Charles Brandon, and the Arranged Marriagein Early Tudor England. Feminist Studies, 15(1), pages 59-88

80. Fossum, U. M. S., & Boyd, K. (2010). Arranged Marriage–A violation of human rights?. University of California, Berkeley

81. Coontz, S. (2006). Marriage, a history: How love conquered marriage. Penguin82. Judd, E. R. (1989). Niangjia: Chinese women and their natal families. Journal of Asian Studies, 48(3), pages525-544

83. Lin Yuju (2011). "Zhaozhui son-in-law". Encyclopedia of Taiwan. Council for Cultural Affairs.84. Martin, L. G. (1990). Changing intergenerational family relations in East Asia.The Annals of the American

Academy of Political and Social Science, pages 102-11485. Haruko, W., & Gay, S. (1984). Marriage and property in premodern Japan from the perspective of women's

history. Journal of Japanese Studies, 10(1), pages 73-9986. Kerbo, H. R., & MacKinstry, J. A. (1995). Who rules Japan?: the inner circles of economic and political

power. Greenwood Publishing Group; see pages 30-3187. Wining back our good luck: bridewealth in nowadays Maputo (http://www.ics.ul.pt/rdonweb-

docs/lobolo%20Ufahamu.pdf) Paulo Granjo (2004)88. Bride price: an insult to women, a burden to men? (http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/3604892.stm), BBC News (August 30, 2004)

89. Margrethe Silberschmidt (1999), Women Forget that Men are the Masters, Nordic Africa Institute, ISBN978-9171064394, pp 87

90. Stephanie Beswick (2001), " We Are Bought Like Clothes": The War Over Polygyny and Levirate Marriagein South Sudan, Northeast African Studies, 8(2), pp 35-61, Quote - "The highest bidder usually acquires thewoman, and the bridewealth is made in a series of payments."

91. See:Saad Ibrahim, Minority Rights Group International, The Copts of Egypt(http://www.refworld.org/docid/469cbf8ed.html), January 1996; pages 24-25;

Philippe Fargues (1998), in Andrea Pacini (Editor), Christian Communities in the Arab Middle East,Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-829388-7, page 51;Heiner Bielefeldt, Human Rights Quarterly, Volume 17, Number 4, November 1995, pages 587-617

92. See:Saeed, Hassan (2004): Freedom of Religion, Apostasy and Islam. Ashgate Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7546-3082-1;Altstein,Howard;Simon, Rita James (2003): Global perspectives on social issues: marriage and divorce. Lexington, Mass: LexingtonBooks. ISBN 0-7391-0588-4;[Quran 60:10 (http://www.usc.edu/org/cmje/religious-texts/quran/verses/060-qmt.php#060.010)]

93. Coleman, D. A. (2004), Partner choice and the growth of ethnic minority populations(http://www.spi.ox.ac.uk/fileadmin/documents/pdf/wp23.pdf), Bevolking en Gezin, 33(2), 7-34.

94. Razack, Sherene H. (October 2004). "Imperilled muslim women, dangerous muslim men and civilisedEuropeans: legal and social responses to forced marriages". Feminist Legal Studies (Springer) 12 (2): 129– 174. doi:10.1023/B:FEST.0000043305.66172.92.

https://dx.doi.org/10.1023%2FB%3AFEST.0000043305.66172.92https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Springer_Science%2BBusiness_Mediahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feminist_Legal_Studieshttp://dx.doi.org/10.1023/B:FEST.0000043305.66172.92http://www.spi.ox.ac.uk/fileadmin/documents/pdf/wp23.pdfhttp://www.usc.edu/org/cmje/religious-texts/quran/verses/060-qmt.php#060.010https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quranhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0739105884https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780754630821https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0198293887http://www.refworld.org/docid/469cbf8ed.htmlhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789171064394http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/3604892.stmhttp://www.ics.ul.pt/rdonweb-docs/lobolo%20Ufahamu.pdfhttp://taiwanpedia.culture.tw/en/content?ID=3664&Keyword=weddinghttp://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=95683604http://www.irinnews.org/report/75716/pakistan-traditional-marriages-ignore-hiv-aids-threathttps://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/7130


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95. Bunch, Charlotte (1995). Transforming human rights from a feminist perspective, Women’s Rights, HumanRights: International Feminist Perspectives (Julie Peters and Andrea Wolper Editors), pages 15-16; also see

pages 157-16096. Amato, Paul R. (2012). Institutional, Companionate, and Individualistic Marriages, Marriage at the

Crossroads: Law, Policy, and the Brave New World of Twenty-First-Century Families, pages 107-12497. Modern Lessons from Arranged Marriages (http://www.nytimes.com/2013/01/20/fashion/weddings/parental-

involvement-can-help-in-choosing-marriage-partners-experts-say.html?pagewanted=all&_r=0) Ji Hyun Lee, New York Times (January 18, 2013)

98. Ralph Grillo, Marriages, arranged and forced: the UK debate; in Gender, Generations and the Family inInternational Migration, (Editors: Albert Kraler, Eleonore Kofman, Martin Kohli, Camille Schmoll), ISBN978-9089642851; see Chapter 3

99. Multi-cultural sensitivity is not an excuse for moral blindness, Hansard, 10 February 1999; column 256-280100. David Seminara (2008) Hello, I Love You, Won’t You Tell Me Your Name: Inside the Green Card Marriage

Phenomenon (http://www.cis.org/marriagefraud) Center for Immigration Studies101. MORE WEDDING RING BUSTS Green-card scam probe widens

