Architecture of India

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Architecture of India

The architecture of India is rooted in its history, culture and religion. Indian

architecture progressed with time and assimilated the many influences that came as

a result of India's global discourse with other regions of the world throughout its

millennia old past. The architectural methods practiced in India are a result of

examination and implementation of its established building traditions and outside

cultural interactions.

Though old, this Eastern tradition has also incorporated modern values as India

became a modern nation state. The economic reforms of 1991 further bolstered the

urban architecture of India as the country became more integrated with the world's

economy. Traditional Vastu Shastra remains influential in India's architecture during

the contemporary era.

Mehrgarh culture - Indus Valley Civilization (7000 BC - 1500 BC)

Archaeological evidence from Mehrgarh (7000 BC) shows construction of mud brick

houses and granaries. Irrigation was developed in the Indus Valley Civilization around

4500 BC. The size and prosperity of the Indus civilization grew as a result of this

innovation, which eventually lead to more planned settlements which further made

use of drainage and sewers.

By 2800 BC, private bathrooms, located on the ground floor, were found in nearly all

the houses of the Indus Valley Civilization. The pottery pipes in walls allowed

drainage of water and there was, in some case, provision of a crib for sitting. The

Indus Valley Civilization had some of the most advanced private lavatories in the

world. "Western-style" toilets were made from bricks using toilet seats made of

wood on top. The waste was then transmitted to drainage systems. Sophisticated

irrigation and storage systems were developed by the Indus Valley Civilization,

including the artificial reservoirs at Girnar in 3000 BC and an early canal irrigation

system from circa 2600 BC.

Large-scale sanitary sewer systems were in place in the Indus Valley by 2700 BC. The

drains were 7-10 feet wide and 2 feet (0.61 m) below ground level. The sewage was

then led into cesspools, built at the intersection of two drains, which had stairs

leading to them for periodic cleaning. Plumbing using earthenware plumbing pipes

with broad flanges for easy joining with asphalt to stop leaks was in place by 2700


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BC.

From excavated remains, it is clear that the Indus Valley civilization possessed a

flourishing urban architecture. The major cities associated with the civilization,

notably Mohenjo-daro, Harapp, and Kalibangan, were laid out on a grid pattern and

had provisions for an advanced drainage system. The residential buildings, which

were serviceable enough, were mainly brick and consisted of an open patio flanked

by rooms. For monumental architecture, the evidence is slight, the most important

being a sacred tank (thought to be for ritual ablution) and associated structures.

Corbel vaulting (arches supported by brackets projecting from the wall) was known,

and, to a limited extent, timber was used together with brick; whatever architectural

ornamentation existed must have been of brick or plaster.

Vedic period - Post Maha Janapadas period (1500 BC - 200 AD)

The Buddhist stupa, a dome shaped monument, was used in India as a

commemorative monument associated with storing sacred relics. The stupa

architecture was adopted in Southeast and East Asia, where it became prominent as

a Buddhist monument used for enshrining sacred relics. Upon its discovery, this

architectural became known as pagoda to the people from the Western world.

Fortified cities with stpas, viharas, and temples were constructed during the

Maurya empire (c. 321 - 185 BC). Wooden architecture was popular and rock cut

architecture became solidified. Guard rails, consisting of posts, crossbars, and a

coping, became a feature of safety surrounding a stupa. Temples built on elliptical,

circular, quadrilateral, or apsidal plans were constructed using brick and timber. The

Indian gateway archs, the torana, reached East Asia with the spread of Buddhism.

Some scholars hold that torii derives from the torana gates at the Buddhist historic

site of Sanchi (3rd century BC - 11 century AD).

Rock-cut stepwells in India date from 200-400 AD. Subsequently, the wells at Dhank

(550-625 AD) and construction of stepped ponds at Bhinmal (850-950 AD) takesplace. The city of Mohenjo-daro has wells which may be the predecessors of the step

well; as many as 700 wells, constructed by 3rd millennium BC, have been discovered

in just one section of the city, leading scholars to believe that 'cylindrical brick lined

wells' were invented by the people of the Indus Valley Civilization. Cave temples

became prominent throughout western India, incorporating various features and


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material to give rise to cave architecture in places such as Ajatna and Ellora.

Walled and moated cities with large gates and multi-storied buildings which

consistently used arched windows and doors are important features of the

architecture during this period. The Indian emperor Ashoka (rule: 273 BC to 232 BC)

himself established a chain of hospitals throughout the Mauryan empire by 230 BCE.

One of the edicts of Ashoka (272231 BC) reads: "Everywhere King Piyadasi (Asoka)

erected two kinds of hospitals, hospitals for people and hospitals for animals. Where

there were no healing herbs for people and animals, he ordered that they be bought

and planted." Buddhist architecture blended with Roman architecture and

Hellenestic architecture to give rise to unique blends - such as the Greco-Buddhist

school.

Early Common Era - High Middle Ages (200 AD - 1200 AD)

Universities housing thousands of teachers and students flourished at Nalanda and

Valabhi between the 4th-8th centuries. South Indian temple architecture, visible as a

distinct tradition during the 7th century AD is described below:

The South Indian temple consists essentially of a square-chambered sanctuary

topped by a superstructure, tower, or spire and an attached pillared porch or hall

(mandapa, or mantapam), enclosed by a peristyle of cells within a rectangular court.

