Are Education and Training the European Union’s Welfare State- Mudge

8/14/2019 Are Education and Training the European Unions Welfare State- Mudge

1/18

AreEducationandTrainingtheEuropeanUnionsWelfareState?

EuropeanSocialMoralityandNationalExpenditures,1980-2000*

StephanieL.Mudge

DepartmentofSociology

UniversityofCalifornia,Berkeley

410BarrowsHall#1980

Berkeley,California94720-1980

[email protected]

January15,2003

*PapersubmittedforparticipationinthesessiononEuropeanIntegration:Politicsand

Economics,organizedbyProfessorNeilFligstein,fortheAugust2003AnnualMeetingsofthe

AmericanSociologicalAssociationinAtlanta,Georgia.Keywords:EuropeanUnion,social

policy,educationandtraining,welfarestates,socialinvestment.


2/18

AreEducationandTrainingtheEuropeanUnionsWelfareState?

EuropeanSocialMoralityandNationalExpenditures,1980-2000*

StephanieL.MudgeUniversityofCalifornia,Berkeley

Abstract

Europe iswellknownashometosomeofthemosthistoricallygenerousand

universalisticwelfarestates(Esping-Andersen1990,1996)thesourceofandsustenancefora

socialmoralityinwhichwelfareprotectionscomebyvirtueofcitizenship.YettheEuropean

Unionsinitialforaysintotheworldofsocialpolicyemphasizeeducation,training,andlabormarketactivationratherthantheprotectionofEuropeancitizensthroughcitizenship-based

benefitsandtransfers.Theproblematicconsideredhere,then,istheEuropeanUnionsturntoasocialpolicyparadigmfeaturingtherhetorical(ifnotsubstantivelyidentical)trappingsofan

American-stylesocialinvestmentwelfarestate,andtheconsequences ofthisturn,ifany,for

nationalpolicyandpublicexpenditures.Morespecifically,thequestionthispaperseeksto

addressis: DidtheEuropeanUnionsemergenceasastakeholderineducationpolicyinthelate

1980sandearly1990salterthecourseofongoingsocialinvestment-orientedwelfarestatereformsinitsmemberstates?Itoffersapreliminaryanalysisofexpenditurepatternstoevaluate

thehypothesisthatthoughtheEUspolicystanceonsocialinvestmentmirrorspre-existing

nationalresponsestothewelfarestatecrisisofthe1980s,itisexertingitsownpressureto

directmemberstatepoliciestowardasocialinvestmentwelfarestatemodel.Theanalysis

drawsonEuropeanUnionpolicystatementsaswellasnation-leveldataforeducation

expendituresdrawnchieflyfromtheUnitedNationsEducational,Scientific,andCulturalOrganisation(UNESCO).Itsetsupaframeworkforafollow-upanalysisofferingmoredetaileddataoncategoricalsocialexpenditures,whichwilldrawfromtheOrganisationforEconomic

Co-operationandDevelopments(OECD)EducationataGlanceandSocialExpenditure

databases.


3/18

StephanieL,MudgePaperpreparedforASA2003

January15,2003

C:\cygwininstall\home\Administrator\docs\$ASQASA_163_12192a.doc2

I. Introduction

Socialtheoristshavelongemphasizedthatsocialcohesiondependsontheabilityofthe

statetomediatethepolarizingforcesofeconomiclife.Thewelfarestate,however,isinflux;

policymakersinmanycountriesappeartobeturningtoward variationsofasocialinvestment

modelofwelfarestatereformtoaddressthesymptomsandfearsofwelfarestatecrisisrootedin

politicalandeconomicshiftsfromthe1980s.Abroadconsensusexiststhatpolicymakersin

manycountriesaremovingawayfromprotectionandtowardeducation,training,andlabor

marketactivation(Esping-Andersen1996;Esping-AndersenandRegini,2000;Gilbert2002).

