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Aristotle’s Constitution of the Americans
Song of Seikilos ?200 BC
As long as you live, SHINE, Let nothing grieve you beyond measure.
For your life is short, and time will claim its toll.
Aristotle’s Constitution of theAmericans
Song of TheodorakisBorn 1925
PART ONEPART ONE
Description of the Description of the ConstitutionConstitution
How Offices are DividedHow Offices are Divided Three Kinds of Office (‘Separation of Powers’)Three Kinds of Office (‘Separation of Powers’) MonarchyMonarchy = single office held by one person = single office held by one person
(presidents or governors or mayors) in control of (presidents or governors or mayors) in control of carrying out all decisions. Elected by the peoplecarrying out all decisions. Elected by the people
Senate and AssemblySenate and Assembly = the deliberative office, = the deliberative office, shared among many persons, in control of shared among many persons, in control of legislation. Elected by the people legislation. Elected by the people
CourtsCourts = another monarch (judge), in control of = another monarch (judge), in control of deciding law cases (with juries chosen from the deciding law cases (with juries chosen from the people), and appointed for life by Monarchs and people), and appointed for life by Monarchs and SenatesSenates
How Offices are How Offices are AppointedAppointed
• Offices have long terms (2, 4, 6 years)Offices have long terms (2, 4, 6 years)• The same people can be elected many The same people can be elected many
times in succession to the same officetimes in succession to the same office• Election is not from all the people but only Election is not from all the people but only
from oligarchic clubs (‘political parties’)from oligarchic clubs (‘political parties’)• Offices have power to appoint many other Offices have power to appoint many other
offices without any election by the peopleoffices without any election by the people• There are long periods of expensive There are long periods of expensive
demagogy by the oligarchic clubs fighting demagogy by the oligarchic clubs fighting each other for votes (‘election each other for votes (‘election campaigns’)campaigns’)
The Constitution is Oligarchic but The Constitution is Oligarchic but PopularPopular
Appointment of Offices is oligarchic (power is in Appointment of Offices is oligarchic (power is in the hands of the few who are well-off and the hands of the few who are well-off and privileged)privileged)
The people are nevertheless not displeased The people are nevertheless not displeased all the offices are rivals to each other in power and all the offices are rivals to each other in power and
attack and oppose each other (‘Checks and Balances’), attack and oppose each other (‘Checks and Balances’), which satisfies the people’s jealousywhich satisfies the people’s jealousy
the people elect the offices and so are masters of the the people elect the offices and so are masters of the political fortunes of the oligarchic clubspolitical fortunes of the oligarchic clubs
the people are flattered and bribed by the oligarchs who the people are flattered and bribed by the oligarchs who are always soliciting their votesare always soliciting their votes
How the Constitution is How the Constitution is Democratic IDemocratic I Democratic in Democratic in twotwo ways: ways: First: Election by all the people (as First: Election by all the people (as
stated)stated) Second: The people’s unhampered Second: The people’s unhampered
and luxurious life-styleand luxurious life-style Everyone lives as they like or, as Everyone lives as they like or, as
Euripides says, “with a view to what each Euripides says, “with a view to what each craves” (‘freedom’, ‘rights’)craves” (‘freedom’, ‘rights’)
Everyone devoted to making and Everyone devoted to making and spending money: “The business of spending money: “The business of America is business”America is business”
How the Constitution is How the Constitution is Democratic IIDemocratic II
Private funds come from friends and the Private funds come from friends and the people to the office-holders (‘lobbying’, people to the office-holders (‘lobbying’, ‘campaign contributions’), and public ‘campaign contributions’), and public funds go from office-holders to friends funds go from office-holders to friends and the people (‘pork’)and the people (‘pork’)
Americans are in love with shopping, Americans are in love with shopping, and exceed all other nations in making, and exceed all other nations in making, selling, and buying thingsselling, and buying things
Money is in perpetual flux: some of the Money is in perpetual flux: some of the poor always becoming rich and some of poor always becoming rich and some of the rich always becoming poor the rich always becoming poor
How the Americans Win Empire• All nations want what the Americans have• Americans are the most envied and most
imitated people in the world • America is naturally fitted for global empire, as
it lies opposite Europe and Asia where all nations are settled
• Americans do business everywhere and unite everyone to America by self- interest on both sides
• [Weapons and wars are secondary]
PART TWOPART TWO
Criticism of the Criticism of the ConstitutionConstitution
The Goal of the ConstitutionThe Goal of the Constitution People come together in political societies for People come together in political societies for
the sake of living well, which is happinessthe sake of living well, which is happiness Happiness is living virtuously not making moneyHappiness is living virtuously not making money Money is only good for being used, and virtue is Money is only good for being used, and virtue is
what enables us to use money, or anything else, what enables us to use money, or anything else, wellwell
