Architecture as Criticism From Mannerism to the Architecture of Nicholas Hawksmoor

8/13/2019 Architecture as Criticism From Mannerism to the Architecture of Nicholas Hawksmoor

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RCHlTECIURE SCRITICISMFrom r...fannerism to the Architecture of Nicholas Hawksmoor

A Thesis Submitted tothe Faculty of Graduate Studies and Researchn Partial Fulfillment of the Pequirementsfor the Degree oiMaster of Architecture

CHAIBOON SIRITHANAWAT

School of ArchitectureMcGill UniversityMontrealDecember 199

Copyright @Chaiboon Sirithanawat 1990


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TO MY L T F THERwho longed 1 see my gr du le studyollly to depart shortly before l began


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BSTR CfThe author discusscs the ide a of architecture criLicism and its intcrprctdtion. C r i t i e i ~ ' l , in

addition to its traditionalliterary role, is considcrcd as an aet maf..illg. Conscquently, arrhitcctllreis understood as criticism--i.c. a making of critical arcllitccture. The making of critcal archItecture, aevcrily; lindfault with; censure.',3 To criticize, as il is most often used in the last sensc-- to find fault with, doesnot only narrow the function of criticism to he judgmcnt alone, it implies that the aet of critieism isinherently negative. Suhsequently, understanding and appreciating criticism as a valuahlc activitybecomes difficult. In fact. judgment is not the only legitimate usage of criticism, and the ncgativeallusion of finding fauIt with is not the purpose of ctticism. This becomes evident if the etymolob'Yof the word is investigated.

Criticism, or to criticize originally derives from the Greek krillcill which means to separate,to sift, to make distinctions.... The reek origin of this word was 10 : ccrn or to u d g c . ~ Althoughthe latter is doser to the commun and technical usage of critich,m toJay, many wrilers stress thesignificance of the former. Harry Levin, in Why iterary entlclsm IS flOt 11 Exact SCIeIlCe noteanly a judgrnenl on worth asCurt J. Ducasse, the author of Ait the CnlICS and YOIl points out:

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INTRODUCTION 2Not only evaluatioll but also mere description involves the exercise of judgment; and tlm:: theword 'critic5m' is, without impropriety, often used also to designate sim ply the scientificinvestigation and description of the text, origins, character, structure technique, history orhistorieal context, and so on of a work of literature or of one of the other arts. When theword 'criticism' is used in this sense, a critic is then a person whose knClwledge, training, andinterests presumably equip him to study and de scribe a given work cnllcally--that is, withdic;cernmcnt ar, to such matters as just mentioncd.7

In this regard, critidc;m as description is nol meant to evaluate, bul ralher providc an understanding ofthe \-.'Ork criticiled. In addition lo its possible denotation as description, the meaning of discernmentalso applies to criticism used within the ('ontext of judgment. \Vhen a critic makes a judgment, he (orshe) also has 10 sifl, separale, and ake distinctil''ls between lhe m3lerials conccrning the subjects he(or llhe) is criliciJ:ing or judging. At the end of this proccss, the critic, through discemment then is able1 evaluale. r i t i c i ~ m uscd in this sense shuld therefore Mean merely an evaluation without necessarilyfinding [,lUit, i.e., pasc;ing judgmcnt whcther favorable or unfavorable, or judging the merls or demeritsof somcthing equally.

In brier, criticism can be best described as an interpretation made with discernment, either ofan evaluative judgmenl, or a non-evalu:ttive description. The objective of criticism, particularly that ofevaluative judgment , should be viewed as positive, not threa tening or intimidating. Il should be seen asa vehicle for convcying significant contcnt S for rcsponding or effccting the environment. While

evaluativc criticism can be valuable as a tool used for generating beller work descriptive criticism canhe uscful as a dcviet.: to facilitate understanding.9

Criticism in ArchitectureA TaxonomyAs Wayne AUoe points out in rchitecture and CriticaJ Imaginatioll architecture critieism has

received liulc attent ion as a discipline. lo This becomes obvious wben compared to otber fine arts,especially in the field of visual art and liter alure wbere the subject of criticism has been considered asan important discipline. Although numerous literary works on criticism in thase arts abound, few arerarely found in the discoursc of architecture. In fact, Many critical writings on architecture exist, butfcw have attcmptcd to discuss, and analyze methodica1ly the nature of architectural criticism.


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INTRODUCTION .\Consequently, architectural criticism, like the term "criticuml" u >ed in convcnt iOIl.II I.tngu.Ige.

is commonly perceived as evaluative. The various kinds of critiCism when c.ltegori/ed .nc oltendistinguished only by means of its setting, or the situation in which c r i t i c i ~ m t a \ . . e ~ placc T l l I ~ "1IIt 01categorization does not help to clarify our undcrstanding of the vilnous n a t u r c ~ .lIld l11ethods ofarchitectural critidsm. The result limits the apprehension of truc c n t i C l ~ m Attoc h t l ~ noted "popul.trimpressions of architectural criticism arc usually vcry narrow. Thc wor\.. ~ e e l l >hort a r t i c l c ~ IIInewspapers and a few magazines and possibly as interprcti"e hi ~ l O n . I I critlLi I11." Theformer is criticism which teachers bring 10 their studcnts 111 tlc.ldemlc d e ~ i g n udlO'" The 1.llIer t a e ~place in profession al practice, such as criticism exchanged betwcen junior and senior ardl\tech de ignoffices. "Professional critidsm" can also be diffcrcntiated ipto many categories by means of part('iprn.Peter Collins, in rchitectural Judgemellt classifies architectural cnticism into four categorie

Architectural judgcments usually relate to one of four main categorie > w)lIch may he d . J ~ , > i f i c d .for the sakc of discussion, as1. the design proccss,2. competitive assessmcnts,3. control evaluations, and4. journalism.

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In the above taxonomy, architcctural criticism is considered only in term > of judgrncnt or cv.tluatiollAIl categories are differentiatrd from the othcrs by means of contt'xt (Jnly. Arlhiteclural criticism,however, can be more than judgmcnt The description or interprctation of ardult:ctural hi.,tory i\ dl,>ocriticism. This crit'Icism "tends cither tell us what has actually happcned or to pOint out whllh cvcnl'>


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INTRODUCTION 4among Many deserve spo clal a t t e n t i o n . I ~ ln this respect, history reflects criticism as description madewith disccrnment rather than evaluation.

Architectural critidsm, therefore, can be regarded to fall mainly within either evaluative ornon-evaluative categories. However, these two categories are still not sufficient to explain the variousforms and natures of archileofar as the context influenced design decisions, or details the design processitsclf. Descriptive criticism, then, either pictures a building or the process of its generation, oris biographical or contextual in character.Interprctive criticism is cither impressionistic, evocative, or advocatory in character.Whcthcr an assessment of a designed environment is right or wrong in relation to sorneexternal norms or standards is not the issue here; rather interpretive criticism attempts tomake us see the environment in a particular way.1S

Attoc bases his classification on the original meanings of Greek krilleill, which means to judgeor to discern. While AUoe derives onnative cntclSfll from the frrst more common usage of judgmentor evaluation, he further diffcrentiates the latter non-evaluative discernmcnt into two categories:

d e s e r i p t i ~ ' e and illtcrpret'e cnticism, which are distinguished by their respective goals. The objective ofdescriptIve CritirlSl1I is to depict fact, and hclp us sec what s actually thcre. On the contrary, the pur poseof illterprctivc crillcism is to provide a particular view of a building or an environment. The cleardistinction bclween the vicws produced by descriptn'e and illtepretive criticism is that the first attemptsto be objective while the latter is truly subjective.

According to Auoc s taxonomy, ; terpretive en tic/sm can be further divided into three categoriesby techniques uscd and specifie intentions of the crilic: advocatory, evocative, and impressiollistic. 6Adl'ocatory critlcism aims to provide new perspective, particularly an advocatory view, on an object,


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INTRODUCTION

a building, or an environment .17 Evocati\ e criticism on Ihc othcr hand, inll'nds 10 l'Vll"l' in Ihl' \ i l \ \ l r ~feeJings similar to critic's views. The critic does this by prescnting his (or hl'r) ~ ; ' l n o g , l l l ' expcriclH'e 01the objects of criticism.18 The third, imprcss/Ollistlc eriliC/sm, in o p p o ~ I l o n 10 bolh prc\'lnu l .llcgllfll ,does not intend to provide any kind of vicw towards the objcct of crilici m In tead. it " u ~ c . the wmkof art or building [or the object involved in criticisrn] as a foundation on wluch Ihe l'Tltir Ihcnlllll.,tlulhis own work of art. The original work suggests 10 the critic a new and diflercnl area wnrlhy 01exploration."19 In Ibis method the new work of art crcated by thc cri tic (abo thl' " r t i ~ t \ tll1. l\I"'C) Ihcnbecomes as criticism. An underst anding of this nature of imprcssiolIIslIC enlsC/lm J,ly . the ground loranother significant mode of criticism in architecture, namcly "architecture a


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INTRODU TION 6GILBERT: To lhe erilie lhe work of arl is simply a suggestion for a ncw work of his own, thatnced nol neccssarily bcar any Tesemblance te the Ihing it cnticises The onf ,-h'>r;}ctcristic ofa bcautiful form is lhat one can put into it whatcver one wishes; and sec in If whatcver oneehooses 1 see; and the Beauly, lhat gives to creation its universal and aesthetic clement, makeslhe cTitic creator tn bis turn, and whispers of a thow tnd different things which were notpresent in the mind of him who carved the statue or painted the pan cl or graved the gem.22

From this clal1on, il can he inferred lhal by using the existing work of arl to create a virtually new,per \onal artislic work, the entlC bccomcs creator or ail aTtist Crilicism then takes the form of a workof art. In addition, a


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INTRODU TION 7

Applying the same concept of "criticism as art; art as critk::"II1' to architecture, .lTl'hitertul ttoo can be understood in terms of criticism, The important key needed to u n d e r ~ t n d the mode of"architecture as criticism" is the medlllm or the lallguage employcd within this eriticism.

