Archaeology July August 2014

8/10/2019 Archaeology July August 2014

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July/August 200www.archaeology.org A publication of the Archaeological Institute of America July/August 20

Scotland: Hard Times in the Highlands

World of the

AztecsSitesUnder

Mexico City

5

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EgyptsLostDynasty

Tombof theSilverHands

A Viking

ChiefsFinal Voyage


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26 Under Mexico CityBeneath the capitals busy streets,

archaeologists are discovering the

buried world of the Aztecs

BY ROGER ATWOOD

34Revisiting the GokstadMore than a century after Norways

Gokstad ship burial was firstexcavated, scientists are examining

the remains of the Viking chieftain

buried inside and learning the truth

about how he lived and died

BY JASON URBANUS

39e Tomb of the SilverHandsLong-buried evidence of an Etruscan

noble family

BY MARCO MEROLA

44Telling a Different StoryArchaeologists are revealing the dark

past of one of the Cold Wars most

celebrated sites

BY ANDREW CURRY

49Egypts Forgotten DynastyExcavations at the ancient city of

Abydos have revealed the tomb of a

previously unknown pharaoh and

evidence of a long-lost royal lineage BY MARY BETH GRIGGS

CONTENTS

JULY/AUGUST2014VOLUME67, NUMBER4

features

50 At Abydos, a team led by Penn

Museum Egyptologist Josef Wenger

excavates the tomb of the previously

unknown pharaoh Woseribre Senebkay.

1

Cover: Head made of stone, shell, and

obsidian found in the excavations of the

Templo Mayor in the Aztec capital of

Tenochtitlan, now Mexico City

AZA/ARCHIVEZAB/ARTRESOURCE, NY


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departments

More from this IssueTo see more images ofthe tombs at the Etruscan necropolis of Vulci, go to

www.archaeology.org/silverhands

Interactive DigsRead about the latest discoveriesat the Minoan site of Zominthos in central Crete and at

Johnsons Island, a Civil War site in Ohio.

on the web www.archaeology.org

Archaeological NewsEach day, we bringyou headlines from around the world. And sign up

for our e-Update so you dont miss a thing.

Stay in TouchVisit Facebook and likeArchaeology or follow us on Twitter at

@archaeologymag.

4 Editors Letter

6 Letters Chinese gambling in the Old West, dont take a

musket to a rifle fight, and ancient Egyptian tax havens

8 From the President

11 From the Trenches Unearthing E.T.s lost legacy, a daring Civil War

steamship, how Neanderthals really differed from

modern humans, and the skinny on an ancient

wrestling match

24 World RoundupScurvy in Columbus first colony, the Near Eastern

lizard diet, a medieval Christian tattoo in Sudan, and

how nice weather helped Genghis Khan

55 Letter from Scotland Were the residents of a Scottish hillside immoral

squatters or hard-working farmers?

68 Artifact A 10,000-year-old wand offers a new look at the

faces of the Neolithic

18

3


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ARCHAEOLOGY July/August 2016

LETTERS

Game Night in Chinatown

I was particularly interested in SamirS. Patels Americas Chinatowns inthe May/June 2014 issue, but whatreally struck home for me was thepicture of the gambling pieces on page41 , EHOLHYH WKHVH VRFDOOHG JDPEOLQJpieces are actually playing pieces fromWKH DQFLHQW &KLQHVH JDPH RI :HFKL

which is called Go in the Westernworld. We members of the American*R $VVRFLDWLRQ DUH DOZD\V RQ WKH ORRNout for the earliest evidence for Go inthe United States and North America., ZRXOG EH YHU\ LQWHUHVWHG LQ QGLQJa precise date when these pieces wereused by the Chinese community in theBritish Columbia camp.

Samuel E. Zimmerman

American Go Association.

Lancaster, PA

Archaeologist Douglas Ross responds:Those gaming pieces were very likely usedWR SOD\ *R DQG WKHVH REMHFWV DUH YHU\ FRPmon on Chinese sites overseas. This type ofblack and white glass gaming piece wasalso used in other games such as Fan Tan,or as gambling tokens, so they cannot be

exclusively associated with Go alone. TheQDPH RI WKHVH SLHFHV YDULHV ZLWK WKH FRQWH[W LQ ZKLFK WKH\ ZHUH XVHG VR DUFKDHRORgists tend to simply refer to them as glassgaming pieces. Dating is nearly impossiblebecause they were used for such a long timeand, in fact, they turn up on Chinese sitesfrom the 1850s right through the 1930sand beyond.

Gun Fight

I believe the weapons mentioned by

Eric A. Powell in Searching for the&RPDQFKH (PSLUH 0D\-XQH 2014ZHUH PXVNHWV UDWKHU WKDQ ULHV 7KHGLHUHQFH LV UDWKHU PRUH IXQGDPHQWDOWKDQ WKH GLHUHQFH EHWZHHQ D PDMRUleague baseball and a beer leaguesoftball.