Money and business are only instruments or Money and business are only instruments or tools of happinesstools of happiness
Americans err in thinking otherwiseAmericans err in thinking otherwise
The Separation of Powers IThe Separation of Powers I
The “separationThe “separation of powers” is meant to of powers” is meant to prevent the same persons controlling more prevent the same persons controlling more than one of these powers at the same time than one of these powers at the same time
But it allows the same But it allows the same partpart in society, in society, namely the rich and privileged, to control namely the rich and privileged, to control all these powers, which is a very bad thingall these powers, which is a very bad thing
Constitutions differ according to which part Constitutions differ according to which part is in control: oligarchy if the few rich and is in control: oligarchy if the few rich and privileged are in control, democracy if the privileged are in control, democracy if the many poor are, aristocracy if the virtuous many poor are, aristocracy if the virtuous areare
The Separation of Powers IIThe Separation of Powers II If it is bad to allow oligarchs to control all If it is bad to allow oligarchs to control all
the powers, it is worse to allow one and the powers, it is worse to allow one and the same oligarchic club to control them the same oligarchic club to control them all (e.g. now the Republican Club has all all (e.g. now the Republican Club has all the control) the control)
The oligarchs say that the separation of The oligarchs say that the separation of powers is needed to prevent one man powers is needed to prevent one man becoming powerful or a tyrant, but they becoming powerful or a tyrant, but they hide the fact that all the powers are in the hide the fact that all the powers are in the hands of themselves and their friends hands of themselves and their friends
The separation of powers is an oligarchic The separation of powers is an oligarchic trick or sophistry to keep all the control in trick or sophistry to keep all the control in the hands of the rich and privilegedthe hands of the rich and privileged
The Separation of Powers IIIThe Separation of Powers III
The separation of powers is also a cause of The separation of powers is also a cause of political turmoil. Americans think it safety political turmoil. Americans think it safety for the constitution if all the office-holders for the constitution if all the office-holders are engaged in factional disputes with each are engaged in factional disputes with each other other
It is the habit of the powerful to create rival It is the habit of the powerful to create rival followings among the people, to set up followings among the people, to set up monarchies, and fight against each other monarchies, and fight against each other
A country in this state is in great danger A country in this state is in great danger because its internal squabbling exposes it to because its internal squabbling exposes it to attack from without and subversion from attack from without and subversion from withinwithin
A Cure for this Oligarchic A Cure for this Oligarchic SophistrySophistry
Americans are saved in part by their great Americans are saved in part by their great numbers (as one of their monarchs said): there numbers (as one of their monarchs said): there are always many factions and no one are always many factions and no one oligarchic club can get the upper hand for long oligarchic club can get the upper hand for long but each has to compromise and make deals but each has to compromise and make deals
But justice requires that, when everyone is But justice requires that, when everyone is similar and equal, all take turns in ruling and similar and equal, all take turns in ruling and being ruled and not the oligarchs alonebeing ruled and not the oligarchs alone
So a more just and better cure would be to So a more just and better cure would be to divide the offices, not just from each other, but divide the offices, not just from each other, but also among the different parts in society (as also among the different parts in society (as already happens in the case of the law courts)already happens in the case of the law courts)
Crime and Corruption I That the same individuals occupy the same
office for many years increases crime. Criminal activity is not as easy for those who rule a short time as it is for those who rule a long time
Those in office are easily bribed and use public funds to do favors for their friends and followers
It is dangerous to let office-holders appoint so many other and powerful offices. Instead of appointing the most worthy they just hand these offices out as the prize of victory to their friends
Human desire is no safe standard; let the appointing of offices be done by impartial law
Crime and Corruption II
No one can win office without leisure to campaign and to bribe the people with promises and favors for their votes
This requires great wealth, but those who have an excess of good fortune (strength, beauty, wealth, friends) don’t know how to be ruled but only how to rule like masters over inferiors
It is a bad thing to put the monarchies, president and governor, up for sale. This makes people honor wealth rather than virtue
Monarchs cause much damage when they are not virtuous, as happens now in America
Cures for the Crime and Corruption I Let all office-holders be subjected to
regular audits according to law, in the presence of all the voters. Let no one take up office who fails an audit (especially as regards public funds)
To be forced always to answer to others is a great benefit. The freedom to do whatever one wishes is incapable of defending people from the baseness that lurks in all of them
Cures for theCrime and Corruption II No one would ask to rule if he was not in love with honor.