Architecture as Language of CriticismArchitectural criticism seems often confined ta a literary activity, This b l\lustr,Ited hy.laY,lIlt

J. Maharaj's study in his Master of Archi tecture thesis, 'The Nature of Arc\lItectural Critil'


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INTRODUCTION 8

1 Francois Barbier. Desert de Retz, France, 1771of verbal discourse and the possibility of other appropriate media for architectural criticism are pointedout by Attoe:

Another reason for rejecting the view of criticism as a literary activity atonc s thatwhile this medium might suffice for discussions of literature, the printed word is too limited toprovide for all perspectives and nuances pertinent to the discussion of what is seen andexpcrienced as three dimensional. A photograph, cartoon or diagram cao oCten say it better.26Accordingly, a three-dimensional object c o sometimes say it even better. A photograph, cartoon ordiagram only extend the mode of the media of criticism from Iiterary activity to another two-dimcnsional graphie manipulation. In comparisoD, a three-dimensional object, which cao be amodification of a real building, does Dot only provide a critica1 perspective, but also offers the readeran authentic experience of architecture. n illustration of tbis can be seen in Francois Barbier's theDesert de Retz (Fig. 1). In this example, the architecture itself becomes interpretive riti ism that bothuses and criticizes the classical code. he criticism here is made on the reference of column as aclassical clement, and Dot on the supposed contents of classica1 column as beauty, the human body,proportion, etc.27


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INTRODU TION 9

Architecture as Criticism from Within"Architecture as criticism" is the idea of architecture th.ll commcnts nn architecture

Architecture "speaks" about Itsclf This is the same concept th,lt Jorge Sllvetti lil \cu\M: \ ,\ \ "critlu\mfrom within" in "Thc Beauty of Shaow ." As hc descnue\'

Architecture as a iscourse critical of itself. Such a discoursc does not Itself 111,I\..e me 01language, but instcad placcs itsc\f at the very moment of producing an .ucllltecturai objetl,aiming through this at a crilical rcading of the sy::-tel11 1 11 chiterture. 2s

As defined, the medIUm employed makes this type of cril1w.m b.lslc.ll1y dlffl'rent lrom lltherconventional criticism. Furthcrmore, another lhstindion dl'itlOglll\hing thi., cntici.,m lrom theconventional criticism IS the relationship betwccn "criticism" and "object of criticism" ln conventlOn.11discourse, thc crilic critici/cs by rcmoving himsclf (or h e r ~ e l f from the objcct entin/ed The wtilbecomes an obscrver who thcn criticizes the object ob .erved through the use 1 liter.lry medllllll--words. The critic of "criticism from within," on the contrary, tums hi., (or her) cntHlue mto re.ll artHlIIBy not using the convention al language--words--but rather the language of archllecturc i t ~ c l l he (mshe) poscs his (or her) critique in the form ')f architectural abject. "Critici'im" .lOd "obJect of cntIU.,Ill"ure thercforc no longcr rcmote, but instead merge into one wor\..; d work which cntllally aWolre of It.,own W"chitectural ideology and history

.t\Jthough this type of criticism does not makc usc of conventionallanguage--wor"--d" d ml'an.,to deliver tlte critical messages, paradoxically its mechanism can nnly operate on the UlIllcpt"language." Through thc apprehcnsion of architccturc as languagc," the understandll1g .lIId 1lI.lklllg ofthis specific criticism is made possible. This notion cornes frorn the l-:cogl1ltlOn of ,>orne ('()mm()11characteristics betwecn architecture and language as production,> of culture. thdt 1'>

Architecture, like any othcr cultural product, da he studled a ~ y s t e m of ~ i g n i l i c a t l o n ,establishing diffcrenl Icvels, accumulating laycrs of rnc,mmg and ~ c n ~ e , alltllOll' itll ulmg olle ofthc rnany symbolic sphcres instltutcd by society?'}

From this basis, an anal ogy can bc madc betwecn lingul'itlc and drchlteLlurdl langu,lge., ln hnglll.,tlllanguage, Wlth the help of vocabularies and grammar, word


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INTRODUCTION 10

e k r n e n l ~ and codee; Ihal abo hold wilhin themsclves various significations. Architectural grammar, onthe ofarclBleel ur.ll ~ l g l l 1 f e a l l ( ) n

Arcllllet t ure, Iherefore, can be understood or "read" as a "text," as material that possesseswllhin Ihelf t ert,lIn "Ignificalions. In turn, by exploiting the possible nature of architecture as language,111I'i ..IIl1C archilecture can be used as medium to "write" or produce a critical "text" to convey the

1 I e , l t l l O g ~ the UltlC II1tend'i As Sllvctti points out:By pl.lung It'iclf wlthin the aet of making and by not using the instruments of language butIho e of dflhlleclure ltsclf, itlcriticl:.;m from within] bec01l1cs compromlsed by the ideologicaln.lturc of .dl objecls produccd by culture; bUI, at the same lime, paradoxically, the veryidcnllfic.llion of IIu5 Iype of crilicism dcpends on the Ll' that these same abjects possess thecap.tcily 1 expO'ie certain meanings of the work that arc otherwise obscured by ideologicalvelle;. \0

Bccause of il > n.llUre as a sort of cultural language, architecture itsclf can become the medium, the>ource of cri Ilcal inlerprelation. Not only can the architectural medium be used to inveI1t newmeanings through the operations on its language, but when manipulating it in a specifie way, this samemedium can even revcal certain significations that are originally hidden in ilS own production, and thatnormully cannot he revca\cd through the work of conventional criticism.

The cap.ll)lhty to expose the latent meanings of architectural work is crucial for theidcntific,\tion of this specifie type of critieism. Not every critic ism lhal makcs use of architecturalmedium can bc regarded as "criticism from within" in tbis strict sense. This is possible by another typeof criticism that also employs the architectural medium, but does not use the same mcthod and doesnot have the same underlying intcntion as critic ism from within." In order 1 clarify what type ofcnl1cl'im C.\I1 he idenlified as "crillcism from within," and how it distinguishes ilself from other kinds ofcriticlsm, Silvctti providcs three basic criteria for consideration: 1) the operations on language ofcritlclsm; 2) the relations 01 criticism 1 theory and idcology; 3) its historic-cultural status?1

Fundamcntally, "criticism from within" can be identified as a specifie mode of criticism whosenature bclongs to the concept of Inlprl SSiOllistic critidsm i.e., it derives its inspiration from the existing


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INTRODUCTION 11

work, and uses this as a basis for creating a newand original work. In other word1-o, the initi.ltion ll"criticism from within" depcnds on thc creation of a new work from what already e\isb, the "110\\'11, theestablished context of architectural ideology, through operations in its own langu,lgc. The c oper,ltion '.cao be cffected by mcans of transformation.

By transformation wc mean Ihose o p e r a t i o n ~ pcrformed on the demenl '. of ,1 given e x i ~ t e n lcode which depart from the origina:, normative, or canonical usage of the code hy lhslorlng,regrouping, reassembling, or in ~ c n e r a l altering It i.l such a way that itlllalflta'".1' Iv referme 'to tlte original wlllle telld/llg to producc l I/ew mcol IlR 12Moreovcr, this transformation has to be donc in a critical way, i e., not ~ l I n p l y prllllunng any

sort of mcaoing. In other words, thc ncw meaning produced hy this spccific tran .form,ltion mU1 ot derivefrom a process of dc-naturalization of thc cxistcnt codc, usually in a furm of :-.uhvcr:-.ion of knownmeaning. This is bccause thc critical cffcct of c r i t i c i ~ m from within" depcnd:-. very Illueh on thi >subversive manipulation in order to disc\osc in the existent code latent propertic" wluch .Ire n'lIperceived in the inidal conteXi.. What often results from this md of mallipule of thi:> ob .curity, the o\JJect ofwork cannot be consumed; instead, it has to be rrvealcd, deciphncd, and mlerprcted mldlcll ually.The work of "criticism from within," thcrefore, bccorncs a production of knowlcdge thal re .ults from asearch for fundamental rneanings.