Steve List

Bristol, PA

Family Reunion

, MXVW UHFHLYHG P\ 0D\-XQH LVVXH DQG

ZDV SOHDVDQWO\ VXUSULVHG WR QG P\VL[WK JUHDWJUDQGIDWKHU PHQWLRQHGin the article City Garden. AndrisSouplis was born in 1634and came to

America in 1682, when the spellingwas changed from Souplis to eitherSupple or Supplee. He is buried inGloria Dei churchyard cemetery,

although his grave is not marked.Phyllis Supplee Jensen

Winslow, AZ

Earning Potential

In the fascinating article Messengers toWKH *RGV 0DUFK$SULO2014 UHVHDUFK

ers hypothesize that the proliferation ofPXPPLHG DQLPDO YRWLYH RHULQJVfollowing the collapse of Egypts NewKingdom was due to increased incomeIRU DYHUDJH (J\SWLDQV 7KH\ VXJJHVWthat this was thanks to the absence ofa centralized taxing authority, as well asincreased personal devotions withouta pharaoh to represent the people tothe gods. Might it also be possible thatthe temples encouraged this practiceto replace income after losing subsidies

from a central government?Susan Weikel Morrison

Fresno, CA

Brooklyn Museums Edward Bleibergresponds:Temples were mostly supported by the landthat they owned, most of which was nearby,although sometimes temples also owned landin other parts of Egypt. There really wasno state subsidy to temples apart from theirDVVLJQHG ODQG 5XOHUV ZHUH KRZHYHU LPSRU

tant as intermediaries between the people andthe gods. When this link was lost for manyEgyptians in the Third Intermediate Period,votive animal mummies may have created away for ordinary people to petition the godsmore directly. Once this link was established,later rulers continued to support the practiceof using votive animal mummies.

ARCHAEOLOGYwelcomes mail from

readers. Please address your comments

to ARCHAEOLOGY, 36-36 33rd Street,

Long Island City, NY 11106, fax 718-472-

3051, or e-mail [email protected].

The editors reserve the right to edit

submitted material. Volume precludes

our acknowledging individual letters.

Please be aware of unauthorized magazine agencies that may attempt to solicit your new or

renewal subscription to ARCHAEOLOGY. If you received a renewal notice or invoice that you suspect is not

from ARCHAEOLOGY, you can check the status of your subscription by going to www.archaeology.org

and clicking on Subscribe or by calling 1-877-ARKY-SUB (1-877-275-9782). Renewals to

ARCHAEOLOGYshould only be sent to Palm Coast, FL, or to Boston, MA. All renewals will bear the logo of

ARCHAEOLOGYor the Archaeological Institute of America.

READER ALERT


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FROM THE PRESIDENT AIofA

Located at Boston University

OFFICERS

President

Andrew Moore

First Vice President

Jodi Magness

Vice President for Outreach and Education

Pamela Russell

Vice President for Research and Academic Affairs

Carla Antonaccio

Vice President for Professional Responsibilities

Laetitia La Follette

Treasurer

David Ackert

Vice President for Societies

Thomas Morton

Executive Director

Ann Benbow

Chief Operating Officer

Kevin Quinlan

GOVERNING BOARD

Susan AlcockBarbara BarlettaAndrea Berlin

David BoocheverBruce CampbellDerek Counts

Julie Herzig DesnickSheila Dillon, ex officio

Michael GalatyRonald Greenberg

Michael Hoff

Jeffrey LamiaLynne Lancaster

Becky LaoDeborah Lehr

Robert LittmanElizabeth Macaulay-Lewis

Maria PapaioannouJ. Theodore Pea

Eleanor PowersPaul Rissman

Robert RothbergDavid SeigleChen Shen

Monica SmithCharles Steinmetz

Claudia Valentino, ex officioMichael Wiseman

Past President

Elizabeth Bartman

Trustees Emeriti

Brian HeidtkeNorma Kershaw

Charles S. La Follette

Legal Counsel

Mitchell Eitel, Esq.Sullivan & Cromwell, LLP

A I ofA656 Beacon Street tBoston, MA 02215-2006

www.archaeological.org

Archaeology from the Sea

Andrew Moore

President, Archaeological Institute of America

Mariners in the past led a perilous existence, sailing in treacherous waters withonly simple instruments to aid in navigation, with no communication possible

with those left behind. All too often voyages ended in disaster as ships founderedRU ZHQW DJURXQG (DFK VKLSZUHFN WKRXJK PDUNLQJ D WUDJLF HYHQW DOVR UHSUHVHQWV D VHOIcontained community, and, when conditions of preservation are good, archaeologists canreconstruct past worlds, sometimes more completely than may be possible on land.

Oceangoing vessels were frequently engagedin trade, and their excavated cargoes offerunique clues as to how regions across the globe

were connected. The Bronze Age shipwreckat Uluburun off the rocky south coast of

Turkey, dating to about 1300B.C., contained

copper and tin ingots, timber, ivory, glass,beads, bronze tools and weapons, pottery, andmany other artifacts. These raw materials andobjects would have been taken aboard at ports

around the eastern Mediterranean, in the Nile delta, along the Levant coast, and at Cyprus.Archaeologists had long thought that the Bronze Age cultures in those places were distinctentities that owed little to each other, but the Uluburun wreck has effectively demonstratedthat they were regularly in touch through maritime trade.

Closer to our own time, the Mary Rose, flagship of King Henry VIII of England, sankin 1545off Portsmouth Harbor as the British fleet was about to engage an approachingFrench armada. This vessel and its contents are remarkably well preserved. From the wreckand from the artifacts recovered, including weapons ranging from longbows and arrows

to cannons and shot, we gain a picture of maritime warfare in transition from the MiddleAges to the modern era, and of the crew members daily lives.

