Argumentation-Persuasion Everyone has experience arguing- “You can’t possibly expect me to...
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Argumentation- Persuasion Everyone has experience arguing- “You can’t possibly expect me to believe what you are saying.” “Look, I know what I’m talking about, and that’s that.” But- In writing or oration, it is using clear thinking and logic to convince audience of the soundness of a particular opinion, especially on controversial topics.
Argumentation-Persuasion Everyone has experience arguing- “You can’t possibly expect me to believe what you are saying.” “Look, I know what I’m talking
Argumentation-Persuasion Everyone has experience arguing- You
cant possibly expect me to believe what you are saying. Look, I
know what Im talking about, and thats that. But- In writing or
oration, it is using clear thinking and logic to convince audience
of the soundness of a particular opinion, especially on
controversial topics.
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Differences between Argument- purpose to document objectively
to prove a point Persuasion- purpose to shake up readers and
motivate them to act The two are usually combined because most
people respond rationally and emotionally.
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Aristotles Three Ways to Persuade Logos Ethos Pathos
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What is rhetoric? Rhetoric is the art of persuasion. The goal
of persuasion is to change others point of view or to move others
to take action.
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Rhetoric -the art of using language effectively to influence
the thoughts and conduct of an audience Speaker/Author
Topic/Subject Audience
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Rhetorical strategies- Literary devices: metaphor, imagery,
alliteration, etc Language devices: repetition, connotation,
denotation, diction, etc See Flowers of Silva Rhetoricae for many
more http://humanities.byu.edu/rhetoric/Silva.htm
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What is logos, ethos, and pathos? Logos = Logic Ethos = Ethics,
Image Pathos = Emotions (Passion)
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Logos, Ethos, Pathos Using logos, ethos, and pathos will help
you to master the art of persuasion. Through language, you will be
able to change the point of view of others! Through language, you
will be able to motivate others to take action!
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Logos Logos is an argument based on facts, evidence and reason.
Using logos means appealing to the readers sense of what is
logical.
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Ethos Ethos is an argument based on character. Using ethos
means the writer or speaker appeals to the audiences sense of
ethical behavior. The writer or speaker presents him or herself to
the audience as credible, trustworthy, honest and ethical. I am an
ethical expert, so believe what I say.
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Pathos Pathos = argument based on feelings Using pathos means
appealing to readers emotions and feelings.
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Symbols for Logos, Ethos and Pathos Logos = Head Ethos = Hand
Pathos = Heart
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Logos
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Ethos
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Pathos
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Logos Example In the following example, note how Ian Ayres uses
evidence from experience (her work environment, Delta Airlines, the
University of Chicago). This evidence establishes the precedent
that Ayres uses to compare to the current situation that she argues
should be changed.
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Logos Example We dont have single-sex toilets at home, and we
dont need them at the office. Then theres also the small question
of efficiency. I see my male colleagues waiting in line to use the
mens room, when the womens toilet is unoccupied. Which is precisely
why Delta Airlines doesnt label those two bathrooms at the back of
the plane as being solely for men and women. It just wouldnt
fly.
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Logos Example The University of Chicago just got the 10
single-use restrooms on campus designated gender neutral. Its time
Yale followed suit. And this is not just an academic problem. There
are tens of thousands of single-use toilets at workplaces and
public spaces throughout the nation that are wrong- headedly
designated for a single-sex. All these single-use toilets should
stop discriminating. They should be open to all on a first-come,
first-lock basis. Ian Ayres, Looking Out for No. 2
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Ethos Example In the following example, note how Nancy Mairs
establishes her credibility and trustworthiness and authority to
write about this subject by being honest. Mairs admits she is
uncertain about her own motives and shows she understands the
discomfort others have with this subject.
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Ethos Example First, the matter of semantics. I am a cripple. I
choose this word to name me. I choose from among several
possibilities, the most common of which are handicapped and
disabled. I made the choice a number of years ago, without
thinking, unaware of my motives for doing so. Even now, I am not
sure what those motives are, but I recognize that they are complex
and not entirely flattering.
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Ethos Examples Peoplecrippled or notwince at the word cripple,
as they do not at handicapped or disabled. Perhaps I want them to
wince. I want them to see me as a tough customer, one to whom the
fates/gods/viruses have not been kind, but who can face the brutal
truth of her existence squarely. As a cripple, I swagger. Nancy
Mairs, On Being a Cripple
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Pathos Example In the following example from a speech by
Winston Churchill, note the use of anaphora (repetition of a word
or group of words at the beginning of items in a series). This
repetition emphasizes the point and expresses passion and emotion.
Moreover, the repetition affects the audience emotionally.