Another type of transformation, diffcrent from thc transformation of "criticil>m from within,"does exist. This type of transformation, Silvctti caUs "the process of mythification of the known,"'" tendsto emphasize fcatures of the known, usually by a simple "quotalion" or hy .tdoptillg an in .pirc objecluocritically. In cIear contrast to the transformation of Ihe former Iype of lri ici\m, it doc . Ilot dim .11bringing any latent properties out of that known code Unllke "critlcc;m from Wllhl/l," the cffeclproduced by this type of work appears in its tramparcncy, complm

As dis:ussed earlier b e s i d c ~ a descri[Jtion and an cvalualion, the .nethod of r i l i c i ~ m < po


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INTRonuc iION 2

on architectural ideology. From this aspect, the attitudes behind criticism can be diverse. Like themethods of criticism, the intention underlying impressionistic criticism can al1 o be advocatory orevaluative. The disl inction between the two is c1ear in Michel Foucault's definitions of commentaryand ~ r i t i c i s m , in The Order o Thil/gs Both terms can draw a parallel with the advocatory andcvaluative intentions of the Impressioflistlc criticism According ta Foucault:

Sincc the c1assical age, commentary and criticism have been in profound opposition. Byspeaking of language in terms of representation and truth, criticism judges it and profanes il.Now as language in the irruption of its being, and questioning il as to its secret, commentaryhalts bcfore the precipice of lhe original text, and assumes the impossible and endless task ofrepeating its own birth within itself: it sacralizes language.36ln this passage, the distinction between criticism and commentary can be used to illustratedifference between the evaluative and advocatory intentions behind criticism from within andmythification, respectively. In drawing this paralIel, Silvetti further summarizes:

Ta interrogale a language as 10 wbal, how and why il represenls, as criticism [or the evaluativeinterpretation of criticism from within ] does, is to begin to disturb it al the very point wherethe ideological operation takes place, it is indeed to attempt to profane its inner sanctum andto judge its truth. Commentary [or the advocatory inte rpre tat ion of mythification ], on theolher hand, reproduces language, represents it with no other intention tban ta sanction itstruth.37The second notion that characterizes criticism from within is the relation which criticism

establisbes with theory and ideology.38 The aim of criticism from \\ . I ~ i n is to bring latent propertiesout of the existing known codes by means of questioning and subverting them Its relation to existingideology therefore often results in contradiction and ambiguity, but it is actually this contradiction andambiguity which turo out to he \ts critical potential. The success of exposing the multiplicity of thehidden meanings is only possible through a penetration into tbe ideological crack caused by subversivemanipulation. Since tbe aim of criticism from within is to search for the fundamental meanings ratherthan conform ta and naturalizc what already exists, the effect of existing theory cannat be anticipated

in this type of work. Nei ther can the existing theory be used to assess the validity of the production ofcriticism from within as is often the point in conventional criticism. Instead, in its relation to theory,

the production of criticism from within provides materials for a new theory to come.The third charactcristic of criticism from within is the historie-cultural status.39 This

characteristic identifies the realm and role of criticism from within with the historical cultural context.


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INTRODUCTION 13

As the concept of this criticism depends on the existence of well-cstahlishcd cmk's, it hecolllcs anunautonomous phenomenon that can only occur within and in the form of an insertion into thecontinuum of history. Because of its subversive operations aiming at clI.llo,ing the mcanings hitltlen inexisting ideology, "criticislU from within" arises rathcr as an irrcgular, n c c e ~ s l r y interruption of thchistorical continuum. This phenomenon has occurrcd throughout history, discrctcly and sporadirally.In contrast to the main continuous historical strcam--those major historieal ~ t y l c ~ which la.,t longer--this critical architecture appears as a short-Iivcd phcnomcnon. Dcspitc irrcgular and short-livcdappearance, the historical importance of this critical phenomcnon can not be dismissed. An illustrationof tbis phenomenon and its importance is apparent in Mannerism, the intcrvening period betwecnRenaissance and Baroque, whose critical excesses and reaction to the Renabsance heritagc opened thepath for the arrivai of the Baroque o O

At this point, w return to the Dotion of the relation betwecn the production, of criticism andarchitecture. As mentioned earlier, encompasscd in lhe idea of "criticism from within," there is nodistinction between the work of criticism and the work of architecture. Bolh unite to becomc the sameentity, "architecture/criticism." Taking advantage of this insight, the concept of "architecture ascriticism" cao be used as a potential tool to help "read," analyze, and gain a betl\ r understanding of thearchitecture of a specifie period and of a particular architect--namcly the architecture of Mannerismand Nicholas Hawksmoor.


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NOTES

1. Roland Barthes, Crilicism as Language, in le Critical Moment, Literary Criticism intlle1960 s, Essays Irom the Londoll Times Literary Supplement (New York: McGraw-HilI, 1964 , 126.2. VIe American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, 1980 cd., New CoUege, s.v.,defines criticism as the act o making judgments or critidzing, or a passing of unfavorablejudgrnent; censure; disapproval.3. Ibid., s.v. criticizc.4. Wayne AUoe, Architecture and ritical Imagination (Chichester: John Wiley Sons,1978),4.5. Curt J. Ducasse,Art, the erilies, and You (New York: Oskar Piest, 1944),102-3; quotcd inAuoe,4.6. Harry Levin, lly Literary Criticism is not an Exact cience (Cambridge: HarvardUniversity Press, 1967), 22.7. Ducasse, 102-3; quoted in AUoe, 4.8. Attoe,3.9. Ibid., 2.

10. Ibid., xi11. Ibid., xvi12. Ibid., 1-2.13. Peter Collins, Architectural Judgement (London: Faber, 1971), 146.14. AUoe, 1.15. Ibid., 9-10.16. Ibid., 49.17. Ibid.18. Ibid., 61.19. Ibid., 74.

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INTRODUCTION 15

20. Ibid., xv.21. Northrop Frye, he Stubbom Stnlctllre (Ilhaca: Cornell University Press, 1970),75; quotcd

n Auoe, xix.22. Oscar Wilde, The Critic as Artist, in orks (New York: Walter J. Black, 1(27), 567;quoted in Attoe, 74-75, italics mine.23. Jayant J. Maharaj, The Nature of Architectural Criticism (M. Arch. thesis, Nova ScoliaTechnical College, 1976), 21, italics mine.24. Barthes, 126, italics mine.25. Juan Pablo Bonta, Architecture and Its mterpretatioll tlldy of Expressive Systems inArchitecture (London: Lund Humphries, 1979),232, italies mine.26. Attoe, xvi27. Jorge Silvetti, The Beauty of Shadows, Oppositions 9 (Summcr 1977): 48.28. Ibid., 44.29. Ibid., 45.30. lbid.,44.31. Ibid., 44-61.32. Ibid., 48.33. Ibid., 52.34. Ibid.35. Ibid.36. Michel Foucault, The urder of hings (New York: Pantheon Books: 1971; reprint, NewYork: Vintage Books, 1973), 81; quoted in Silvetti, 55, italies mine.37. Silvetti, 55.38. Ibid., 53-54.39. Ibid., 54-58.40. lb'''., 58.


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1 Chapter 17The Critical Zeitgeist Phenomenon

The critica/ zeitgcist plrenOmClIOll S characteri7ed by the prevalent praeticc of eriticalarchitecture during a certain lime, oftcn at the dcchne of a significant architcctur.ll trend. Il o C ' c u r ~when most architects of that period explore and work persistently on the same Idea 1 nitie.11architecture so that their architecture establishes a particular style which preval ., over o the rcontemporary trends. Although this phenomenon does not last long enough to create a ~ i g n i l l ' . \ I \ tarchitectural style, it often has sorne influences on ~ ' e devclopment of the architecture of the lollowingperiod. An explicit instance of this is Mannerism, a thle in which most sixteenth ccntury Itahanarchitects were working toward a simildr critieal re-interprctation of the c1assical language of theRenaissance.

The Critical Individualist PhenomenonThe critica/ illdiV/dua/ist pIWI011IClIOIl manifests itsclf in inde pendent worh of illllividllail architects of different peri0ds. Their works arc characteriLed by a desire to frce themsclve., from their

contemporaries . Their architecture stands out as separate and inde pendent from the conventional, andcannot properly be c1assificd into the group common to the style of their time'i. ft i., o h v i ) u ~ that theworks in this trend arc sc\dom popular. Those architeet'i who work toward thi'i attitude h.lve noimmediate followers or influence on the architecture of the followmg period. In tlw, c a ~ e , thearchitectural ideologies and styles often d ie with their creators. Inevitably, the resuIt b a short-Iivedphenomenon, yet undeniably a significant one. The architects who work in thls manner arc moreimportant as individuals than r e p r e s ~ n t a t i v e s of a historical sequence.2 The work of NicholasHawksmoor 1661-1736), a prominent British architect, is an example of this critieal individuali'itphenomenon.

To identify how the architecture of these two phenomena can be regardeu as critici\m, thefollowing study will be based on the nature of "criticism from within," introduccd in the previoll'>chapter. The operations on the architectural language of this specifie critimm arc the key tnunderstanding this architecture.


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Chapter 1 8

Operations on the Language of Critical ArchitectureAccurding ta SilveUi, the operations on the language

of "criticism from within" or "architecture as criticism" can bedone by transforming well-established codes From tbis, wemay nced ta examine in which ways the transformation ofthese codes can be undertaken. Generally, two main aspectsof codes which can be transformed are the formaI and thefunctional? ln the formaI transformation, the form of codesis altered in order to make a change in content or meaning.An example of tbis can be seen in Buontalenti's Porta dellaSupplichc at the Uffizi, Florence, where a normal segmentalpediment was broken into two pieces set back to back (Fig.2). The result is a new decorative form to be seen togetherwilh the sculptural busl placcd in between. The content ofthe hlverled broken pediments here no longer refers to theCorm of the roof as did il originally.