In 1686, La Belle, FDSWDLQHG E\ ZRXOGEH )UHQFK FRORQLVW 5REHUW GH /D 6DOOH VDQN LQa bay just off the Texas shore. The passengers and crew of La Bellehad hoped to founda colony on the Gulf Coast, an attempt that was thwarted by this disaster. The brasscannons, and boxes of muskets, shot, and gunpowder onboard were needed for defensein hostile territory. Carpentry tools, rope, trade beads, religious paraphernalia, and foodremains document many aspects of life in the planned settlement.La Bellewas recoveredin an exemplary excavation by the staff of the Texas Historical Commission in 19961997,

yielding more than one million artifacts. The surviving timbers of the ship, now beingconserved for display, illuminate the shipbuilding techniques of the period.

6KLSZUHFNV LOOXVWUDWH KRZ VRFLHWLHV LQ WKH SDVW LQWHUDFWHGDW WLPHV VXFFHVVIXOO\ DQG DW

other times through conflict. They demonstrate how technological advancement can expandthe boundaries of human possibility. And they transform our understanding of key episodesin the human past, even as they bring the lost worlds of our forebears vividly into the present.


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EXPLORE &DISCOVER.... . . how you can create your legacy with the

A I ofA

L-R: Eric Blind with Ellen and Charles S. La Follette inthe archaeology lab in San Franciscos Presidio.

For Charles S. La Follette, creating a personallegacy through a planned gift in his will was anatural extension of his involvement with the

Archaeological Institute of America and hiscommitment to archaeological research andeducation. I joined the Norton Society to helpthe AIA continue its wonderful archaeologicalprograms for generations to come, says Charles.

With his bequest, he is confident that AIA willcontinue to provide professional archaeologists

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e Charles Eliot Norton Society honors friends of archaeology who have named the

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FROM THE TRENCHES


The tiny Caribbean island of Arubais an ideal beach vacation spot, buttourists who venture away from theshore are in for a treat as well.Arikok National Park features anastonishing array of rock art madeby the islands first inhabitants, theCaqueto people, who belonged tothe Arawakan language family. Morethan a thousand years ago, theycanoed to the island fromnorthwestern Venezuela.

Early European accountsdescribe Aruba as an island ofgiants, as the Caqueto wererelatively tall. The Spanish were thefirst Europeans to colonize theisland, followed by the Dutch, who,in the seventeenth century, madeAruba part of the Dutch West IndiaCompany, and have governed it eversince. While there are no longer full-blooded Caqueto, vestiges of theirheritage remain.

The rock art of the Caquetopeople, according to archaeologistHarold Kelly of the NationalArchaeological Museum Aruba,includes geometric, zoomorphic,and anthropomorphic motifs in red,white, brown, and black. The art atone site, Cunucu Arikok, stands outfor its complexity, variety, andquantity. The combination of whiteand red colors in a single depictionis something that is not only unique

for rock art ofAruba, says Kelly,but also the rest of

the Caribbean, asfar as we know.

The site

Cunucu Arikok is lo-

cated on a farm that

has been partially

restored to the time

when agriculture was

a large part of Aru-

bas economy. Beans,

corn, millet, peanuts,

and cucumbers were

once cultivated at the

site, which also hascactus hedges and stone walls to pro-

tect those crops from livestock. Trails

lead to the Caqueto rock art, including

drawings of marine animals and birds

that are visible on overhanging rocks

just off the trail near the parking lot.

More elaborate anthropomorphic

designs can be found a short walk

away, on the Cunucu Arikok dolerite

rock formation within Arikok National

Park. There, several complex human

figures can be found among dozens

of other works, including dynamicdepictions of shamans carrying out

rituals and, according to Kelly, going

on mystical journeys. One of these is

depicted in the unique red-and-white

palette, with a figure intertwined with

geometric patterns. The works are

stunners both for their artistic merit

and the insight they provide about the

Caqueto belief system. Maps, guides,

and educational activities are all avail-

able at the parks visitor center.

While youre there

If you need a break from Arubas white

sand and blue sea, the park also of-

fers hiking trails, unique wildlife, andConchi, also known as the Natural

Pool, a remote tidal pool surrounded

by jagged volcanic rock. The National

Archaeological Museum Aruba, located

in a historic home in downtown Oran-

jestad, chronicles the islands history,

from 2500 B.C.to the recent past. The

capital is also a great place to sample

Arubas unique cuisine, which incorpo-

rates Caribbean, Spanish, and Dutch

influences.

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15/72

14101 Southcross Drive W., Dept. ZER223-01

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Rating ofA+

Smart LuxuriesSurprising Prices

Rare African Emerald Find

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LUSAKA, ZAMBIA- A recent find of high quality emeralds in this African republic hasthrown the luxury gem world into tumult. For hundreds of years, Colombians havecontrolled the high-end emerald market and sent prices soaring to over $15,000 per caratfor top graded stones. But the history-making discovery of Zambian emeralds hasrevealed a green gemstone with mesmerizing clarity that simply changes everything.

is important find led Stauer, a major gem dealer and importer, to bid on over10,000 carats. Stauer designed a classic 1-ctw ring for people who love thegem but dont love outrageously priced luxury. Because of their timely buy,Stauer is releasing this exclusive, natural emerald ringaka e Pride of

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e rise of emeralds is more than just a passing trend. Anarticle in the Financial Times of London from June of thisyear pointed to the reason. In Emeralds: Shades of GreenStart to Outshine Diamonds, the newspaper reported thatemerald demand is soaring worldwide even as diamonddemand softens. Rarity is key as fine emeralds are much rarerthan diamonds.