Inthemidstofthistransition,theEUemergedinthelate1980sasanewplayerinthe

worldofredistributivesocialpolicy.Withthe1986SingleMarketProjectandthe1992Treaty

ofMaastricht,theEUgainedanimportantfootholdinexpandingitsjurisdictionintothecore

policyareasofmemberstatestostimulatechangeinjealouslyguardedrealmsofsocialwelfare

andeducationpolicy.TheEU'snewexpansionaryjustificationrestsonalogicrootedinhuman

capitaltheorythattiestheinterestsofthemarkettoaproperlyEuropeanjurisdiction.Asothers

havenoted,thisdefinitionofEUjurisdictionisambiguousandhaspotentiallyfar-reaching

consequencesthatareasyetundefinedduetothediversityofinterestsandmotivesbehind

memberstatesparticipationintheEU(Mayesetal1992;FligsteinandMara-Drita1996).The

questionofwhethertheEUsexpandingjurisdictionhasplayed(orwillplay)aninfluentialrole

innationalsocialpolicy,especiallyinthecontextofalargerprocessofcrisis-inducedpolicy

change,hasnocompleteanswerinexistingresearch.Asapreliminaryefforttoworktoward

suchananswer,thispaperseekstoaddressesthefollowingquestion:DidtheEuropeanUnions

emergenceasastakeholderineducationpolicyinthelate1980sandearly1990salterthe


4/18


January15,2003


courseofongoingsocialinvestment-orientedwelfarestatereformsinitsmemberstates? It

outlinesapreliminaryanalysisofeducationexpenditurepatternstoevaluatethehypothesisthat

thoughtheEUspolicystanceonsocialinvestmentmirrorspre-existingnationalresponsestothe

welfarestatecrisisofthe1980s,itisexertingitsownpressuretodirectmemberstatepolicies

towardasocialinvestmentwelfarestatemodel.

II. Definingthewelfarestate

MydefinitionofwelfarestatesdrawsheavilyonWebers(1922)conceptofthestate,as

wellasT.H.Marshalls(1975)definitionofsocialpolicyastheuseof"politicalpowerto

supersede,supplementormodifyoperationsoftheeconomicsysteminordertoachieveresults

whichtheeconomicsystemwouldnotachieveonitsown."1Thefundamentaldefiningelement

ofwelfarestatesistheirbasisinsocioculturallyinformedideas(whichIrefertohereafteras

socialmoralities)ofstatesresponsibilitiestomitigatethepolarizingtendenciesofagiven

economicsystembyalteringthelifechancesofindividualsandgroupsviaredistributivepolicy.2

Welfarestatesarecomposedofformalrules(socialpolicies)andinformalrules(normsand

assumptionsthatguidetheenactmentofsocialpolicies)that,takentogether,directtheallocation

ofservices,benefits,andassetswithinasocietybasedonsomesetofmembershipandselection

criteria.Theserulesarelegitimatedbytheauthorityofthestateitselfrootedinamonopolyof

legitimateviolence,bothrealandsymbolic(Bourdieu1994),overaterritoryanddrawonthe

resourcesofthatstatesindividualandorganizationaleconomicparticipants.Welfarestatesare

multidimensionalsocialfacts,meaningthattheyincorporateandexpressthemanyelementsthat

compriseasociety:social,political,andeconomic.

1 Marshall1975,citedinPiersonandLiebfried,1995:3.2Bythisdefinition,itisworthnotingthattherearenostates,recognizedassuch,thatarenotalsowelfarestates.


5/18


January15,2003


III.WelfarestatecrisisandtheEuropeanUnion:thesocialinvestmentshift

Welfarestateshavebeenundergoingnotabletransitionssincethe1970s,whichmany

analyststracebacktoglobalization-relatedeconomicshocks(OECD1981;HuberandStephens

2001;Esping-Andersen1996).Bythisaccount,nationalgovernmentsunabletoshelterdomestic

economiesfromanincreasinglyintegratedinternationalmarketfaceincreasingfiscalpressures

toscalebacktheirwelfarestates(Finer1999).Bythecloseofthe20th

Century,forinstance,

WesternEuropeanpolicymakerswereconfrontedwithahostofpolicyproblems:apostindustrial

economyincreasinglycenteredonservicesandinformation,adwindlinglaborpool,doggedly

persistenthighunemploymentrates,andpoliticallycontestedsocialwelfareregimes(Esping-

Andersen1996,2000;Pierson1996).3Inaddition,somearguethatthestructuresofmany

Europeaneducationsystemsfocusedonimpartingjob-specificvocationalskillsareill-suitedto

respondtothevariabledemandsofapostindustrialworld(MllerandShavit1998).4 Gilbert

(2002)arguesthat,asgovernmentsrespondtothesedevelopments,welfarestatereformsacross

Europeandinothernationsoftheworldareincreasinglyleaningtowardmarket-orientationsand

privatization,targetedbenefitsandrestrictedeligibility,activelaborforceparticipation,andthe

promotionofopportunitiesforeducationandtraining.