2. Buotalenti. Porta dellaSuppliche, Uffizi, Florence

The functional aspect, on the other hand, relates to another aspect of form as relevant to itsrepresenting function. Instead of changing the form to make a change in n.eaning, the transformationlakes place in the alleration of function or the usage of the codes. By substituting a different functionfor the original code--i.e., form remains, but the usage is changed--the content or the meaniog of anexistent code can a so he altered. Giulio Romano's design for the courtyard facade of the Palazzo deiTe illustratcs this kind of alte.-ation (Fig. 3). Some of the trigryphs, which normally function torepresent structural members of l frieze, appear ta slip down ioto the wall space below. The form ofthe triglyphs s not altered, but their structural function has cl anged ioto a decorative one perhaps torepresent the p o s s i i ~ t y of disorder within order or the order of the disorder. One commoncharacteristic of the transformations of these two aspects of codes, the formai and the functionaI, s


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Chapter 1 19

3 Giulio Romano. Palazzo dei Te, Mantua. Courtyard faeadethat in both s e ~ the critical significations are created by the exploitation of a distinction betwccn thething as it is and as it ppe rs s

From these two aspects of codes, the transformation ean be made in various ways, and invarious scales. Tht, :orm of codes to be transformed ranges from the material substance ofarchitectural elements and mass, to the abstract representc..tion of building void and spacc. Thechanges can be done at different levels, ranging from details to the overall building. The changes canaffect a single element such as capital, column, and pedimcnt, or even an entire facade. They can alsotake place inside or outside, and in either case it can be the e h n g ~ in the substantial order of the wallarticulation or the intangible space created betwecn those articulated walls or betwecn buildingsthemselves. In addition, the emphasis may be on the operation of the whole, or only on sorne partswhile leaving the rest of the work unaffected.

The transformation May occur within one code alone, or it may involve. two or more differentcodes. Within one code, the alteration May oceur by changing the form of code in lerms of il >proportion, or scale (Fig. 1 . Occasionally, there May be no change al aIl in the original form of thecode, but the transformation takes place in alteration of syntactic relationships within the ordcr of


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Chupter 1 20

code itsc lC A case in point is the falling trigryphs on the courlyard facade of the Palazzo dei Te (Fig.3). In a more complicated way, two or more codes or orders may be combined and imegrated invarious manners. Ali example of this can also be seen in the Palazzo dei Te's faeade, where the largekeystone which belongc; to the central arch is integrated ioto and becomes a part of another motif ofthe pcdimental frame above (Fig. 3).

J owever various and diverse the transformation of codes can be, underlying ail theseoperations is the critical nature of the changes. t is changed in such a way that it denatura izes thecode il cmploy > n order to assign lo il a new signification. Dellaturalizatioll means that the processof the exploita/ion of existent codes occurs in a way not sim ply following the logical nature of codesas employed in a traditional context. The fundamental strategy of denaturalization can be foundthrough the de-familiaril'.ation,,8 of existent codes, where new meanings can be created by makiogfamiliar codes become unfamiliar. Robert Venturi points out in Complexity nd Contradiction inArchitecture

Gestalt psychology maintains that context cootributes meaning to a part and change in contextcauses change in meaning. The archilect thereby, through the organization of parts, createsmeaningful contexts for them within the whole. Through unconventional organization ofconventional parts he is able to create new meanings wilhin the whole. f he uses conventionunconventionally, if he organizes familiar things in an unfamiliar way, he is changing theircontexts, and he can use even the cliche to gain a fresh effect. Familiar things seen in anunfamiliar context become perceptually ncw as weil as 01d.9Orten resulling from the process of de-naturalization is the conflicting appearance of work

that holds a contradictory rclationship to existent theory and ideology. Consequently. this conflictingcharacteris tic becomes the trait of this critical architecture, the second nature of criticism from within.Il is therefore not surprising that Most historiographieal discussions describe the work of criticism as ananti-thesis architecture. An instance of this is the description of Mannerism as the anti-thesis of

Renaissance. loHowever, underneath the apparent conflict and contradiction of tbis architecture lies an

unarbitrary intention. Through specific operations of what a1ready existed--well-established codes, thearchitects of this critical architecture bring to their works certain significations by referring the worksto tbe existent codes. The meaning created in tbis way might come from a dircct assignmcnt of an


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-

Chapter 2

existent meaning to the new work, or it might result from an attempl 1 reconcilc and combine \ d r i o u ~existent meanings. In many cases, thesc operations could cven produce lotally ncw Olcanings.

Although the process of de-naturaliztion can be diversc1y donc on thc cxistent c l l d c ~ , 11also possible to pcrccivc sorne identifiable patterns consistenlly inhercnl \vilhin Ihc d c ~ i g n of t h i ~architecture. For an illustration of lhese percc:vable patterns, the following di u s ~ i o n will e ha cdon the critical interpretation of Mannerist architecture. The observable patterns, which ch,lfllclcri/cMannerist architecture, have those qualities oCten expressed by the tcrms: disturhancc, 11 l'ar,Idox,discordia COlicors [discordant harmony), conflicl, ambiguity, 12 duality, complexily, r e p e f ( . u ~ : - . i o n ,subordinate, contradictory, 13 etc. These qualities, when carcfully scrutini.led, result mostly from thedesign patterns which can be grouped inlo two interpretivc principlcs: the cntical pnnciple o l/tcgratiolland the critical pmlcip e o /fIversioll.

The Critical Principle of IntegrationThe cri/ical prillciple of illtegration or the integra/cd order can be characlcri/cd hy the d e ~ i g n

pattern resulting from an integration or combination of two or more diffcrent c o d c ~ or ordcrs Theoperations on codes may be donc through confrontation, juxtaposItion, t n ~ c r t i o n , intcrvention, orsuperimposit ion. One specifie charactcristic of this principlc l i e ~ in the Wdy Ihc r l ~ u l t of the integrationof different codes still maintains equally ail previous attributes of the cmploycd code.. From (hiintegration, a new type of code is produced. Il contains ncw significations thd( Oldy diffcr from, yetalways refer to the original contexts of the employed codes. As the ncw code is creaIcd from thevarious contexts of different existent codes, 50 does it contain variou,> l a y e r ~ of rcfcrent rneaning. Theproduction of this intcgration then can bc cqualled to Venturi'll definition of hoth-and architecture.According to him, this type of architecture cvokcs many Icvcls of me,lIIing and combin,uion of focu :its space and its elements beeomc read:lblc and workable in several \ l , l y ~ at once 14

Resulting from the possible readings of this typc of architecture arc two fcaturee; to be calleddouble-meaning clement and double-functioning clement: Both fedture,> arc clo c1y hnked. The

only difference betwecn the two lies in a particular aspect to which each fcature refers' meaning orfunction. The double-rneaning element features an architectural clement, an order, or a code that


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Chapter 22

represents or has been given two different and irreconcilable meanings."1S Instead of concerning itselfwith symbolical meaning, the ~ o u b l e - f u n c t i o n i n g clement, according to Venturi, pertains more to theparticulars of use and structure,,,16 i.e., one architectural member may be assigned for a twofoldfunction. 7 ln other words, it fundions at the same time for two or more differcnt systems or orders.ln brief for bath cases-othe double-meaning and the double-functioning elements, one element, acodc, or an ordcr stands for two or more differcnt contexts.

Dc >igning using the principle of intcgration can be considcrcd as a common attitude whichprevailcd among 'iixteenth ccntury Italian artists. Giorgio Vasari proclaimed that "a fine manner'cames from copying 'the most bcautiful objects, and of afterwards combining the most perfect, whetherIhe hand, head, torso, or leg, and joining them together to make one figure invested with everybeauty."'18 Although Vasari conccived this to be applicable to painting, he was able to translate thesame concept to architecture, which is visible in his own architectural work. From this point of vicw,il was not alien for Mannerist architects to bring in and combine in one work different elements,systems, orders, or codes as long as the result could present a fine manner or ny specifie significationat which the architccts might have airned.

An illustration of the principle of integration in Mannerism cao be found in Michelangelo'sdesign of the Ricetto, the Laurepziana Library, Florence (Fig. 4). This particular work is, above all,one of the finest and perhaps the forcmost example of crilical architecture to be regarded asMannerist. AU kinds of arch.'tcctural trcalment at allleveis in tbis work cao he codified under the twoprinciplcs of integration and inversion.

Analyzed through the principle of integration, the most significant part of this vestibule lies inthe rcmarkable design of its magnificenl slaircase. According lo Rudolf Wittkower in Michelangelo'sBibliotcca Laurenziana, this vestibule can be identified as the frrst real staircase hall of Westernarchitecture, and furthermore, the ancestor of all Baroque staircase halls."19 Not only is it the frrst

v e ~ l i b u l c to ever contain a staircase, but it is also the first to have special emphasis placed directly onthe st air. The Ricetto st air, in contrast to the traditional stair, becomes a work of art in its own rightas weil as being certainly a f u n c ~ i o n a l structure. t also becomes an important element, and is perhaps


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1 hapter 1, ) , ~ ' ~ ' , ',-, ,......

even more significant to the hall than the Cree spacc. which normally characterizcs the traditionalvestibule.

Before the appearance of tbis staircase hall. the two functions of stair and vestibule werenormally separate. and were often determined as being diffcrcnt c ~ l i l i c s occupying diffeH:nl definitespaces. According to John Shearman in Mallllerism in the car lier and High Renaissance the place ofthe staircase in architectural design was menial; it was thought of as a nCCI'SSily thal was arlislicallyrather inconvenient. and so it was relegated to positions of minimal cmphasis. 20 Conscquently the


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Chapter 1 24I>tair was rigidly put within the raam baundary having its notch-boards identica1 ta the wall, and thusseparating the st . ir room from the outsidc.