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StauerIndependently

Appraised

at $690*

* For more information concerning the appraisal,visit http://www.stauer.com/appraisedvalues.asp.


16/72


17/72


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www.archaeology.org 17

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20/72

FROM THE TRENCHES

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25/72

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26/72

WORLD ROUNDUP


IRELAND: Steps and niches for candles or lanterns

cut into the rocky coast near Baltimore, County Cork,

may point to a hive of pirates and smugglers. The area

was host to a pirate alliance that was defeated by a

Dutch fleet in 1614. Underwater archaeologists hope

that the rocky steps, one set of which leads to a cavern

accessible by water (perfect for illicit activity), indicate

that pirate ships, and perhaps the entire alliance fleet,

might be in nearby waters.

CHILE: Inca and Chinchorro mummies have long shown

evidence of exposure to naturally occurring arsenic.

Scientists applied sophisticated optical tests to hair

from a 1,000- to 1,500-year-old mummy to determine

how she had been exposed to the toxic element.

Arsenic suffused the hair all the way through, indicating

it had been ingested in contaminated groundwater,

rather than deposited from surrounding soil after burial. Groundwater

in some parts of the Atacama Desert is still tainted with arsenic today.

SAUDI ARABIA:

According to historical

sources, people have

long eaten Arabian

spiny-tailed lizards.

According to tradition,Muhammad did not eat them himself, but

did not condemn the practice. At the site

of al-Yamma, archaeologists uncovered

remains of lizards among those of other

food animals, and at least one bone has a cut

mark. The lizard bones appear in early layers

(4th to 7th century, before and just after the

establishment of Islam) and continue to the

18th century. The reptiles remain a source

of protein and fat in some parts of the harsh

desert today.

DOMINICAN REPUBLIC:

La Isabela was the first

permanent, non-Viking

European colony in the

New World. Founded

in 1494 by Christopher

Columbus and more than

1,000 settlers, the town

was haunted by sickness

and death. Twenty-seven skeletons excavated

from the site in the 1980s and 1990s were

recently reexamined and showed that most

were afflicted with severe scurvy, caused by

vitamin C deficiency. The resulting fatigue

and pain likely contributed to the colonys

dismal prospectsit lasted just four years.

MEXICO: Plant scientists

have used four approaches

ecological, linguistic, genetic,

and archaeologicalto zero in

on the home region of the first

domesticated chili peppers. All

lines of evidence, including the

range of Proto-Otomanguean,

the oldest language thought

to have a word for chili

peppers, and the oldest known

archaeological pepper remains,

converge on north- and central-

eastern Mexico. No wonder the

mole sauce in Puebla is so good.


27/72

25

By Samir S. Patel

www.archaeology.org

VANUATU:Most of what is known

about the Lapita, the culture that

colonized the remote South Pacific

3,000 years ago, comes from pots.

Human remains are rare. Researchers

have conducted isotopic studies on

remains from the largest known Lapita cemetery68 burialsfor

insight into their diet. They found that it was some time before

crops were established as a significant part of the menu. The

earliest colonists relied instead on a foragers diet of fish, turtles,

fruit bats, and free-range but domesticated pigs and chickens.

DENMARK: Digs

in Odense have

exposed the

towns medieval

historyand

bouquet. Among

the finds are

a barrel-lined well connected to a building

thought to have been a brewery. Wood at

the site, including two more barrels that had

been used as latrines, is well preserved. The

privies are going to be troves of information on

medieval diet, hygiene, and health. According to

archaeologists, they also preserve the smell of

the Middle Ages.

SUDAN: A

female mummy

discovered

in 2005 and

recently studied

in detail has

a tattoo

exceedingly

rare for theperiod (A.D.

700), for its

subject matter, and for its placement.

The mark is a monogram that spells

out the name Michael in ancient

Greek, a reference to the Biblical

archangel. Also, the tattoo is high on

the womans inner thigh, suggesting

that it was not readily visible. Curators

suspect it may have been considered

somehow protective.

MONGOLIA:

Adverse climate

changes are

often cited in

the declines of

civilizations

see the Indus,

Ancestral Pueblo, Bronze Age

Mesopotamia, Classic Maya, Tang

Dynasty, and more. Surely good

weather also made a mark on

history. According to a study of tree

rings in gnarled, ancient Siberian

pines, Mongolia was pleasant

warm and wetfrom 1211 to 1230,

coinciding with the rise of Genghis

Khan. More rain would have meant

more grass, which meant more

livestock, wealth, and warhorses

the engines of the Mongol army.

KAZAKHSTAN: Bands of nomadic herders were

stepping stones for the spread of crops between

opposite ends of Asia 5,000 years agothe seeds of

what would become the Silk Road. Archaeobotanical

analysis at their seasonal camps shows that the

pastoralists had access to both wheat from Central

and Southwest Asia and millet from East Asia. The

seeds were found only among cremation burials, so

they might have served some ritual purpose. The

nomads own agricultural tradition appears to have

started 1,500 years later.