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Pathos Example We shall not flag or fail. We shall go on to the
end. We shall fight in France, we shall fight on the seas and
oceans, we shall fight with growing confidence and growing strength
in the air, we shall defend our island, whatever the cost may be,
we shall fight on the beaches, we shall fight on the landing
grounds, we shall fight in the fields and in the streets, we shall
fight in the hills. We shall never surrender. Winston Churchill,
speech to the House of Commons, June 4, 1940
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Review Logos = logic Logos is an argument based on facts,
evidence and reason. Using logos means appealing to the readers
sense of what is logical.
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Review Ethos = Ethics / Image Ethos is an argument based on
character. The writer or speaker presents him or herself to the
reader as credible, trustworthy, honest and ethical.
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Review Pathos = argument based on feelings Using pathos means
appealing to readers emotions and feelings.
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Pathos, Ethos, Logos
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Rogerian Strategy Reject the adversarial approach Adopt a
respectful, conciliatory posture Understand opposing viewpoints
Begin with unbiased restatement of opposing viewpoint Acknowledge
the validity of differing opinions
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Building on the Classical Argument
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Stephen E. Toulmin Stephen Edelston Toulmin is a philosopher
and rhetorical theorist. He was born in England in 1922 and
received his Bachelors degree at Kings College. After World War II
he obtained his Master of Arts and Doctor of Philosophy degrees
from Cambridge.
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Claim Toulmins Model Toulmins model provides that there are
three essential aspects to rhetorical argument: Data Warrant
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Toulmins Model, cont. Simply: A Claim is made. Data is provided
in the form of supporting facts. The Warrant connects the Data to
the Claim.
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Claim Thesis Proposition Conclusion Main Point Macro-Argument
Controlling Idea
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Data Evidence, proof Opinions, information Reasons, explanation
Examples, facts, data, grounds, statistics Personal narratives
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Warrant Assumptions General principles Widely held values
Commonly accepted beliefs Appeals to human motives Cultural values
Presuppositions Unstated premises Generally accepted truths
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For example: I am an American. (Claim) I was born in New York
State. (Data) Anyone born in New York State is a legal American
citizen. (Warrant) Toulmin says that the Claim and the Data cannot
hold without a sufficiently strong Warrant, or, the weakest
argument is the one with the weakest warrant.
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Toulmins Model cont. Toulmin also identified other parts to an
argument. Qualifier Rebuttal Backing
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Toulmins Model cont. While the Claim, the Data and the Warrant
are essential parts to an argument, the Qualifier, the Backing and
the Rebuttal are not. The Qualifier states the strength of the
claim. In our sample argument about American citizens, a Qualifier
might be Some Americans are not born in the United States. These
are naturalized citizens.
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Qualifier Establishes probabilities in an argument. Allows
exceptions. Words like may be, might, many, some, a few, probably,
possibly.
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Toulmins Model cont. The Backing provides extra strength to the
Warrant, especially if the Warrant is not widely accepted or
understood. The Backing defends the Warrant. The Rebuttal is an
exception to the claim and considers counter-arguments much like
the Classical model.
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Backing To make warrants more acceptable to an audience,
particularly if the audience does not happen to share them with the
author. Additional evidence to back up a warrant, whenever the
audience is in danger of rejecting it.
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Rebuttal Establishes what is wrong, invalid, or unacceptable
about an argument. Presents counterarguments or new arguments that
represent entirely different perspectives or viewpoints on the
issue.
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Fallacies A fallacy is an error in reasoning Distort evidence
Can be used intentionally or unintentionally Can weaken or
strengthen argument depending on their use
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Fallacies 1. ad hominem: Occurs when the writer personally
attacks his or her opponents instead of finding fault with their
argument 2. ad populum: Arguers use this tactic to appeal to the
prejudices of the crowd. An appeal to patriotism/nationalism is
often the case of this fallacy. 3. appeal to tradition: The arguer
assumes that what has been good for the past is also good for the
present and future, that tradition should be preserved.
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Fallacies 4. either-or-reasoning: Occurs when the writer
reduces the issue to only two alternatives that are polar opposites
5. post hoc, ergo propter hoc: Occurs when the writer implies that
because one event follows another, the first causes the second.
Chronology is not the same as causality. 6. non sequiter: a
conclusion is drawn that has no logical connection to the evidence
cited.
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Fallacies 7. red herring: Occurs when a writer raises an
irrelevant issue to draw attention away from the central issue
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Fallacies 8. slippery slope: Occurs when the writer argues that
taking one step will lead inevitably to a next step, one that is
undesirable. 9. begging the question/ failing to accept the burden
of proof: Occurs when the writer asserts a claim but provides no
support for it.
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Fallacies 10. appeals to questionable or faulty authority: when
sources are not named or identified; using phrases like some
sources say, studies show, experts claim, etc. 11. false analogy:
wrongly implies that because two things share some characteristics,
they are therefore alike in all respects.