The vestibule was, on the olher hand, a transitional room where people connected theirIIItenor huill realm to the outslde natural world. Once inside the vestibule, people woult:l become ofthe first importance. s Wittkower points out, A room is usuaUy adapted for the use of men, 21 whereone would he able to occupy and utHize the space freely. This resulted in the charaeteristic trait oftraditional vct liberates itsclf from the wall except for the part of the middle flight that only serves tabridge the gap betwcen diffcrent floor levels. In opposition to tradition, the mass of the stairsubscqucntly dominates the room al the base Icvel while lcaving the upper part of the room, with ilssignificantly atypical high ceihng, openly free as in a traditional hall. n analysis of its section clearlyillustrale how the averall space of the extremely high ceiling room can be seen as the result of anintegration and an intcrlocking of two normal-heighted spaces of typical Maircase room and vestibule(Fig. 5). The result of this critical manipulation of the Manncrist master thus crcates a ncw type ofspace and a ncw code, which bccarne a legacy for the architecture of the following period.

As mentioned car ier, critical patterns at ail levels, from the general to the specifie, co-existin the design of the Ricetto. The integration of two traditional room typologies, the staircase roomand the vestibule, generatc1> another integrated order which takes place in the design of the staircaseitsclf. From the historieal discussions of the staircase, much has already becn mentioned about theidiosyncratic design of the triple-stairway form--how the form of the outer and central flights createstense and conflieling up-and-down movcrncnts. However, the historical development of the starr basrarcly becn diseussed. Insight from Wittkawer s analysis of the history of its design reveals the originand development of the sta i 2 It can be suggested from his analysis that what eventually lead the


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Chapter 1

,

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ , ';

,,,,,

- ... ....

25

5. RJcetto. Decomposition analY lls of vestibule section. The Integration or typlcul vestibule andstaircase roomdesign of the stair from its original simple moclel to that final disputed form came from nothing butthe architect's initial decision to integrate two ideaf of st air typology.

By tradng the history of the design, Wittkower disclosed that, original1y, whcn Michclangclowas assigned ta design the stair hall for the Laurenziana Library, his first idea was, typically, to designa st air put against the wall. The stair was simply in a orm of double stairways both leading loward the


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hapter1 26door on the central part of the meeting landinlf (Stages II, III; Figs. 6-8). It should be noted thatbeforc his lime, this formai type of stair was exdusively used for sacred buildings, such as churches:"lwin stairways, placcd lerl and righl, leading to a raised choir, and embracing between them thecntrance to the Crypt."24 Michelangelo, in this masterpiece, was probably the first to reverse the use ofsacred >tar and use il in a secular building like a library vestibule. 2S h i ~ in itself was already anotherexample of the principle of inversion.

However, nearly a year after the first idea of twin-staircase had been proposed, and whileconstruction was unucrway, Michc1angc1o received a comment about the stal' from the pope. Thepope's wish was to have instead of the twin stairs against the walls, a single staircase which shouldcover the whole breadth of the Ricetto."26 From thi suggestion, the next stage of the design showsthat an altcration had been made accol'ding to the pope's wish (Stage IY; Figs. 9, 10). DespiLe thischange, howevcr, Michelangelo's original idea had Dot yet totally been abandoned. Ali principlefeatures from the first version were retained except that the space between the two flights of stairs isnow filk.d with a conCllVC staircase.,,27 Consequently, the original twin-stairease is stm recognizable,though in a ncw manner of triple stairway with the steps covering the whole breadth of the vestibule asthe pope desired.

From l;.is stage, all design developments leading to the final construction had been based onthe scheme of triple stairways, though many alterations and variations of scheme occurred. Somedevclopments had affected the principle alteration in the whole body of the stair, for example, thechange from the stair SUI rounded O three sides by the walls in the initia: design (Stages II-IY; Figs.6-10) to the indepcndent free-standing staircase of the fmal construction (Stages Y-XIII; Figs. 11-19).Some alternative schemes resulted from the experiments in various forms and details of joining andaccommodating the triple flights (Stages VI, VII; Figs. 12-15).

From the design development of the stair Wittkower has revealed, we can see that no matterhow major or minor changes had been in these various schemes, all designs consistcntly reflect oneODlOlon significant feature. The doublc-mcaning clement of the triple stairways, which rcsulted from

the initial integration between the twin and single stairways, can, explicitly or implicitly, be noticed in


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Cbapter 1

6. Plan or the Rlcetto wlth staln agalnst the wall

_ l .11

7. Plan or the Rlcetto wlth staln agalnst the wall

8. Sketch for staircase

27

STAGE 1No iden for the design of the stnlr

STAGE IlTwin staln agalnst the wall

STAGE IIIEnlarglng stalr wldtb llnd dlvld-lng landlng lnto threeOf the form of the stairs con-templated in the spring of 1524 (II)no alteration in principlc has beenmade. The twin stairs against thewalls are retaincd. Michclangelo

conlenlcd himsclf wilh a monumen-talization and differentiation of theold themes. (Wittkower, 156)

Stage numbering s ordered in accordance with Wiukower s analysis of the events sequentially takingplace in the design of the star.


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Chapter 1

j

9. Sketch for stalrcase. Plan

10. Sketch for stalrcase. Plan and elevaflon superlm-posed

--

Il. Sketch for staircase

28

STAGE IVTwln stalrs OUed wlth concavestepsThe alteration is made Crom thetwin stairs to a single stair coveringthe whole breath of the Ricetto inaccordance wit pope's wish. (Witt-kower,156)

In thic; stage, Dot aoly concave butalso convex steps are provisianallyindicated. (Wittkawer,157)

STAGE VTwln stalrs standing lree ln theroomIn tbis stage, Michelangela pro-ceeded ta develop aut of the twinst airs against the wa1ls, twin stairsstanding free in the room. (Witt-kower,157)


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Chapter 1

12. Reconstruction of Mlcilelangelo's idea for the stair,stage VI

-I ~ - = - = - - . t __: _- - __ 1/_ ---- r ,- : ~ '- l '.'l . -- ;, -= .-J -

13. Reconstruction of Michelangelo's idea for the stair,stage VIla

14. Reconstruction of Michelangelo's idea for the stair.stage VIlb

15 Reconstruction of Michelangelo's idea for the stair,stage VIle

29

STAGE VIFree-standing stair in the form oftriple-stairway Olghts

STAGE VIIVariations on the priltciple ofdovetalling

STAGE VlI l

STAGE Vllb

STAGE VIle


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45/131

Chapter 1

18. Reconstruction of stalrcase plan of 1555

19. Rlcetto stalrcase. Plan

3

STAGE XIIFree-standlng tripie t r w u y ~ wlt..eonvex mlddle nlg tMichclangelo returncll to devclopthe design out lf lhe >chcme ofstage VIla.

STAGE XIIIThe final built stairTo keep the articulation of the wallmnning uninterruplcdly lhrough ouifour sides, Michelangelo decidedonly the central I ighl runningtoward the floor of the upper levcl


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Chaptcr 1 32

each scheme. Particular to the final solution (Stage XIIIj Fig. 19), this double-feature of twointegrating s tairs is even st ronger and more evidentlhan it has been in any other previous alternatives.Not only has il reflected the two distinct codes of twin and single staircases, but aIso has distinguishedthem simultancously and forccfully. Within the sculptural form of the built stair, the original idea ofthe twin stairways is still visible and emphasizcd, both in its overall form and details, notwithstandinganother code of single stairway imposed upon it.

The Critical Principle of InversionThc critic l prit clple o inversioll or the ;IIverted order can be characterized by the design

pattern rcwlting from an inversion in the use of lhe existent code or order. This means that everyconviction on which the employed code or order was based is reversed to its opposite nature. Theinversion on the existcnt code can be accomplished in two ways. The first, the inverted order withina single codc, can be achievcd by using one code originally associated with one meaning, one functionfor another meaning, another function oppositely. n example of this is the inversion between theopposition of inside and outside which can be secn in the design of the Ricet to s interior wall. AsShearman remarks, it is the firsl building that seems to have been turned outside in for the massivetreatment of the interior walls belongs by tradition to exteriors. 2B

ln this interior, Many treatments arc made to stress the exteriority. First, standing in tbis roomof extraordinary height compared with its width, one i ; convinced of confronting a facade of a twostoreyed building (or three-storeyed building if the base is considered as an additional floor). The wallis divided into three part:. by the dark horizontal moulding strips running uninterruptedly across foursides of the room (Fig. 4). The lowest and shortest portion of the wall represents the solid base of abuilding supporting on its top the other two floors. The frrst floor is treated according to the typicalloggia tradition, with pairs of full columns and flat walls decorated wilh tabernacles in the form of blindniches lopped with alternating circular and triangular pediments. The top floor is decorated withalmost the l>amc motif as the floor beneath. Pairs of massive columns and the projected tabernacles ofthe first floor are replaced by tbin pilasters and flat rectangular blind window frames which look muchlikc the trcatment of the top floor of a palazzo. The continuous change in the treatment of the three-


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1

Chapter 1 33

storeyed wall (including the base) is in accord ance with the law of load transmission-othe principlc inwhich a graduai change of wcighty masses decrcasing from basl' ta the top is exprcs .ed in r c ~ p c c t toearth's gravitation. Seen together the overall massive treatment, the use o differcnl motifl> from loggiato tabernacles and top floor windows, and finally the design of the l h r e e - s t o r c y - s ~ h c l l l c d wallundcr thelaw of laad transmission, arc ail typical for the design of extcnor f,leade of Renaissancc h u i l d i l 1 g ~ (Figs.38,39).