(http://www.nydailynews.com/archives/news/wedding-ring-busts-green-card-scam-probe-widens-article-1.505385) Brian Harmon, New York Daily News (August 16, 2002)

102. Child Marriages (http://www.unicef.org/policyanalysis/files/Note_on_Child_Marriage.pdf) UNICEF103. Freeman, Marsha (1995). Transforming human rights from a feminist perspective, Women’s Rights, Human

Rights: International Feminist Perspectives (Julie Peters and Andrea Wolper Editors), pages 149-176104. CEDAW - Full Text of Convention (http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/cedaw/text/econvention.htm) United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women (2009)

105. Is arranged marriage really any worse than craigslist?(http://nymag.com/nymetro/news/culture/features/11621/) Anita Jain, New York Magazine (2013)

106. Trip back in time: the Amish in Ohio (http://www.stltoday.com/travel/trip-back-in-time-the-amish-in-ohio/article_6f9cd665-c965-591c-bf07-a1deecb040b9.html) St Louis Post-Dispatch (September 10, 2010)

107. "It's All Relative: The Contemporary Orthodox Jewish Family in America - Institute for Jewish Ideas andIdeals". jewishideas.org .

108. "NVSS - National Marriage and Divorce Rate Trends". cdc.gov.109. "Statistics Explained". europa.eu.

110. "The Divorce Surge Is Over, but the Myth Lives On". New York Times.111. World Marriage Data (http://www.un.org/esa/population/publications/WMD2008/Main.html) United NationsPopulation Division (2008)

112. See:Usha Gupta; Pushpa Singh (July 1982). "An exploratory study of love and liking and type of marriages". Indian Journal of Applied Psychology 19 (2): 92–97.Xu Xiaohe; Martin King Whyte (Aug 1990). "Love Matches and Arranged Marriages: A ChineseReplication". Journal of Marriage and Family 52 (3): 709–722. doi:10.2307/352936.Jane E. Myers; Jayamala Madathil; Lynne R. Tingle (2005). "Marriage Satisfaction and Wellness inIndia and the United States: A Preliminary Comparison of Arranged Marriages and Marriages of Choice". Journal of Counseling & Development 83 (2): 183–190. doi:10.1002/j.1556-

6678.2005.tb00595.x.Pamela C. Regan; Saloni Lakhanpal; Carlos Anguiano (June 2012). "Relationship Outcomes in Indian-American Love-Based and Arranged Marriages". Psychological Reports 110 (3): 915–924.doi:10.2466/21.02.07.PR0.110.3.915-924.

113. David R. Johnson; Lauren K. Bachan (Aug 2013). "What can we learn from studies based on small samplesizes? Comment on Regan, Lakhanpal, and Anguiano (2012)". Psychological Reports 113 (1): 221–224.doi:10.2466/21.02.07.PR0.113x12z8. PMC 3990435. PMID 24340813.

114. Paul Amato (2012), in Marriage at the Crossroads: Law, Policy, and the Brave New World;Editors: MarshaGarrison, Elizabeth S. Scott; ISBN 978-1107018273; see Chapter 6

115. Child bride, 13, dies of internal injuries four days after arranged marriage in Yemen(http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-1264729/Child-bride-13-dies-internal-injuries-days-arranged-

marriage-Yemen.html) Mail Online, United Kingdom (9 April 2010)116. Indian woman says arranged marriage was full of abuse

(http://www.usatoday.com/story/news/nation/2013/08/12/indian-woman-marriage-abuse/2646609/) JohnTuohy and Bill McCleery, USA Today (August 12, 2013)

http://www.usatoday.com/story/news/nation/2013/08/12/indian-woman-marriage-abuse/2646609/http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-1264729/Child-bride-13-dies-internal-injuries-days-arranged-marriage-Yemen.htmlhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781107018273https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24340813https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifierhttps://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3990435https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Centralhttps://dx.doi.org/10.2466%2F21.02.07.PR0.113x12z8https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttps://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3990435https://dx.doi.org/10.2466%2F21.02.07.PR0.110.3.915-924https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttps://dx.doi.org/10.1002%2Fj.1556-6678.2005.tb00595.xhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttps://dx.doi.org/10.2307%2F352936https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttp://www.un.org/esa/population/publications/WMD2008/Main.htmlhttp://www.nytimes.com/2014/12/02/upshot/the-divorce-surge-is-over-but-the-myth-lives-on.html?_r=0http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/statistics_explained/index.php/Marriage_and_divorce_statisticshttp://www.cdc.gov/nchs/nvss/marriage_divorce_tables.htmhttp://www.jewishideas.org/articles/its-all-relative-contemporary-orthodox-jewish-familhttp://www.stltoday.com/travel/trip-back-in-time-the-amish-in-ohio/article_6f9cd665-c965-591c-bf07-a1deecb040b9.htmlhttp://nymag.com/nymetro/news/culture/features/11621/http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/cedaw/text/econvention.htmhttp://www.unicef.org/policyanalysis/files/Note_on_Child_Marriage.pdfhttp://www.nydailynews.com/archives/news/wedding-ring-busts-green-card-scam-probe-widens-article-1.505385http://www.cis.org/marriagefraudhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hansardhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moral_blindnesshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789089642851http://www.nytimes.com/2013/01/20/fashion/weddings/parental-involvement-can-help-in-choosing-marriage-partners-experts-say.html?pagewanted=all&_r=0


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117. Fighting arranged marriage abuse (http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/392619.stm) Sue Lloyd-Roberts, BBC News (July 12, 1999)

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