28/72


1524 map of Mexico City


29/72


IN 1519, THE SPANISH conquistador Hernn Cortsand 400of his men marched into the Aztec capital of

Tenochtitlan and knew at once they were in a strangeand wondrous place. Even before their arrival, theHPSHURU 0RFWH]XPD ,, KDG VHQW WKH 6SDQLDUGV ODYLVK MHZHOV DQG QH FORWKHV +H PD\ KDYH EHOLHYHG WKH

Spaniards to be the deity Quetzalcoatl, the plumed serpent,returning to Tenochtitlan from the east, or he may have thoughthe was receiving emissaries from a friendly state. According to

their own accounts, as the Spaniardsbegan to explore the city, they foundtemples soaked with blood and humanhearts being burned in ceramic braziers.6R WKLFN ZDV WKH VWHQFK RI KXPDQ HVKZURWH FKURQLFOHU %HUQDO 'tD] GHO &DVtillo, that the scene brought to mind aCastilian slaughterhouse.

Yet what made an even greaterimpression was Tenochtitlans bustleand press. Streets were so crowded thatWKH 6SDQLDUGV FRXOG EDUHO\ W WKURXJK

them. And the hubbub of the mainSOD]D IXOO RI VKRXWLQJ VDOHVPDQ RHUing everything from beans to furnitureto live deer, could be heard miles away.Among us there were soldiers whohad been in many parts of the world,in Constantinople and all of Italy andRome, wrote Daz. Never had theyseen a square that compared so well, soorderly and wide, and so full of people,as that one.

Five hundred years later, Mexico

Beneath the capitals busy streets, archaeologists are

discovering the buried world of the Aztecs

byR A

Citys main plaza still teems with shoppers and street hawkers,while, only a block away, archaeologists are carefully digging upthe remains of the city Corts and his men wondered at. TodayDUFKDHRORJ\ LV KDSSHQLQJ HYHU\ZKHUH LQ 0H[LFR &LW\MXVWR WKH PDLQ VTXDUH LQ DOOH\V SDWLRV DQG EDFN ORWV 2QH GLJLV EHLQJ FRQGXFWHG LQ WKH EDVHPHQW RI D WDWWRR SDUORU 2WKHUVare going on beneath the rubble of buildings destroyed in thecitys 1985HDUWKTXDNH 7KHUHV D VLWH ORFDWHG LQ D VXEZD\ VWDWLRQ DQG WZR RWKHUV DUH XQGHU WKH RRU RI WKH 0HWURSROLWDQ

Cathedral. When city workers repavea street, archaeologists stand by toretrieve ceramic sherds, bones, andother artifacts that appear from underthe asphalt. Excavation sites are oftenso close to modern infrastructure thatarchaeologists have to take care not toXQGHUPLQH PRGHUQ EXLOGLQJ IRXQGDtions. Researchers regularly contend

with a bewildering network of sewers,pipes, and subway lines. And becauseWKH $]WHF FDSLWDO ZDV EXLOW RQ D OOHG

in lake bed, they often have to pumpZDWHU RXW ZKHQ WKHVH DUHDV RRG

In 1978, workers laying electricalcables accidentally discovered the

$]WHFV 7HPSOR 0D\RU RU +LJK 7HPple, two blocks from the citys centralsquare, Zcalo. In 2011 D PDMRU FHUemonial cache was discovered underthe Plaza Manuel Gamio. Since theseVHUHQGLSLWRXV QGV RQJRLQJ H[FDYDWLRQand research by the National Instituteof Anthropology and Historys Urban

UnderMexico City

Templo Mayor, 1978


30/72


31/72


Win Tenochtitlan in 1519, theAztec capitals main shrine stood

150 feet high. Little still stands of

that building today because the

Spaniards demolished it and used

of each successive ruler building his own temple on top of the

previous one.

Since the early 1980s, archaeologists have been delving into

those earlier layers, gaining a look at how the Aztecs worshipped

decades before the conquest. Because these remains had

been buried since the 1400s, they are giving researchers an

unprecedented look at classical Aztec society. One of the

first artifacts they excavated was a monumental stone diskdating from an early phase of the temples construction,

around 1400, depicting the moon goddess Coyolxauhqui,

a figure from the Aztec creation myth. In the legend, the

goddess was decapitated and dismembered at the hands

of her brother Huitzilopochtli as punishment for disrespect-

ing their pregnant mother. Archaeologists have concluded

from the chopped-off human limbs and heads excavated

near the temples base that the grisly scene was reenacted

regularly at Huitzilopochtlis altar on the summit. Rows of

skulls made of stone and stucco, still visible today, had their

counterparts in actual skulls excavated nearby.

The carnal nature of Aztec worship has long intriguedresearchers, in part because its focus on blood-drenched

sacrifice in the public square had few parallels in other

Mesoamerican societies. Scholars suggest that the elites

may have felt insecure in their power, and responded with

these grandiose, intimidating rituals. You get a sense of

who ran society and how they made themselves loom

large over it, monumentalizing themselves, and how they

expressed power with these acts, says Harvard University

historian David Carrasco. Sacrifice was also closely linked

to warfarethe victims were mostly battlefield captives

Mayor. At that time, the neighborhood around the buried ruins

had few houses and a reputation for bad omens and ill spirits,

likely a remnant of the sites bloody history, says archaeologist

Ral Barrera.

Templo Mayor, Center of Aztec Life and Religion

Templo Mayor and (right) disk

depicting moon goddess


32/72


Plaza Manuel Gamio, A Ritual Center in the Shadow of the High Temple

reigned from 1440 to 1469, the skulls had been placed side by

side on a stake and displayed publicly in a structure known as a

tzompantli, or skull banner. Botanical remains demonstrated

that the skulls had once been adorned with delicate cornflowers,

cotton blossoms, and cactus thorns. Laboratory tests concluded

that the five skulls belonged to three women and two men,all young adults whose skulls were perforated postmortem.