Thistrendtowardthethirdway,orwhatGstaEsping-Andersenreferstoasasocial

investmenttypeofwelfarestate,hasextendeduptobecomeapowerfulthemewithinthe

emerginggovernmentoftheEuropeanUnion(EuropeanCommission1993;Esping-Andersen

3 SeealsoOECD1981;Esping-Andersen1996;Finer1999;4Seealso:ConfederationoftheEURectorsConferencesandtheAssociationofEuropeanUniversities(CRE).TheBologna

DeclarationontheEuropeanspaceforhighereducation:anexplanation. Yearunspecified.http://europa.eu.int/comm/education/socrates/erasmus/bologna.pdf .


6/18


January15,2003


1996).5

Intheory,thesocialinvestmentmodelreplacesuniversalsocialsecuritybenefitsand

incomeguaranteeswithopportunitiesforhumancapitalinvestmentthatis,itseekstoreplace

transfersthatequalizedistributionaloutcomeswitheducationandtrainingopportunitiesand

labormarketpoliciesthatfacilitateentry(orre-entry)intotheactiveworkforce.6

SomeliteratureonwelfarestatechangeandsocialinvestmentemphasizestheAmerican

welfarereformsof1996asthestrongestcaseofdramaticshiftsinsocialpolicy(Finer1999)7.I

contend,however,thatthesocialinvestment emphasisinsocialpolicyismorenoteworthyinthe

caseoftheEuropeanUnion.TheUnitedStateshasalwaysendorsedasocialmoralitythat

emphasizesworkandmeans-testing;inasense,then,the1996reformsarenotsurprising.

Europe,ontheotherhand,iswellknownashometohistoricallygenerousanduniversalistic

welfarestates(Esping-Andersen1990,1996);thesocialinvestmentturninthiscontextimpliesa

morefundamentalchangeinthesocialmoralityoftheEuropeanwelfarestate. 8

IV.TheEUroleinsocialpolicy

TheEUisarelativelyrecentlyformedgovernmentalentitywithlimitedpolicyspacefor

interveninginthelongstandingsocialwelfarepoliciesofitsmemberstatespoliciesthatwere

historicallykeycomponentsofpoliticalnation-buildingprojects,developedlongbeforetheEU

5Ibid.Seealso:EuropeanCommission.(May2000)"EuropeanReportontheQualityofSchoolEducation:SixteenQuality

Indicators."ReportbasedontheworkoftheWorkingCommitteeonQualityIndicators.Directorate-GeneralforEducationandCulture.Italy:EuropeanCommunities.6Esping-Andersen(1996)iscarefultomaintainthatwhiletheseshiftsappeartobeoccurringinternationally,however,historicallyandpoliticallydefinedinstitutionaldifferenceswillremain.7Thisbacklashculminatedinthe1996PersonalResponsibilityandOpportunitytoWorkAct(PROWA)underPresidentClinton,

whichlegallyandpracticallybroughtanendtowelfare-basedentitlementsadevelopmentwithspecialconsequencesforpoormothers(Orloff1999).Instead,thenewprogram(TANF,orTargetedAssistanceforNeedyFamilies)isbasedonaworkfirst

idea:theoptimalwaytopromoteemploymentisthroughimmediatejobplacementinanyjobandtogainexperienceandparticipateineducationandtrainingwhileworking(Strawn,Greenberg,andSavner2001).8Pierson(1996)andothershavealsopointedoutthatEuropesstrongerwelfarestateprogramsfosteredmoreentrenchedintereststhattendtopreserveexistingsocialpolicies.


7/18


January15,2003


developeditscurrentstakeinsocialpolicy(LiebfriedandPierson1995).Nonetheless, asI

explainbelow,theEUisbuildingitscaseforlegitimateinvolvementinsocialpolicy;oneofthe

mainentrywaysforthisinvolvementrestsonconnectionsbetweeneducationandtraining

(especiallyhumancapitalinvestment)andthechangingdemandsofthelabormarket.

TheEUandeducationandtraining policy,1980to2000

Theyear1986markedanewerafortheEUlargelyduetotheSingleEuropeAct(SEA).

Asseveralanalystshavenoted,thebasicideabehindtheSEAwasaroundsincethe1970s:to

reducecostsoftrade.Thisideawasanimportantsourceofagreementacrossnationswith

differingnationalinterestsandstancesvis--vistheEU(Mayesetal1992;Fligstein&Mara-

Drita1996).Asaconsequence,theSEApassedwithlittledebate(Mayesetal1992).

