Argumentative /Persuasive Reading & writing

Reading an ArgumentConsidering Rhetorical

Context(Author,Audience,Date/Place

of Publication)

Guidelines for Determining Rhetorical Context

Who wrote this argument,and what are his/her training,personal background,and political learning?

Who is the intended audience? Where did it appear originally? When was the argument written? Why was the article written?

A Step-By-Step analysis of Toulmin Method of evaluation of logical pattern

Analyze the ClaimIdentify the ClaimLook for Qualifiers: Absolute,Relative,or Universal /”typically” /“usually” /“most of the time”Find the ExceptionsSummarize the ClaimAssess the arguer’s refutationsNote the Counter Arguments

Argumentation versus Persuasion These words are often used

interchangeably. Argumentation: the process of forming

reasons and of drawing conclusions and applying them to a case in discussion. An argument involves the process of establishing a claim and then proving it with the use of logical reasoning, examples, and research.

Persuasion: the tactical process of moving to a belief, position or a course of action.

Argument

Good argumentative writing is more defined when utilized with other forms of writing such as description, a short narrative, classification, cause and effect, etc.

Styles of argumentative of writing

Toulmin model: Follows the pattern of a claim (proposition/thesis), data (support) with qualifiers, warrant, and a

concession. Rogers’ model: Use of Rogerian

arguments to come to a conclusion that mixes both views of the issue to reach a

common ground.

the uses….

Everyday life Workplace Academic environment Reading and Listening- (current

events)

The basics of an argument

Your position and know the purpose of your essay

Analyze your audience Reasons Evidence: Research your topic

Audience

Write with sincerity towards audienceusing an ethical appeal

Don’t write with an arrogance or with disregard to opposing viewsTry starting in introduction, gaining confidence of audience

This approach will show your concern and fair-minded purpose

Writing an argumentative Choose an interesting controversial

issue Focus on a question related to your

topic Choose a position Acknowledge opposing positions Investigate topic and get informed

The Thesis… Outlines and gives a clear and concise

main idea of essay Can’t be a declared fact (won’t be

argumentable) Declares something is fact, by providing

evidence throughout essay Supports a policy Calls for action Asserts value

Obtaining information

By reading Conversation with others Use your own observations Questionnaire Periodicals Always cite sources used Make sure the information you receive

is relevant and credible and valid

Evidence

Includes: Established Truths

Historical, scientific, and geographical facts

Authoritative point of view Primary sources Statistics Personal experience/Examples

Managing evidence

Reliability How much endorsing evidence? Contradictory How well established is evidence? Does it support/fit your claim? Allow it to be conclusive

The Three Persuasive Appeals

Logos:Logic- the appeal to reason

Pathos:Emotion- the appeal to emotion

Ethos:Credibility- the appeal of one’s character

Logos: reasoning strategies

Induction: A process through which the premises provide some basis for the conclusion.

Deduction: A process through which the premises provide conclusive proof for the conclusion. Reductio ad Absurdum: (to reduce to absurdity) To question a position by showing that its consequence are problematic if carried to their logical end.

Questions of Credibility

Has the reader been able to rely on what you have said in the past? If they are unfamiliar with you…

Do you know what you’re talking about? Are you familiar with all sides of the issue?

Have you done your research on the issue?

Have you documented your researchthoroughly and accurately?

Have your thoughtfully addressedthe opposition?

Some Ways to Use the Three AppealsCredibility Logic Emotion

Show that you are fair- and open-minded

Point to other “experts” or an authority other than yourself

Cite research Show why people

should listen to you and you believe

Rely primarily on facts

Use deductive or inductive reasoning to reach your conclusion

Use classical argument, including reason and evidence to support your claim

Use emotionally charged or highly connotative words

Appeal to peoples fears, concerns, passions, vanity, sense of justice, and so forth

Take advantage of rhythm and refrain in language

Syllogism The simplest sequence of logical

premises and conclusions every syllogism contains at least three

parts: a major premise (global assumption) a minor premise (specific claim) a conclusion

IF A=B and B=C, then A=C

Enthymeme

shorten version of syllogism a syllogism without stating either

the major or minor premise (it is implied)

less formal than the syllogism sometimes more persuasive are often “because” statements

Fallacies= mistakes made in the logic of arguments

Common fallacies found in arguments include: Hasty Generalizations- a conclusion based on insufficient or

biased evidence

Non Sequitur- “It does not follow” Slippery slope- the snow ball effect Card Stacking-presenting part of the claim

Stereotyping Ad populum- an emotional appeal that speaks to positive

(such as patriotism, religion, democracy) or negative (such as terrorism or fascism) concepts rather than the real issue at hand

Fallacies (cont.)

Either/OrBegging the claim- conclusion that the writer should prove is validated within the claim( Circular argument)

Arguing Off the point The argument ad Hominem- “attack the person’s

character than their opinion” Appeal to crowd Guilt by association Post Hoc, ergo Propter Hoc-”after this, therefore

because of this” Faulty analogy: assuming two unlike things are similar

when in fact they are not Red Herring

Avoid also…

Strawman tactics- pointing out and focusing on flimsy weaknesses of opposing side.

Anonymous authority- refers to a source of authority but does not name the source nor explain its legitimacy.

This will show that you are trying to prove your position by disregarding other facts.

True argument vs. valid argument true argument- argument that has

conclusion that people commonly consider to be fact based on their worldly experience or wide-spread belief

valid argument- argument that has a conclusion that logically follows its underlying assumption regardless of whether the assumption is true or not

Revising

Consider the objections of the opposing appeal

Do you capture the audience? Is evidence appropriate to the argument? Are the authorities qualified to be used as

a source? Is the proposition clearly stated? Is it free of fallacies?

Tips of writing an essay

Avoid emotional language Be able to determine difference between a

logical conclusion and an emotional point of view

Don’t make up evidence Cite your sources Make an outline- DO THE WRITING PROCESS Be prepared to defend your side by knowing

the strongest arguments for the other side.

Concluding

Restate your position. Summarize your main points. Predict the consequences if it does

or does not prevail. Prepare to end your essay possibly

with an emotional appeal.

The End!