Another way of inverting an arder within one code can be achieved hy a decisive mbuse 1the existent code. n example of this which is common for Mannerisl arlists is, as Shearman pointsout, "ta adapt artistic forms or compasitional devices, originally invented wilh expressive funclions, andto use them in a non-funetional way capriciously."29 This kind of i n ~ r t e d ortler b e l w t ~ e n thefunctianaIjnon-functional ar the rationaIjsensational can also he found in the saille inlerior f.lcade I)fthe Ricetto. The manipulation takes place this time in the elemental dctails of wall articul,llion, as canbe seen in the way Miehelangelo put the seroU brackcts at the base of the wall (Figs. 4, 20). ln thisarrangement, not only can the averscaled brackets hardly function ta bear the ahove pairs of massivecalumns, their lacatians an the wall in relation ta the calumns make their functional purpose w ) r l h l e s ~ .They alsa project aff the wall while the calumns are, in c o n t r a ~ l , pushed hack into the reces > wall, thebrackets then carry nothing, cont radicting their supposcd function ta suppart. Rdther than performinga functional purpose, the projecting scroll brackets arc used here to function cxpcrientially.

The second type of inverted order opcrated betwecn differcnl codes can he donc hy alteringthe syntactic relationships between different clements, codcs, or orders. This is often opcra tcd throughan exchange of meanings or {unctional rol( s between dirferent clements, codes, or orders that arcjuxtapased together. Again, examples can be round in the interior design af the Laurcn7jana Libraryvestibule.

The first example can be seen in the inversion of lhe synlactic rclalionupportweight and to articulate wall surface.3.i A column, therefore, usually stands forward lcaving the wallplane behind. In cantrast, the wall of the Ricctto is appositcly projected forward. Moreovcr, il cven


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Chapter

~ ~ ~ = r c..O L.\W\01 f I A ~- W ~ pf.:tv..e

_1 WJ\ Il p tv% P ~ / ~ _ ' d / / U ' l / t 7 / ~ / d C ~ - = 1 l : , - - ~ ~ ~ ~ @ 1 ~ 1. t Jl uw ,, 1 jOle',/ /

L " r 1 ~ . ? \ 1 ' I 1 0 te > V 1 ~ ~ d ~ t > ~ c-; - : ~ r t ' V 1 ~ .... rl?t Vf ~ v r n ~ ~ : u t t c i

21 The inversion or relationship between wall and column or the Ricetto wall andtraditionsl wall

34


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1

hapter 1 35

.-1t;:::::::;;:;;;t-. . _ _.

22. Rtcetto tabernacle. Lert the inversion between the forms of pilas er und bracketi right, theinversion between the profiles of the tabernacle pilaster and a typlcal column

embeds the entire columns within the slols of ils recessed wall (Figs. 20, 21). Wall and colutnn haveexchanged their functions, leaving behind a feeling of columns being imprisoned withm the m ~ s c s ofthe wall.

Another instance of the same principle of inversion betwcen different codes takes place in thedesign of another ornamental detail of wall decoration. At the sarne level of the prcviously d i s c u s ~ c d


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.

Chupter 1 36

wall, between the pairs of the imprisoned columns, arc blind niches featuring projecting tabernaclestopped with alternate pediments (Fig. 20). The exchange of funclional roles oceurs in the design of thetabernacle between the pilasters supporting the pediment and the small brackets underneath them (Fig.22). The pcculiar form of the pilastcrs is, in fact, more Iikely to be an elongated bracket, whose shapenormally converges down, than ta be a common pilaster (cf. the convergent form of the seroU bracketundcr the pair of suppressed columns [fig. 20]). On the other hand, the bracket underneathparadoxically rcsemblcs the top part of normal pilaster with a sm ail moulding capita .31 The forms ofthe brackct and the pilastcr here arc rcversely displaccd. The bracket is stretched out and moved upto function as pilastcr; the pilaster, in conhast, is choppcd off and moved down to support its surrogatepilastcr.

Furthermore, the form of the surrogate pilaster narrowing towards the base is aIready in itselfan inverted order wiLhin one code alone. The inversion is in its reverse prome to that of lypicalcolumn, which normally has ils width decreasing towards the top (Fig. 22). As Palladio suggests n leFour ooks ofArchitecture The columns in each order ought to be form'd n such a manner, that thediameter of the upper part of the column May be sm aller than at the bottom, with a kind of swellingin the n iddlc."32

At this point, the way in which the two principles of integration and inversion can be diverselyemployed and manipulated is c1ear. The instance of the Ricetto is, however, only the beginning of anew approach to critical architecture. The same design patterns seen through the two interprctiveprinciples can also be found in the design of 5 Many architects in the generation aCter Michelangelo,and thcsc patterns have become distinctive attr ibut es which dominate and characterize Italianarchitecture throughout the sixteenth century.


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1

NOTES1 Jorge Silvetti, "The Beauty of Shadows," Oppositiolls 9 (Summcr 1977): 54-SR2. Kerry Downes, Hawksmoor Studies in Architecture, cds. Anthony Blunt and RudolfWittkower, vol. 2 (London: Zwemmer, 1959),232.3. The categories of codes are dcrived partly from Jorge Si\vcui, ibill ,4H. In his d i s c u ~ s i ( ) n ,Silvetti also mentions rhetorical and moral codes, the other two aspects of codes which abo can hetransformed. However, the first is omilled Crom the present discussion because 1 con .ider therhetorical aspect a'i a sort of effect, or as an instrumental strategy used in the manipulation of codes tocreate those rhetorical gestures, rather than itsclC as a type of code. Ali rhelorical cffeets can rcsultfrom the transformation of codes, either in the alteration of form or funclion The moral aspect, onthe other hand, is considered here as one of many cultural contexts the meaning of codes can refer toby means of architectural form. For the ideas of functiona\ und formai code lI


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Chapter 1 38

12. Hauser, 13.13. Rowe, 290, 292, 298.14. Venturi, 16.15. Rudolf Wittkower, Miehelangelo's Biblioteca Laurenziana, 77le Art Bulletin vol. 16, no.2 June 1934): 2IJ716. Venturi, 34.17. WiUkower, Miehc1angc1o's Biblioteca Laurenziana, 209.18. Wylie Sypher, Rococo to Cubism in Art and Literatltre (New York: Vint age Books , 1960),158.19. Wittkowcr, Miche1angelo's Biblioteca Laurenziana, 206.20. John Shearman, Mannerism Style and Civilization, eds. John Fleming and Hugh Honour(Middlesex: Penguin Books, 1967; reprint, 1%9), 113 (page refercnce is to reprint edition).21. WiLlkower, Michelangclo's Biblioteca Laurenziana, 205.22. For a complete detailed discussion of the history of the s tm see Wittkower,Michelangelo's Biblioteca Laurenziana, 155-80.23. Wittkower, Michelangelo's Biblioteca Laurenziana, 155.24. Ibid.25. Here, one may argue that the Laurenziana Library is a part of saered building-othe ehurch

of San Lorenzo. However, it should be noted that a library, though belonging to and located onChurch property, had never been considered to be a saered place of God as significant as the cathedralor chapc1 whcrc religious ceremonies take place.

26. Wlltlowcr, Michelangclo's Biblioteca Laurenziana, 156.27. Ibid, 157.28. Shearman,74-75.29. Ibid., 22.30. Wittkower, Michelangelo's Biblioteca Laurenziana, 206.31 In the analysis of Wittkower, Michelangelo's Biblioteca Laurenziana, 207, the form of

the bracket is seen as a triglypha member of Dorie entablature. Although the observation is differentfrom the present discussion, the principle of inversion is ahu applicable in tbis case. From the vi w oftriglyph-like bracket the inversion is made by using one form, one function for another.32. Andrea Palladio, 77;e Four Books o Architecture New York: Dover Publications, 1965),bk. 1 chap. 13 12.


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Chapter IIM NNERISM AS CRITICISM

The Critical Zeitgeist Phenomenonln the previous chapt cr, 1 provided an analysis of one Mannerist example t illu trate Illlw

certain architecture can be regarded as eriticism. Two critical principlcs, the IIItegratetl allli the /1 '1'111'11orders have been introduccd in conjunction with thcir applications to Michclangdo' . d c . i ~ n 1 theRicetto. From the analysis of the Laurenziana Library vestibule, it is now possihle to pur lIe theinvestigation of sorne other examples of Manneris t architecture by using the two pnncipk . lS \ tonl loranalytical observation. Various examples of Mannerist architecture will be analY.lcd tn illu1 .tr.lle Ihepl'lrallel design attitudes of the critica/ z itg lst phcflomeno1l

Design Analysis of Mannerist ArchitectureAs mentioned earlier, the design patterns secn throllgh the two operations of integr,\IHln ,lIId

inversion were eommon patterns prevalent throughout sixteenth century Italtan arcluteclurc, partkul.lllyaCter the proto-criLical work at the Laurenziana Library. The implication of the two princlplc IIIMannerist architecture, such as in the Ricelto, varied in terms of how they were Planipul.\ted. Jorexample, in terms of principles employed sorne buildings may reflect either one of the two prindplc:,;eonversely, others may reflect both pl inciples as is the case of the Ricctto.

Similarly, the operation on the code can be sa diverse that sometimes the same notion of codes found re-employed again and again in various works and in different manners A ca\c in point i, themanipulation on the opposite code inside/outs ide that bccomcs a lavourite therne found in Manneristarchitecture. One instance of this, as previously discuc;sc, is shown in the Ricctto whcrcln thcmanipulation of the opposition inside/outside can be seen through the principlc of inversion. Sorneother instances of lhe critieal play between inside/outsidc can also be found in thc work


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archiLecLs who immcdiatcly succccded Michelangc1o. he rust to be discussed is Giorgio Vasari'sdesign of the Uflili in Florence.