Yet the worst crimes are usually committed from love of honor (or money). So it is not right that those worthy of office should themselves have to ask for it
Those should rule who can do it best, and if a person is worthy of office he should be compelled to rule whether he wants to or not
So arrange things so that the best can afford to be at leisure for ruling and are not driven to crime, whether in or out of office, so as to support themselves or their families
Don’t allow anyone to be in control over the greatest matters for life. There is an old age of the mind as well as of the body
Election or Lottery I• Election is an oligarchic device: the most votes
are won by those who are known and stand out from the crowd, which is easy for the rich and notables but hard for ordinary people
• Therefore use lottery and not just election• In ancient Tarentum the offices were double,
one elected, the other chosen by lot. Sometimes the same office was half by election and half by lot. Thus both the ordinary people and the rich shared control. The Americans should do the same
Election or Lottery II• Committees in Senates and Assemblies are
very powerful and the chairs of these committees, in typical American fashion, lord it over everyone else like a monarch
• These chairs and committees should not be chosen according to power and seniority; an extremely small number of people can thus get control and dominate all the rest
• Cure: have no such committees or not powerful ones, and choose members and chairs by lot from all, not by election from a few powerful and senior people
Election or Lottery III• Everyone is allowed to vote but no one is
required by law to do so• But this is just another oligarchic trick. For
what is the difference between being able to vote but not voting, and not being able to vote? The same thing happens
• Americans (especially the oligarchs) say compulsion to vote would be contrary to freedom—as if they were slaves when they choose their rulers and free when they do not
Election or Lottery IV• There is double electing: primary elections when
members of the oligarchic clubs choose their club’s candidate, then the main election when all the people choose from these candidates.
• But it is dangerous to elect from those already elected: – if one club is more popular among the people in a given
electoral district (as is frequent, for the clubs determine the electoral districts), its candidate must always win
– so a few can determine the election, and in advance too• Instead choose candidates by lot and then elect,
or vice versa
Campaigning for ElectionCampaigning for ElectionCandidates solicit the rich for money to Candidates solicit the rich for money to cover the cost of campaigns, and must cover the cost of campaigns, and must promise to do them favors when in officepromise to do them favors when in office
So control falls into the hands of those So control falls into the hands of those who must buy their office by first selling it who must buy their office by first selling it
How can such persons be fit to rule? The How can such persons be fit to rule? The greediness and thefts of the rich do more greediness and thefts of the rich do more to ruin the constitution than those of to ruin the constitution than those of ordinary peopleordinary people
DemagogyDemagogy
Everyone who wants office must become a Everyone who wants office must become a demagogue to the people to win votes, stirring up demagogue to the people to win votes, stirring up the people’s passions, playing on their ignorance, the people’s passions, playing on their ignorance, and bribing them with promises (this problem afflicts and bribing them with promises (this problem afflicts all constitutions where the offices are filled from all constitutions where the offices are filled from oligarchic clubs and electing is done by the people)oligarchic clubs and electing is done by the people)
All candidates fight each other for the favor of the All candidates fight each other for the favor of the people, accusing and blaming each other, whether people, accusing and blaming each other, whether truthfully or nottruthfully or not
This is base in itself—what decent person could do This is base in itself—what decent person could do such things? such things?
It also harms the constitution—it excites anger and It also harms the constitution—it excites anger and the lust for revenge among the losers, and contempt the lust for revenge among the losers, and contempt and the lust to dominate among the winnersand the lust to dominate among the winners
Why the Constitution Why the Constitution still Survivesstill Survives The Americans escape the The Americans escape the
consequences of oligarchy becauseconsequences of oligarchy because– everyone has the chance and is everyone has the chance and is
encouraged to pursue wealth and become encouraged to pursue wealth and become part of the ruling elitepart of the ruling elite
– people are forever forming new clubs to people are forever forming new clubs to further their common good (“special further their common good (“special interest”)interest”)
– even poorer people can do this, and many even poorer people can do this, and many poor, when united, may be richer and poor, when united, may be richer and more powerful than a few rich; so they can more powerful than a few rich; so they can compete as rich against rich and turn the compete as rich against rich and turn the oligarchy to their own advantageoligarchy to their own advantage
Why the Constitution StillWhy the Constitution StillSurvivesSurvives
– the oligarchy is extreme but not narrow for people are
forever entering it and leaving it– anyone can join the oligarchic clubs and try to
become a candidate for office– the widespread belief that everyone should have the
right to become rich and hold office if they can (and not just members of certain families or established elites) reconciles the people to the constitution and makes them think things cannot really be unjust
Threats to the Constitution
That America is a rich land and well adapted to business and empire and to letting anyone pursue wealth is a matter of chance, not of design
If some misfortune occurs (an economic collapse or defeat in war) and the people revolt, the oligarchic imbalance in the constitution will provide no way to restore calm. Tyranny or anarchy will result, or both
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• One of my other Incarnations
• Did you see the movie about my student Alexander?