Nonetheless,nosubstantiveconsensuslaybehindthisbasicideaasMayesetalpointout,

nationsandpolicymakerscanhaveacommonobjectiveandverydifferentmotives

simultaneously(Mayesetal1992).DespiteskepticismoverthepossibilitythattheSEAwould

changetheEUinmanyimportantways,theunifyinglogicoftheSEAcouldrallybroadsupport

becauseitwasbothappealingenoughandvagueenoughtocreateopportunitiesforsocial

conservativesandsocialprogressivestomoveforwardwiththeirpolicyagendas(Mayesetal

1992).ThisopportunitysetleftEUpolicymakersinasurprisingsituation:astronger,more

centralizedEUcreatedbyworkingtowardafreeandopenmarket.

Atthispointitisunclearhowthisnewlystrengthenedgovernmentalentitywillaffect

socialwelfareinitsmemberstates,butthepowerfulpotentialoftheunifyinglogicbehindSEA

isclearonceitpassed,newlyempoweredpolicymakerscouldcarvetheirownpathswithinthe


8/18


January15,2003


confinesofsinglemarketlogic,andshapethedirectionofEUand,byextension,nationalsocial

policy.Butwhatshouldthefocusbe?Thecommonsenselogicofhumancapitaltheory

providedananswer:educationandtraining(seeFigure1below).

Figure1:

ConnectionsofSingleMarkettoEducationandTrainingviatheLogicofHumanCapital

Theory*

*Note:BasedonargumentinMayesetal1992:15-16.

Hence,beginningwiththeSEA,educationalsystems-- especiallythekindsandqualityof

skillstheyimpartcametobeunderstoodaskeytothedevelopmentofaskilledworkforceand

anintegratedEuropeanCommunityfromtheEUperspective.AstheEuropeandebateover

federalisminEuropewageson,theEUisstillhighlyconstrainedinitsabilitiestodirectly

interveneinanymembernation'sdomesticaffairs--withtheinitiationoftheSingleMarket

Project,however,theEUdevelopedapowerfulunifyinglogicderivedfromthecommonsense

assumptionsofhumancapitaltheory.

1986SEAtoencourageopenCOMPETITION

SEAmayreduceincentivefor

employerstoinvestintraining.SEAmaypromoteoligopoly

formation.

Needforhighvalue-added--

focusonhumancapital.

VOCATIONALTRAINING GENERALEDUCATION.


9/18


January15,2003


BuildingtheEUsroleineducationandtrainingsystems

OneofthemostimportantaspectsoftheSEAforsocialpolicyinEuropeisthatispaved

thewayforthe1992TreatyofMaastricht.ThistreatyspecifiededucationasaspecificEU

policyareaforthefirsttime(Article149).Article149,Chapter3oftheEuropeanCommunity

Treatystatesthat"theCommunityshallcontributetothedevelopmentofqualityeducationby

encouragingcooperationbetweenMemberStatesand,ifnecessary,bysupportingand

supplementingtheiractionswhilefullyrespectingtheresponsibilityoftheMemberStatesforthe

contentofteachingandtheorganisationofeducationalsystemsandtheirculturalandlinguistic

diversity."

9

TherearefivemajorgoalstheTreatyspecifiesforCommunityaction:(1)

developingtheEuropeandimensionineducation;(2)encouragingmobilityofstudentsand

teachers;(3)promotingcooperationbetweeneducationalestablishments;(4)promoting

exchangeofinformation&experience;and(5)encouragingdevelopmentofdistance

education.10Thesegoalsbothreflectandreinforceeducation-orientedprogramsthathadbeenin

placeinEuropeatleastsincethelate1980s(seeTable1,below),andespeciallysincethe1988

BolognaDeclaration(BolognaMagnaChartaUniversitatumof1988),avoluntaryagreement

among29Europeancountries(includingalloftheEUmembercountries)toreformthe

structuresoftheirhighereducationsystemsinaconvergentway.11

9EuropeanCommission.(May2000)."EuropeanReportontheQualityofSchoolEducation:SixteenQualityIndicators."ReportbasedontheworkoftheWorkingCommitteeonQualityIndicators.Directorate-GeneralforEducationandCulture.Italy:EuropeanCommunities.10Hingel,Anders.March2001."EducationPoliciesandEuropeanGovernance:ContributiontotheInterserviceGroupsonEuropeanGovernance."EuropeanCommission,Directorate-GeneralforEducationandCulture.DGEAC/A/1:1.11ConfederationoftheEURectorsConferencesandtheAssociationofEuropeanUniversities(CRE).TheBolognaDeclarationontheEuropeanspaceforhighereducation:anexplanation. Yearunspecified.