Uffizi, Florence.

23. Vasari. Umzl, Florence. View rrom the ArnoAt the Uffizi, unlikc the Ricetto, the manipulation of the opposition insidejoutside can be se en

through the principlc of integration. It is hf're at the Florentine palace that the notion o the inversionbetwccn inside and outside is replaced by the integration of the two opposites which reflects in bothtreatmcnts of space and facades of the building. Starting with its so-called courtyard, the spacepm.scsses a double-meaning of insidejoutside. In other words, courtyard --an attribute of interior,symbolkally represcnting the private realm--has inherently another characteristic of street --analtribulc of cxtcrior, thcreby exemplifying the public realm. To argue this, the physical charaderisticof the Uffil1 s spacc will be examined first.

Gcncrally, a courtyard can be defmed as an enclosed space encompassed either y walls orpm ts of building. Thcreforc, taking for granted the primacy of courtyard as it is normally called,


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24 Vasari Umzi View toward the Arno

25 Vasari umzl Vlew from the Arno loggia toward Piazzadella S19norla

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the Uflizi s courtyard is characterizcd by the attribute of space enclosed by two lateral wings conneetingat the edge of the river Arno by another cross-armed wing formed in a U-shaped plan (Fig. 24).Furthermore, when seen from the outside, the attribute of the courtyard is strengthened by the unity ofthe faeade faeing the river rno Fig. 23). From the Arno, the facade of the building appears as asingle articulated plane under the projecting caves of the same roof. The treatment of the wholefaeade is divided into thrce vertical parts defined by tbree colossal arches at the ground level. Thecentral arch is aeeompanied by lwo side bays in the form of Serlian motir Fig. 26) whose total widthis identieal to the width of the courtyard in the back. The two outer arches belong 10 the two lateralwings enclosing the courtyard. Following this trealment the faeade fwm the rno front can only bercgarded as an elevation of a single building enclosing within ils structure an inner courtyard.

Despite the indications from both spaceconfiguraLon and faeade treatment of the Arno front,the eourtyard attribute is disturbed by ils own physicalappearance. Sccn from the opposite end of the rnowing, the courtyard appcars as n extremely elongatedspacc which extends forcefully in the direction towardsthe Arno (Fig. 24). Inevitably, the directional corridor-Iike sparc gives one who is standing inside the illusionthat one is instead out on n open street. Thisimpression reinforced by the fact that at the end of thee10ngatcd tunnel, the ground floor mass of the enclosedwing is perforated across its entire widlil. Ieaving onlytwo pairs of colonnades to support the Serlian arch.Consequently, the feeling of enc\osed o u r t y ~ r d createdby the rno wing is partially torn down by the cnticeopening of its own ground colonnade. This opening

26. Serllan wlndow. Palazzo dellaSignorla, Florence


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Chapter Il 43

27. Vasari. umzl Elevation of east wing Cacade

28. Vasari. umzl Elevation of west wing Cacade

allows the volume of inside space to flow uninterruptedly outward, thereby making a connection ofspace from within to the outside in a way quite unusual for the enclosed spacc of the court yard.

In addition 10 the double-meaning of courtyardfstreet of the Uffi7j S spacc, the paradox ofinsidefoutside s further re-affirmed by the treatment of the facades that circumo;crihc the I I n h i g u ) u ~space of the courtyard. Within the courtyard fadog the Arno, on the left hand side i > an elcvatu)O ofthe east wing building treated as a typical courtyard facade, i.e., with the ground noor facade in theform of loggia (Fig. 27). Turning towards the opposite side, the articulation of the WC\t wlOg facaderepeats that of the opposite, except that the ground floor treatment is now divided lOto two motifs bya colossal arch located almost halfway down the facade length (Fig. 28 . The centr ,, arch, which


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funclions an entrance lo the nearby street, is divided to the left bya colonnade of the loggia and tothe right by a row of rectangular-frarned windows. The loggia to the left of the arch forms anuninterrupted connection to the A I l ~ loggia and the loggia of the cast wing building, thus assuring thatthe >pace at the Arno end will be a court yard. However, the central arch motif and the row ofwindow ' to its right, resemble a typical exterior treatment of the Renaissance palazzo (Figs. 36, 39),thercfore counter-balancing the court yard space making it look like a street The result is theintegration of the two codes reflected in two forms. The first is the court yard and street facades thatarc combined into the same frantage as seen in the west wing facade (Fig. 28). The second integrationis represented through the confrontation betweeo the west wiog street facade and the east wingcourt yard facade at the Piazza della Signoria end (Fig. 24).

Having been examined, clement by element and code by code, each space, mass, and facadehas shown its deslgnated allributes and paradoxical raies in the integration of the two codes--insideand outsidc. Moreover, Ihe way ail these elements and attributes are put together into one singlecontext creates even more paradoxes by the inverted play between the tw) a t t r i ~ ~ t e s of courtyard andstreet. These reflect the subversion of ail notions of courtyard and street that one might expect toconfront while coming up to and wandering through the Ufflzi. Approached from the Piazza dellaSignoria, the Uffizi appears to he Iwo separate blocks of building, with one block standing next to theold Palazzo Vecchio (Fig. 29). The space left between the two facing buildings is conYOcingly a streetleading ta the river Arno. However, afte r one has entered this street, one then confronts an enclasedspace blocke


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29. Palazzo Vecchio, Florence. RJght, view or entrance to the Uffizlfrom Piazza della Signorla

45

courtyard within the building. However, this cxpectation is suddenly ovcrthrown. The open space ieunobstructed like a chute of a long narrow street into a widcr open space bcyond Fig. 25). The pre-expected courtyard space has turned into an apparent strect-Iike spacc which actually functions as astreet connecting its end wit the public space of the Piazza della Signoria


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Chapter Il 46The experience one bas of the UffJZ always oscillates between the opposite apprehensions of

inside and outside, court yard and street, and private and public realm, all resulting from themanipulations of the two principles of integration and inversion. This is true whether the observationis made dynamically by moving through sequences of space as discussed abo,,;:: or statically in any flXedorientation within the Uenzi's courtyard.

Statically, from any direction within the courtyard as one turns backward, tbe previousimpression of street or courtyard always becomes the opposite. Within the UfrJZ's inner court andfacing toward the Piazza della Signoria, the open long narrow space tbat joins its end to the piazzanext to it can only be defmed as a street . Turning backward to the river Arno, the perception of theprevious street-like space is diminished and oppositely replaced by a courtyard-llke space. The samespace at tbis end is now enclosed by the cross-armed block of the Arno win (cf. Figs. 25 24).

Once again, from the last position as one tums at a right angle to the I,;ft, one faces the loggiaof the east wing courtyard facade, which seems to conflfm one's perceptual experience of the courtyard.Conversely, as one turns backward to the west wing, the loggia of the previous facade is replaced onthis side by the motif of ground floor windows, used typically for the exterior facade of the Renaissancepalazzo. Consequently, the treatment of tbis facade has sbifted the courtyard impression back again tothe initial impression of street.

Finally, in addition to ail complexities from the integrated and inverled play of dialoguebetween the attribute of each space, mass, and facade, another layer of complexity is found in theoverall design of the cross-armed wing. When thoroughly scrutinized, the rno wing, which initialesthe whole controversy by creating an enclosure to the originally street-like space and creating theUfftzi's so-called courtyard, has paradoxically turned out to betray its own courtyard status. Theprivate r e l m ~ implied by the courtyar is experientially aIso a public realm as defmed by its

disposition, and by the treatments of ils mass and facade. The deplh of the rno wing is so narrowthal within the courtyard, when seen from afar, its mass appears to lack depth and looks as if it wereonly a slight plane of wall. This lack of depth is further emphasized in the visu al perspective by thecontrast of the extremely elongated facades of the two adjacent wings. This, together with the Serlian


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Chapter Il 47

30. Vasari. vmzl. 100er racade

motif of the opening arch make the rno wing appear rather as a gateway in the Corm of a triumphalarch, usually marking its presence on the space of public realm (Fig. 30).

ln fact, the rno wing the most important part of the project, was intended to be of specialimportance to the public realm. The whole design of this wing particularly ils i\1ternal facade, wasintended to hold within its design the iconographie connotation of the political significance of theFlorentine ruler who erected the Uffazi. The recent study of Roger J. Crum in 'Cosmos, the Worldof Cosimo': The Iconography of the Uffazi Facade," has disclosed its connotation. According to Crum,"the UffIzi may originally have been planned as two separate though facing buildings"2 as is cvidcnt inDomenico Poggini's foundation medal of 1561 (Fig. 31). From the schematic design on the medal, itis clear that the space separating the foremost boundaries of the two buildings can only be rcgardcdas street, and therefore belonging solcly to the publir realm. The existing space cnc oscd by the crossarmed wiDg was a later adaptation to Culm both a funetional aim and, more imporlantly, a symbolical


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31. Pogglol. Cosimo 1 Washington, National Gallery orArt Samuel H. Kress Collection

48

31. Dantl. Cosimo as Augus-lUs/Hercules. Florence, Bargellopurpose, and thereby changing its initial design as street to the double characteristics of courtyardand street.