Analysis of the isotopic content of their teeth indicates that three

of them had spent their childhoods far from the Aztec capital,

probably in southern Mexico, suggesting they were migrants to

the city or prisoners of war.

Nearby, researchers found a statuette of a seated woman

made entirely of copal, an intensely aromatic tree resin that,

more than 500 years later in the PAU laboratory, still emits the

sweet, eucalyptus-like aroma that perfumed the dead. And a few

feet away, in a contemporaneous deposit, archaeologists found

47sahumadores, or clay incense pots, all meticulously arranged

in rows and showing signs of intensive use. The long, protrudin

handles of some pots contained tiny pellets that, when the pot

were moved, made a sound like a rattlesnake. Aztec priests ar

believed to have packed these incense pots with coal, copaand other aromatic substances for use in ceremonies that filled

the senses and masked the odor of death. They used incens

to sweeten the air, but also to purify the space and please th

gods, says Lorena Vzquez, a PAU archaeologist. Accordin

to Vzquez, the pots also held some kind of protein, possibly

human blood.

A more grisly find awaited archaeologists a few feet away

the skulls, jawbones, and vertebrae of about 500 people

including at least 10 children, in two tightly packed deposits

Before they were buried under an altar, the bones had been

painstakingly prepared. They were stripped of their flesh and

judging from weathering stains, dried outdoors before buriasays Mara Garca Velasco, a PAU conservator. These peopl

werent thrown there like garbage, she explains. They were

treated carefully, as befitting a ceremonial burial. Surprisingly

Velasco adds, none of the skeletons analyzed thus far show

any sign of major trauma. PAU director Ral Barrera believe

that all the remains were buried at roughly the same time, and

that they were all related to a single ceremonia

event. Since both the human remains and th

sahumadores were found under a stone-and

stucco floor, the event may have been a closure

ceremony in which a part of the temple was bui

over and buried.Looming over the deposit was a 40-foot-wid

circular platform carved with stone serpent heads

their mouths agape. Historical sources speak o

the platform, or cuauhxicalco, as the place wher

the remains of the Aztec rulers were publicly

cremated. Their ashes were then placed i

ceramic urns and buried. A few feet away from the cuauhxicalco

Barrera found the withered trunk of an oak tree that grew in

a kind of large flowerpot.

Spanish accounts mention

ceremonial trees planted

near the Templo Mayorfestooned with strips

of colorful paper, and,

according to Barrera, this

was surely an example.

Taken together, the bones,

the tree trunk, the serpents

heads, and the thousands of

smaller artifacts that have

been found are creating a

rich picture of ceremonial

life in the Aztec heyday.

Incense pot

Perforated skull

Cremation platform

Copal

figurine


33/72


In 1985, an earthquake measuring 8.1 on the Richter scale killed

some 10,000 people and destroyed or compromised thousands

of buildings in Mexico City. Some of those buildings happened

to have been standing over Aztec civic and holy sites. More thantwo decades later, after workers demolished a building rendered

structurally unsound by the quake, archaeologists dug down and

found the ruins of an elite school near the Templo Mayor. Known

as the Calmcac, which in the Nahuatl language spoken by the

Aztecs means school, the complex was where Aztec nobility

sent their children to be trained in war and worship. The schools

proximity to the Templo Mayor shows the elites concern for

educating young men for power, says Harvard historian David

Carrasco. The emperor Moctezuma II himself was a graduate.

An enormous structure in antiquity, even larger than the

Templo Mayor, the school had a courtyard whose roof was

adorned with a row of spiral ornaments representing snails,

which were associated with the rain god Tlaloc. Spanish

colonial-era drawings had suggested these adornments weresmall, even dainty, decorative touches. But when archaeologists

discovered them, the ornaments actually stood a monumental

eight feet tall and must have been visible from all over Tenoch-

titlan. Of the seven found by archaeologist Ral Barrera, all

had been removed in antiquity from their rooftop perches and

laid below a floor. By the time the Spaniards arrived, they had

been replaced with similar ornaments that the Spaniards later

destroyed, of which no traces have been found. Since their

rediscovery, the Calmcac roof ornaments have become one

of the most distinctive motifs of ancient Mexico.

Excavation at the Calmcac proved difficult. Eigh-

teen feet beneath the city, the site continually floodedand had to have water pumped out, a problem that

speaks to the citys unusual geography. Tenochtitlan

was built on a group of marshy islands in the center

of Lake Tezcoco. These were gradually filled in with

lines of tree trunks and soil using an ancient land-

reclamation technique similar to that employed in

Tenochtitlans contemporary city, Venice. As in Ven-

ice, canals crisscrossed the city. Archaeologists have

found traces of some of them, as well as a pier that

jutted into the lake in antiquity. Lake Tezcoco has been

almost completely filled in over the centuries, but the

soil underneath the city remains porous and damp,like gelatin, says archaeologist Eduardo Matos Moct-

ezuma. Although the city has been gradually settling

at a rate of up to 20 feet per century into the lake bed,

not so the Templo Mayor, which was built on sturdy

landfill. It is therefore sinking at a much slower pace,

causing it to gradually rise relative to its surround-

ings such that it will, eventually, regain the 150-foot

height it had in antiquity.