http://europa.eu.int/comm/education/socrates/erasmus/bologna.pdf .Thesignatorycountriesare:Austria,Belgium(FrenchandFlemishcommunities),Bulgaria,CzechRepublic,Denmark,Estonia,Finland,France,Germany,Greece,Hungary,Iceland,

Ireland,Italy,Latvia,Lithuania,Luxembourg,Malta,theNetherlands,Norway,Poland,Portugal,Romania,SlovakRepublic,Slovenia,Spain,Sweden,SwissConfederation,andUnitedKingdom.


10/18


January15,2003


Table1:EuropeanCommission-InitiatedEducationProjects,Budgets,andPurposes,1986-1995.

Program

Periodof

approval

Budget(ECU)

(millions)

Purpose

COMETT 1986-1995 206.6 Universityenterprisecooperationin

technologytraining

ERASMUS 1987-1994 307.5 Mobilityofuniversitystudentsandstaff

andjointcurriculumprojectsEUROTECNET 1983-1994 7 Promoteinnovationintraininginrespectof

thenewtechnologies

FORCE 1991-1994 31.3 Promotecontinuingvocationaltraining

LINGUA 1990-1994 68.6 Promoteforeignlanguagelearningwithin

teachered,secondaryandhighered,and

voctraining

PETRA 1988-1994 79.7 Promotevocationaltrainingofyoung

peopleandpreparationforadultlife

TEMPUS 1990-1994 194 Mobilityschemeforuniversitystudies

betweenEUandcentral/easternEurope

YES 1988-1994 32.2 'YouthforEurope'-exchangesofyoungpeopleandcenters

IRIS 1988-1995 .75 Networkingbetweenvocationaltraining

projectsforwomen.

Source:Field1998.

InthewhirlwindofresearchontheEU,theimplicationsofEuropeanintegrationfor

educationalchangearenotmainstreamtopics.PiersonandLiebfried(1995)pointoutthat:"The

centralcomponentsofnationalwelfarestates--provisionofeducation,healthcare,and

retirementsecurity--arelikelytoremainlargelyundernationalcontrol."12Yet,thisimmediate

controlofmemberstatesdoesnotruleoutthepossibilityoftheEUsettingconstraintsand

creatingincentiveforstatestodecidetochangetheirpolicies.Giventhespecificeffortsof

EuropeannationstocreateamoreconvergentEuropeanhighereducationsystemunderthe

Bolognaagreement,aswellasotherEUinitiativesthatreachintoalllevelsofeducationand

trainingacrossitsmemberstates,thereisgoodreasontobelievethattheEUexertsjustthiskind

ofindirectinfluenceoneducationpolicyspecifically.

12PiersonandLiebfried(1995)."MultitieredInstitutionsandTheMakingofSocialPolicy."Brookings,p33.


11/18


January15,2003


Bytheyear2000,keyEUpolicymakersclearlyassertedaproperlyEuropeanprerogative

toshapeandinfluenceeducationalpoliciesofmemberstates,yet(asField1998notes)these

samepolicymakersconcreteeffortshavefocusedmoreonqualityandbenchmarkingthanon

actualinterventionintheeducationalsystemsofmemberstates.OneEuropeanCommission

reportstatesthatinspiteofthelimitednatureofimplementedCommunityeducationalprograms,

thereisnonethelessa"manifestwillandpoliticaldemandtogobeyond"fromMemberStates

andtheorganizationsoftheEU.Thisreportclaimsthat:

Whatispresentlyhappeninginco-operationinthefieldofeducationtellsus,thatnotonlyisaEuropeanSpaceofEducation initsmaking,commonprinciplesof

educationarebeingagreeduponbetweenMemberStates,leadinglogicallytoaEuropeanModelofEducation .Furthermore,thismomentumofdeepeningco-

operationineducationisfollowedbyastrongmovementtowardenlargement.

ThirtyEuropeancountriesparticipatepresentlyintheactionprogrammeSocrates

and35Europeancountriesareactivelyparticipatinginco-operationconcerning

thedevelopmentofqualityeducationandtraining.AtayearlymeetingofMinistersofeducationof35+Europeancountriesthefoundationsofa EuropeanHouseofeducationarebeinglaid.