The external walls of the temple are segmented by pilasters and carry niches housingsculpture. The superstructure or tower above the sanctuary is of the ktina type and

consists of an arrangement of gradually receding stories in a pyramidal shape. Each

story is delineated by a parapet of miniature shrines, square at the corners and

rectangular with barrel-vault roofs at the centre. The tower is topped by a dome-

shaped cupola and a crowning pot and finial.

North Indian temples showed increased elevation of the wall and elaborate spire by

the 10th century. Richly decorated temples, including the complex at Khajuraho,

were constructed in Central India. Indian traders bought Indian architecture to South

east Asia through various trade routes.

Late Middle Ages (1100 AD - 1526 AD)

Vijayanagara Architecture of the period (1336 1565AD) was a notable building


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idiom evolved by the imperial Vijayanagar Empire that ruled most of South India

from their regal capital at Vijayanagara on the banks of the Tungabhadra River in

Karnataka, India at its peak. The architecture of the temples built during the reign of

the Vijayanagara empire had elements of political authority. This resulted in the

creation of a distinctive imperial style of architecture which featured prominently

not only in temples but also in administrative structures across the deccan. The

Vijayanagara style is a combination of the Chalukya, Hoysala, Pandya and Chola

styles which evolved earlier in the centuries when these empires ruled and is

characterised by a return to the simplistic and serene art of the past.

Hoysala architecture is the distinctive building style developed under the rule of the

Hoysala Empire in the region historically known as Karnata, today's Karnataka, India,

between the 11th and the 14th centuries. Large and small temples built during this

era remain as examples of the Hoysala architectural style, including the

Chennakesava Temple at Belur, the Hoysaleswara Temple at Halebidu, and the

Kesava Temple at Somanathapura. Other examples of fine Hoysala craftmanship are

the temples at Belavadi, Amrithapura, and Nuggehalli. Study of the Hoysala

architectural style has revealed a negligible Indo-Aryan influence while the impact of

Southern Indian style is more distinct. A feature of Hoysala temple architecture is its

attention to detail and skilled craftmanship. The temples of Belur and Halebidu are a

proposed UNESCO world heritage sites. About a 100 Hoysala temples survive today.

Islamic influence and Mughal Era (1526 AD - 1857 AD)

Mughal tombs of sandstone and marble show Persian influence. The Red Fort at Agra

(156574) and the walled city of Fatehpur Sikri (156974) are among the

architectural achievements of this time - as is the Taj Mahal, built as a tomb for

Queen Mumtaz Mahal by Shah Jahan (162858). Employing the double dome, the

recessed archway, white marble and parks while stressing on symmetry and detail

was visible during the reign of Shah Jahan. Quranic verses were described on the

walls of the buildings. However, the depiction of any living being - an essential part

of the pre-Islamic tradition of India - was forbidden under Islam.

Some scholars hold that cultural contact with Europe under Manuel I of Portugal

(reign: October 25, 1495 - December 13, 1521) resulted in exchange of architectural

influences. Little literary evidence exists to confirm the Indian influence but some


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scholars have nonetheless suggested a possible relation based on proximity of

architectural styles.

Colonial Era (1757 AD - 1947 AD)

European colonialism bought with it a wide array of influences to further shape

Indian architecture. Imperial power was stressed by using grand buildings. Local

craftsmen incorporated new skills and added them to their trade. Colonial

architecture became assimilated into India's diverse traditions. Other innovations

made during the European Industrial Revolution came with the British Raj to India.

The European involvement in India through the 1920s and the 1930s bought

architect Le Corbusier and the Art Deco movement to India. Fusion has been a

consistent feature of modern Indian architecture - for example Indian elements of

chhajja (wide roof overhangs), jaali (circular stone apertures) and chhatri (free-

standing pavilions) were intermixed with European architecture during the

construction of the Rastrapati bhavan. This neoclassical project - which also

contained a stupa like dome - was overseen by Sir Edwin Landseer Lutyens and the

Indian Institute of Architects (est. 1920).

Republic of India (1947 AD - present)

In recent times there has been a movement of population from rural areas to urban

centres of industry, leading to price rise in property in various cities of India. Urban

housing in India balances space constrictions and is aimed to serve the working class.

Indian government has accepted World Trade Organisations General Agreement on

Trade in Services (GATS), enabling foreign architects to practice in India, and thereby

adding to the plurality of Indian building traditions. Growing awareness of ecology

has influenced architecture in India during modern times.

Indian buildings reflect India's culture and myths. Jawahar Kala Kendra at Jaipur - for

example - represents the layout of a mandala. Raj Jadhav (2007) notes the positionof traditional Vastu Shastra in modern Indian architecture:

The ancient Indian architectural text of Vastu Shastra is widely used in modern Indian

architecture for planning houses, residential complexes, office, commercial,

industrial and other building types. The principles of Vastu Shastra regulate planning


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Climate responsive architecture has long been a feature of India's architecture but

has been losing its significance as of late. Indian architecture reflects its various

socio-cultural sensibilities which vary from region to region. Certain areas are

traditionally held to be belonging to women. Villages in India have features such as

courtyards, loggias, terraces and balconies. Calico, chintz, and palampore - of Indian

origin - highlight the assimilation of Indian textiles in global interior design.

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Architecture of India