Once the remains of the Calmcac were stabilized,

archaeologists discovered walls and wide staircases,

some with ancient footprints still in their stucco sur-

faces. They also uncovered dozens of artifacts thathint at student life in A.D. 1500, including well-worn

ceramic plates, a clay spoon, and flint and obsidian

knives that probably had both practical and ceremo-

nial uses. PAU director Ral Barrera has excavated only

a small corner of the ancient school because most

of it remains beneath busy Donceles Street and its

taco stands and cantinas. Digging any further would

endanger those buildings foundations, he explains,

and then, instead of us excavating, someone would

have to come excavate us.

Calmcac, School of the Ancient Elite

Spiral roof decoration


34/72


Archaeological sites in Mexico City have street addresses,

not GPS coordinates, as sites tend to elsewhere. At this

particular address, behind the green door, next to the Calmcac,

archaeologists uncovered the Temple of Ehcatl-Quetzalcoatl, a

structure dating from about 1450. The temple, whose distinctive,

round shape was described by Spanish priest Bernardino de

Sahagn, was located about 80 feet north of where Spanish

colonial maps had originally shown it to be. Ehcatl was a

wind god sometimes depicted as a version of Quetzalcoatl, the

feathered serpent who had already been worshipped in central

Mexico for more than 1,000 years by the time Tenochtitlan was

founded in 1325. In fact, snake imagery abounded at the templein antiquity. Spanish chroniclers described the building as having

a conical roof made of straw, resembling a coiled snake. To enter,

worshippers passed through a stone arch carved to resemble a

snakes mouth, complete with fangs. The Spaniards associated

serpents with the Garden of Eden story, regarding the reptiles

as evil, and usually destroyed snake images wherever they saw

them. But, if the temples snake arch wasnt destroyed by the

Spaniards, it may still lie buried beneath a row of buildings

behind the Metropolitan Cathedral, awaiting discovery.

Excavation has shown that the Guatemala Street temple

was bordered by a long outer wall, which the modern street

directly above it follows exactly. This is no coincidence, bu

rather evidence that the Spaniards stuck closely to the origina

Aztec urban grid when they built their own city on the ruin

of Tenochtitlan. Modern avenues also run along the same line

as causeways that once connected the ancient island city to

the mainland.

16 Guatemala Street, Temple of Ehcatl-Quetzalcoatl

Guatemala Street

Temple of Ehcatl-Quetzalcoatl


35/72


Ahalf-hour walk

north of the Tem-

plo Mayor, Tlatelolco

was a rival Aztec cityuntil it was absorbed

into Tenochtitlan in

1473. Recent excava-

tions have shown that

Tlatelolcos ceremo-

nial complex was once

almost as large and

impressive as that of

the main Aztec capital,

although at the time of

the Spanish conquest,

the city was knownmostly for its thriving

market. Tlatelolco was

the final redoubt of the

Aztec emperor Cuauh-

tmoc before he was

captured by Corts in

August 1521. Corts later released Cuauhtmoc and allowed him

to continue to rule but, fearing a conspiracy, had him executed

in 1525. He was the last Aztec ruler.

Just over a decade ago, archaeologists made an intriguing

discovery at Tlatelolco. Beneath a colonial church erected over

Aztec foundations, they found a seven-foot-deep, 26-foot-wide basin that had been built on Cuauhtmocs orders.

Known as a caja de agua, or water box, the basin was fed

with water from Chapultepec Hill, some four miles away. A

system of aqueducts ensured the citys supply of potable

water, as lake water was not suitable for drinking. This cistern

was, perhaps, the last example of Aztec civic construction.

On the basins walls, archaeologists discovered murals, once

brightly colored but now faded with age. Painted just as the

Spaniards were consolidating their power, the frescoes are a

unique hybrid of Aztec and Spanish themes. They show scenes

of canoes on a lake, people fishing, ducks, reeds, water lilies,

frogs, herons, and jaguars. In one scene, a fisherman casts a netwhile, at his feet, a coiled snake tries to eat a frog. Snakes and

frogs had deep symbolic associations for the Aztecs, and were

depicted in the basin in a naturalistic, European manner. These

murals were painted at the moment of the conquest. In a way,

they show the encounter of the European and Mexican cul-

tures, says archaeologist Salvador Guilliem. Tlatelolco, where

the Aztec world made its last stand, was thus also the scene

of one of the initial artistic expressions of modern Mexico. Q

Roger Atwoodis a contributing editor atArchaeology.

Tlatelolco, Last City of the Aztecs

Jaguar fresco

Aztec foundations and colonial church


36/72

Now located in the Viking Ship Museum

in Oslo, the Gokstad ship once sheltered

the remains of a late-ninth-century local

chieftain. The vessel is part of one of the

largest and best-preserved Viking ship

burials ever uncovered.

Revisiting


37/72

More than a century after Norways Gokstad ship burial

was first excavated, scientists are examining the remains

of the Viking chieftain buried inside and learning the truthabout how he lived and died

byJ U

the Gokstad

WITHINNORWAYSVESTFOLD, along the western shores of the Oslofjord, a teamof excavators burrows into the side of a large earthen mound. The barrow liesapproximately 1,700 feet from the shore, protruding from a woodless plain.