13

V. Dataandanalysis

Thequestionthispaperseekstoaddressis:DidtheEuropeanUnionsemergenceasa

stakeholderineducationpolicyinthelate1980sandearly1990salterthecourseofongoing

socialinvestment-orientedwelfarestatereformsinitsmemberstates?Itoffersapreliminary

analysisofexpenditurepatternstoevaluatethehypothesisthatthoughtheEUspolicystanceon

socialinvestmentmirrorspre-existingnationalresponsestothewelfarestatecrisisofthe

1980s,itisexertingitsownpressuretodirectmemberstatepoliciestowardasocialinvestment

welfarestatemodel.TheanalysisdrawsonEuropeanUnionpolicystatementsaswellasnation-

13Hingel,2001:2.


12/18


January15,2003


leveldataforeducationexpendituresdrawnchieflyfromtheUnitedNationsEducational,

Scientific,andCulturalOrganisation(UNESCO).14

>Preliminaryfindings

Isthereevidenceofexpenditurechangeineducationsystemsamongthememberstatesofthe

EuropeanUnioninthe1980sand1990s?UNESCOdataindicatesthat,infact,somechangedid

occurinthedirectionofconvergenceacrossEUcountries.Measuredbystandarddeviation,

thereisasmalldeclineinvariationineducationexpendituresasapercentofpublicexpenditures

acrossEUnations(seeFigure2).Overall,thestandarddeviationdeclinedfrom3.4in1986to

2.4by1996,muchofwhichoccurredbetweentheyears1988and1994.

Figure2:EducationExpenditureasPercentofPublicExpenditureinEUNations:

1986,1988,1994,&1995(UNESCO)

02468

10121416

18202224262830

1986 1988 1994 1995year

%

Austria

Belgium

Denmark

Finland

France

Germany

Greece

IrelandItaly

Luxembourg

Netherlands

Portugal

Spain

Sweden

UK

StdDev

Source:UNESCO2002.

1986figuresforPortugalandFrancearetakenfrom1983data;1986figureforthe UKtakenfrom1984data.

14Thisfirst-brushinquiryisintendedtoprovideaframeworkforafollow-upanalysisofferingmoredetaileddataoncategorical

socialexpenditures,whichwilldrawfromtheOrganisationforEconomicCo-operationandDevelopments(OECD)EducationataGlanceandSocialExpendituredatabases.


13/18


January15,2003


Withsomesurprising

exceptions,poorer

countriesincreasedthe

percentageofpublic

expendituresdevotedto

education--including

Ireland,Portugal,Greece,

andItalyandeducation

expendituresinwealthier

countries(withthe

exceptionofSpain)

declined(seeTable2).

Sincethesefiguresdonotaccountforpopulationdifferences(byusingperpupileducation

expendituresandpercapitageneralexpenditures),however,itisunclearifthisisreal

convergence.

Indicatorsthatdoaccountforpopulationdifferencessuggestthattrendsineducational

investmentarebothdifferentacrossEuropeancountriesandacrosseducationallevels.For

primaryandsecondaryeducation,expendituresfrom1990to1996increasedformostcountries,

withthestrikingexceptionoftheUK.(seeFigure4theUSisincludedforpurposesof

comparison).Thereissomeindicationofconvergencebythesemeasuresaswell:thestandard

deviationdecreasedfrom8.6to7.8overthesix-yeartimeperiodinEuropeancountries.

Table2:EducationExpenditureasPercentofPublicExpenditureand

NetDifferences,1986to1995(UNESCO)

1986* 1988 1994 1995 netdiff

Belgium 14.3 10.4 5.8 -8.5France 18.0 10.8 11.1 -6.9

Netherlands 15.6 15.7 9.4 8.7 -6.9

Spain 13.3 9.6 10.5 10.6 -2.7

US 16.0 12.4 14.4 14.1 -1.9

Sweden 12.6 12.3 11.0 11.6 -1.0

Luxembourg 15.7 17.7 11.5 15.1 -0.6

UK 11.3 11.4 11.6 0.3

Denmark 12.7 13.1 12.5 13.1 0.4

Finland 11.6 11.8 11.9 12.2 0.6

Italy 8.3 8.7 8.9 0.6

Greece 6.8 5.6 7.0 8.2 1.4

Austria 8.0 7.6 10.6 2.6

Portugal 8.7 12.1 11.7 3.0

Ireland 9.3 8.4 13.3 13.5 4.2

Germany 9.4 8.4 (-1.0)

*FranceandPortugal-1983figure;UK-1984figure.