Functionally, the Arno wing (the south wing) served to vlternally link the used space of thetwo wings, which were originally designed as two separate buildin/i. Both the east and the west wingswcrc uscd for the same purpose to be the government of.ices ufflZi) of the Tuscan State.3Symbolically, the Arno wing was intended to embody an iconography of the presence of Duke Cosimol, the Florentine and Tuscany ruler, in the theme of Cosmos, the world of Cosimo,'''' Thisiconographie embodiment was revealed through the exploitation of aU architectural motifs inscribedwithin the facade in collaboration with the sculptural program on il. The latter, to be specific, wasDanti 's statue of Cosimo l, the one which was initially intended to he installed on the facade (Fig. 32 .5

According to Crum, in par t of the sculptural program the Danti's statue was used to representthe dukc in an aUcgorical image of Augustus/Hercules.6 Both Augustus and Hercules werc ofimportant significance to the Florentine and Tuscany history. While Hercules was the legendary


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hapter Il 49

founder of Florence, Augustus was the actual founder of the city and the first Roman EmperorCosimo 1 was then associated with his spiritual ancestor as "neo-Augustus," the first (,rand Duke of thcTuscan state. From this connotation codificd from the Danti's statue, the polilical s i ~ n i f i l . \ I 1 l l of tlll'Duke was to be associated with the signification embodied \vithin the ard\itectural motif 0\ the Arnowing facade. The Serlan motif above the loggia which would have become the b.lckgwund for IhcDanti s statue, had it beeD instaUed according to the initial intention, would h.lVe h.1l1 a ~ y m h \ l l i csignificance relating directly to the statue in front. "In the sixteenth century, , an i"ol.llcd Sl r1ian,1designated a place of important appearances .1 for significant r c l i g i o u ~ or political figures to give lipresence to the public in special ceremonies. With Danti's statue in front, the Serliana, Iherdorc,would have been used here, nol for the occasional presence o f the Duke him >clf at l.pl ciall'crcmonic1.as in tradition, but for the perpetuai allegorical appearance of Cosimo 1 af Augu'ilu jHerculc...

Moreover, the double columns supporting the arch of the Serli.lIl.l dlso 1.Ignilied Ihc Dukc' .power by referring 0 the mythology of bis legendary anccstor, H c r c \ l l c ~ . AccordlOg 10 ('rulll 11\ Ih 11mytbology, "while Hercules was crossing the sea between Africa and Spall\ 1 pl rform lm, Icnlh 1.lhm,he placed two columns at the Straits of Gibraltar to mark the w e ~ t e r n limlto; of Ihe \...nown world. A1.possible references to the double columns of Hercules, Ihe pair of double columno; wilhin Ihe fdcddcSerliana May refer not simply to Cosimo as a Herculcan figure but also to the territorial expan ion ofhis Tuscan domain and the European ext .mt of his power and influcncc."R

The facade of the Arno wing or t b ~ facadc of Cosimo's governmental1.lrtlcture" W.I'> therclmethe representation of "the facade's embodiment" of Cosimo himself who ccntered and united the wholcTuscan state.9 This signification was connoted through the insertion of the Arno wing whcrl ilconnected, functionally and syrnbolically, to the two structural wings of the Tuscan govcrnmcnl ( ) f l c c ~From this insight Crum reveals, the clue to the integrated and inverted dlalogue'i of Imilkjolll'tlde,courtyardfstreet, and privatefpublic realm May thcn be interpreted. The enclmed "p.ICC uealed hy IheArno wing, together with other acrompanying aUributes of cOllrtyard, mighl h.IVC 'tignilicd Ihetraditional private realm of the building complcx of the Tuscan government o f f i c c ~ n the 01 her h.md,the courtyard also bclongcd to the public realm. Ils doublc-attribute of street i n t r i n ~ l c wilhin the "pace,


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Chupter Il 50masses, and internai facades, therefore, might have been intended to make the people inside thecourlyard aware that they were in the public realm of political significance of the Florentine ruler.

The example of the Uffizi shows some integrated patterns of the opposition insidejoutside.l indicates the possibilities of the critical operation that can bc rcflected in Many ways. One of these,for example, is the integration of two different orders set onto separate facades of building as shown inthe confrontation of court yard and street facades of the two facing wings. Another is the integration oftwo diffcrent ordcrs, blended into the same facade as secn in the Uffizi's west wing; the courtyard andstreet fa cades, in this case, are horizontally combined by a huge arch in about the middle of the facade.This laller pattern, the intcgrated play betwccn insidejoutside within the same facade of the buildIng,is found also in other Mannerist buildings, specifically, Baldazzare Peruzzi's work at the PalazzoMassimo aile Colonne in Rome; however, the integrated pattern was re ealed there in a differentmmlncr.Palazzo Massimo alle Colonne, Rome

ln the Palazzo Massimo, unlike the Florentine civic palace, the courtyard loggia of insideattribute is turned outside to form an entrance portico nserted into the street facade of the palazzoat the middle of its ground level (Fig. 33). The outcome is a strong contrast in the facade treatment.The solid and weighty mass of the upper two storeyslO paradoxically impose upon the dark void of theentrance loggia in an unusual manner and had never before existed in the traditional facade of theRenaissance pala720. However, this rather peculiar treatment of the facade is not an arbitrary design.A paradoxical clue is revealed if one considers the organizalion of planning and ils relation to thesurrounding context.

The palace is located at the meeting of two streets, one of which hits another at the entranceof lhe building in the fmm of a T-junction Fig. 34 . Considering the plan of the palazzo, the far leftof ils dispuled facade is stretched out beyond the extent of its actual mass behind. As a result, theapparent central axis of the building, which is shifted from the xis of its real mass behind to a new oneformed by the strelched facade, forms a close alignment with the axis of the perpendicular street in


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Chapter Il 5

front. The intention to relocate the axis of the building by extending the facade lhus come > from aconcem on the approach of the palace from the approaching street. Il would have been awkward hadthe facade been treated according to its actual mass; the entrance would have becn displcasinglyasymmetrical to its facade. the other hand, had it beeo placed symrnetrically \ the rcal buildingmass, the entrance again would have been uncomfortably shifted off the street focal point, lherebylosing ilS significance from the approaching street. Neither solution could have heen satisfying.

From tbis point Peruzz s unusual introduction of a court yard loggia for the street entrancecao e rationally understood. AIthough the attempt was to build the c10sest alignment possiblebetween the axes of the building and the street, the new axis forrned by the facadc is still slightly


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Chapter Il

34. Peruzzi.Plun

S2

/

35. Palazzo Masslmo aile Colonne. Plananalysls showing the use of loggia astransltlonal space accommodating the shiftedaxesshifted and bends a Cew degrees off the street axis. This can be explained by the design constraint ofthe program requiring two separate palaces to be built on an awkwardly shaped site. Therefore, noneof its sides IS aligncd. However, with Peruzzi s brilliant s k l ~ tbe two palaces are eventually wel1 fittedinto their pcculiar site, and most of thcir rooms still have rectangular and well-proportioned shapes.Moreover, the orientation o each palace also reflects a positive response to its surroundings since eachpalace has its rooms, its facades--Cront and rear--well oriented to the street and tbe piazza to which itfronts.

e s p i \ ~ all these skilful arrangements, the organization of the plan still shows sorne problemsin corrclating the interior spacc with each frntage while still maintaining a good connection betweenspaccs, both imide and Qutside. Thcsc can clearly be seen n the bending of axes of the entrance andrcar corridors of the Palazzo Massim 0 and obviously in the displacement of its internal courtyard.Typically, the C ourtyard of the Renaissance palazzo is symmetrica1ly placed along the central axis of the


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entrance and the volume of the building as eorreetly shown hy Pcrul.li hilll,>c1f in thc pl.1Il of theattaehed plazzo designed at the same time (Fig. 35). Conversc1y, bec"u,>c of the C l l n ~ t r . l i n t of the ~ i t ethe Palazzo Massimo's courtyard is put aside 50 that the entTancc and TC..tT corridor::. c.\Il ~ t i l 1 hcconnected r.t one corner of the courty,'rd inslc;, of in the center as is lIsu.llIy the case. Ag.tin, thbcourtyard displacement may be easlly misinterpreted an arhitrary ecccntrie M a n n e r i ~ t d e ~ i g n if thepalazzo is examined separatc1y from its context, or wiLholit an u n d e r ~ t , \ 1 l d 1 l 1 g of the complcxlty of theprogram and site constraints. Gnly through studying its complexity and hy u n d c r ~ t n d i n ~ the deviccPeruzzi used to solve the eOlrclation of the f.paccs both inside and outsidc, c.\Il the odd inver,>ion ofcourtyard loggia for the exte:ior entrance be rationally revealed.

As the layout illustrates (Fig. 35), the loggia becomes .111 important device to solve theprob1cms of different room orientations re'iulting from the awkw.lrd .,h.lpe of the ~ i l c . Despite thecrooked ax": s of different interior spaccs and the displaccment of the m,lin courty,ml, ail spaccs arcstill smoothly connected to each other by the loggia spaces. Within the p.tlacc, the court yard l o g g i a ~allow for smooth transitions betwecn the axes of the Iwo courlyards and the . I x e ~ of the cntrance andrear corridors. Similarly, the wide horizontal band of the entrancc loggia .tcco1l1Jl1odates the twoslightly-shifted axes of the entrance corridor and the ) u t ~ i d e perpcndit ular street more s u c c e ~ ~ f l l l l ythan a narrow entrance arch, which is typical of a Rcnissance p tlaao (sec for example, the PalauoStrozzi and Palladio' s preparatory design for the Palazzo Porto-Colleoni lFigs. 36, 39\) The slight -ohiftof the two axes, which would have been explicitly sccn from the approachmg street, had the en

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