14/18


January15,2003


Figure4:CurrentExpenditureperPupilasaPercentageofGNPperCapita:Primaryand

SecondaryEducation(UNESCO)

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

UnitedStates

Austria

Belgium

Denmark

Finland

France

Greece

Ireland

Italy

Luxembourg

Netherlands

Portugal

Spain

UnitedKingdom

countries

%1990

1996

Fortertiaryeducation,trendsaredifferent:notonlydidexpendituresdeclineinabouthalfof

EUcountries,butvariationinexpendituresperpupilasapercentageofGNPpercapitaactually

increasedfromastandarddeviationof11.1in1990to13.9by1996(seeFigure5).

Figure5:CurrentExpenditureperPupilasaPercentageofGNPperCapita:TertiaryEducation

(UNESCO)

010

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

UnitedStates

Austria

Belgium

Denmark

Finland

France

Greece

Ireland

Italy

Luxembourg

Netherlands

Portugal

Spain

UnitedKingdom

countries

%

1990

1996


15/18


January15,2003


Insum,figuresthataccountforpopulation

differencesanddistinguishbetweenlevelsof

educationshowthatwhiletheremayindeed

beEU-wideconvergenceinexpenditure

patternsinprimaryandsecondaryeducation-

-occurringespeciallyintheearly1990s.In

thecaseoftertiaryeducationexpenditures,

thetrendappearstobemoreinthedirection

ofdivergence.

Withreferencetothespecificquestionof

anEUroleinchangingexpenditurepatterns

amongitsmemberstates,thisanalysisoffers

evidencethataconvergenceinexpendituresonprimaryandsecondaryeducationoccurred

aroundthesametimeastheEUsfirstforaysintotherealmofeducationpolicy,markedby

the1988BolognaDeclarationandthe1992TreatyofMaastricht.Thisisobviously,

however,farfromconclusiveevidencethatEUpolicystatementsweredirectlyconnectedto

thissetofchanges.Thesetrendsrequireinvestigationinfurtherresearch.

Table4:Currentexpenditureperpupilasa

percentageofGNPpercapita,netdifferences1990

to1996(UNESCO)

ascending

order:

primary

and

secondary

ascending

order:

tertiary

UK -5 Netherlands -9

Netherlands -1 Portugal -7

Ireland 1 Ireland -6

Italy 1 Luxembourg -5

Belgium 2 Italy -2

UnitedStates 2 UK -2

Luxembourg 3 Austria -1

Austria 4 Spain -1

Denmark 6 Belgium 3

Finland 7 Finland 4

Portugal 8 UnitedStates 4

Greece 9 France 5

France 10 Greece 6

Spain 13 Denmark 8


16/18


January15,2003


Bibliography

Bourdieu,Pierre.(March1994).RethinkingtheState:GenesisandStructureofthe

BureaucraticField. SociologicalTheory12,1:1-18.

Cameron,DavidR.(1978).TheExpansionofthePublicEconomy. AmericanPolitical

ScienceReview 72,4:1243-1261.

ConfederationoftheEURectorsConferencesandtheAssociationofEuropeanUniversities(CRE).TheBolognaDeclarationntheEuropeanspaceforhighereducation:an

explanation.Yearunspecified.

http://europa.eu.int/comm/education/socrates/erasmus/bologna.pdf .

Esping-Andersen,Gsta.(1990).TheThreeWorldsofWelfareCapitalism.Princeton,NJ:PrincetonUniversityPress.

____.(ed).(1996).WelfareStatesinTransition:NationalAdaptationsinGlobalEconomies.London:SagePublications.

Esping-Andersen,Gsta,andMarinoRegini(eds.).(2000).WhyDeregulateLaborMarkets?Oxford,UK:OxfordUniversityPress.

EuropeanCommission.(1993). GreenPaperonEuropeanSocialPolicy.BruxellesDG5.

EuropeanCommission.(May2000)"EuropeanReportontheQualityofSchoolEducation:

SixteenQualityIndicators."ReportbasedontheworkoftheWorkingCommitteeonQualityIndicators.Directorate-GeneralforEducationandCulture.Italy:European

Communities.

____.(January2001).ReportfromtheCommission:TheConcreteFutureObjectivesof

EducationSystems.Brussels.

Field,John.(1998).EuropeanDimensions:Education,Training,andtheEuropeanUnion .

HigherEducationPolicySeries39.LondonandPhiladelphia:JessicaKingsley

Publishers.

Finer,CatherineJones.(1999).TrendsandDevelopmentsinWelfareStates.InJochenClasen

(ed).ComparativeSocialPolicy:Concepts,Theories,andMethods. Oxford:Blackwell

Publishers.

Fligstein(1999)."IsGlobalizationtheCauseoftheCrisesofWelfareStates?"(Unpublished

mss.)

FligsteinandMara-Drita,1996."HowtoMakeaMarket:ReflectionsontheAttempttoCreatea

SingleMarketintheEuropeanUnion."AJS.102,1.


17/18


January15,2003


FloraandHeidenheimer,eds(1984).TheDevelopmentofWelfareStatesinEuropeand

America.NewJersey:TransactionPublishers.

Garrett,Geoffrey.(1998).PartisanPoliticsintheGlobalEconomy.NewYork:Cambridge

UniversityPress.

_____.(Winter2001).GlobalizationandGovernmentSpendingAroundtheWorld.Studiesin

ComparativeInternationalDevelopment.35,4:3-29.

Garrett,GeoffreyandDeborahMitchell.(2001).Globalization,GovernmentSpendingandTaxationintheOECD.EuropeanJournalofPoliticalResearch39,3.

Gilbert,Neil.(2002).TransformationoftheWelfareState:TheSilentSurrenderofPublic

Responsibility.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress.

Hingel,Anders.(March2001).EducationPoliciesandEuropeanGovernance:ContributiontotheInterserviceGroupsonEuropeanGovernance .EuropeanCommission,

Directorate-GeneralforEducationandCulture.DGEAC/A/1:1.

Hix,Simon.(1999).ThePoliticalSystemoftheEuropeanUnion.TheEuropeanUnionSeries.

NewYork:Palgrave.

Huber,Evelyne,andJohnD.Stevens.(2001).DevelopmentandCrisisoftheWelfareState.

Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress.

Kaufman,RobertR.andAlexSegura-Ubiergo.(July2001).Globalization,DomesticPolitics,

andSocialSpendinginLatinAmerica:ATime-SeriesCross-SectionAnalysis,1973-

1997.WorldPolitics53:553-587.

LiebfriedandPierson(eds).(1995).EuropeanSocialPolicy:BetweenFragmentationandIntegration.Washington,D.C.:Brookings.

Marshall,T.H.(1948).Class,Citizenship,andSocialDevelopment:EssaysbyTHMarshall .

NewYork:Doubleday.

Mayes,Hager,KnightandStreeck.(1992).PublicInterestandMarketPressures:Problems

PosedbyEurope1992.NewYork,NY:St.MartinsPress.

Mishra,R.(1993).SocialPolicyinthePostmodernWorld.InC.Jones(ed).New

PerspectivesontheWelfareStateinEurope.London:Routledge.

MllerandShavit.(1998).ComparativeStudyofThirteenCountries.InShavitandMuller

(eds),FromSchooltoWork:AComparativeStudyofEducationalQualificationsandOccupationalDestinations.Oxford:ClarendonPress.

OECD.(1981).TheWelfareStateinCrisis.Paris:OECD.


18/18


January15,2003


Orloff,AnnShola.EndingtheEntitlementofPoorMothers,ExpandingtheClaimsofPoor

EmployedParents:Gender,Race,ClassinContemporaryUSSocialPolicy,workingpaperintheseries:RecastingtheWelfareState(1999:RobertSchumanCentre,European

UniversityInstitute).

PiersonandLiebfried.(1995)."MultitieredInstitutionsandTheMakingofSocialPolicy."InLiebfriedandPierson(eds).EuropeanSocialPolicy:BetweenFragmentationand

Integration.Washington,D.C.:Brookings.

Pierson.(January1996)."TheNewPoliticsoftheWelfareState."WorldPolitics.48:143-79.

Sbragia,Alberta(ed).(1992).Euro- Politics:InstitutionsandPolicymakinginthe"New"

EuropeanCommunity.WashingtonDC:Brookings.

Weber,Max.[1978(1922)].EconomyandSociety.Berkeley:UniversityofCaliforniaPress.

Weir,Margaret.(ed).(1988). ThePoliticsofSocialPolicyintheUnitedStates.Princeton:

PrincetonUniversityPress.

______(forthcoming)."TheAmericanMiddleClassandthePoliticsofEducation."InZunzet

al,PostwarSocialContractsUnderStress:TheMiddleClassesofAmerica,Europe,andJapanattheTurnoftheCentury.Publisher?

Documents

Are Education and Training the European Union’s Welfare State- Mudge