Armed with shovels, the diggers tunnel away with a determined resolve to reachWKH FHQWHU %XW WKHVH DUH QRW DUFKDHRORJLVWVWKH\ DUH 9LNLQJ UDLGHUV RI WKHPLGWHQWK FHQWXU\ $QG WKH\ DUH VHHNLQJ WKH VWHUQ RI D VXEWHUUDQHDQ VKLS

WKH QDO UHVWLQJ SODFH RI D E\JRQH 9LNLQJ UXOHU NQRZQ WRGD\ DV WKH *RNVWDG FKLHIWDLQ $V WKH\

YDQGDOL]H WKH JUDYH WKH\ OHDYH EHKLQG FOXHV WKDW FHQWXULHV ODWHU ZLOO PDNH WKHLU LQWHQWLRQVFOHDU DQG SHUKDSV KHOS LGHQWLI\ WKH ZDUULRU ZKRVH WRPE WKH\ KDYH UDQVDFNHG


38/72


INJANUARYOF1880,word reached the Antiquarian Societyin Oslo about an amateur archaeological dig occurring 75miles to the south, outside the town of Sandefjord. Two

EURWKHUV VRQV RI WKH RZQHU RI WKH ODUJH *RNVWDG IDUP KDGbegun treasure hunting on their fathers property. Their target

was a 165E\140IRRW PRXQG NQRZQ ORFDOO\ DV WKH .RQJVKDXgen PHDQLQJ .LQJV +LOO DV OHJHQG WROG RI D IDPRXV NLQJ DQG

and reduced in size by centuries of plowing,the hill still stood a formidable 15feet high.

The following month, an emissary from theAntiquarian Society arrived. ArchaeologistNicolay Nicolaysen immediately suspended

situation. He soon determined that thesite had great archaeological potential, andEHJDQ D VWDWHVSRQVRUHG H[FDYDWLRQ ODWHU

WKDW VSULQJ ,W WRRN 1LFROD\VHQV WHDP RQO\two days to prove his suspicions correct

from the ground.Despite the plundering more than a

millenium before, the collection of artifactsEXULHG ZLWKLQ WKH *RNVWDG PRXQG FDPH

archaeological discoveries ever made. Inaddition to the enormous wooden ship,

which measures 76 by 17.5 feet and wasadorned with 32DOWHUQDWLQJ EODFN DQG \HO

low shields, three smaller vessels had been buried nearby. Insida burial chamber behind the ships mast, a chieftain had beeninterred surrounded by an impressive assemblage of objectsLQFOXGLQJ ZRRGHQ IXUQLWXUH ULGLQJ VKLQJ VDLOLQJ DQG FRRNLQJ

equipment, and a gaming board and horn gaming pieces, alintended to provide comfort and entertainment as he madethe voyage into the afterlife.

The archaeologists also discovered the remains of 12horsesHLJKW GRJV WZR JRVKDZNV DQG WZR SHDFRFNV LQ WKH PRXQG+RZHYHU WKH ODFN RI DQ\ SHUVRQDO MHZHOU\ RU ZHDSRQU\ ZDinitially puzzling, as was the condition of the body itself. Onla handful of bones remained, and it eventually became cleaWKDW WKH VNHOHWRQ KDG EHHQ SXUSRVHO\ GDPDJHG

5HFHQW GHQGURFKURQRORJLFDO DQDO\VLV KDV GDWHG WKH *RNstad burial to between A.D.895 and 905. The same analysishows that the vessel itself predates the burial by as much a

half a century, having certainly been used for trade, raiding, oH[SORUDWLRQ EHIRUH LW EHFDPH WKH FKLHIWDLQV QDO UHVWLQJ SODFH

$OWKRXJK QRW SOHQWLIXO HYLGHQFH IRU WKH EXULDO RI ODUJH 9LNLQships has been found throughout northern Europe. Over thelast 150\HDUV QRWDEOH H[DPSOHV KDYH EHHQ XQFRYHUHG LQ 6ZHGHQ 'HQPDUN DQG WKH %ULWLVK ,VOHV EXW WKH PRVW UHPDUNDEODQG EHVW SUHVHUYHG RI WKHVH VKLSV LQFOXGLQJ WKH *RNVWDG KDYbeen discovered in southeastern Norway.

*LYHQ WKH H[WHQVLYH ODERU DQG UHVRXUFHV UHTXLUHG IRU WKconstruction of such a ship, intentionally burying it wouldhave been a tremendous testimonial to the deceaseds wealthDQG VRFLDO SRVLWLRQ 7KH LQWHUPHQW RI 9LNLQJ ZDUULRUV ZLWKLQ

ships was partly a symbolic gesture, representing the soulMRXUQH\ LQWR WKH DIWHUOLIH ,Q DGGLWLRQ WKHVH EXULDOV ZHUH FUH

During Nicolaysens excavation of the ship

The Gokstad ship burial was first discovered by amateurs

in 1880 and then excavated by Norwegian archaeologist

Nicolay Nicolaysen.


39/72


shoulder blade, a fragment of an upper arm bone, and twoVNXOO IUDJPHQWV $V HDUO\ DV 1882, anatomist Jacob Heibergconcluded that the individual was between 50and 70yearsROG VXHUHG IURP PXVFXODU UKHXPDWLVP DQG KDG GLFXOW\

ZDONLQJ 7KLV OHG WR WKH JHQHUDO FRQVHQVXV DW WKH WLPH WKDW WKHERQHV EHORQJHG WR D ORFDO 9LNLQJ NLQJ 2ODY *HLUVWDGDOY ZKRhistorical sources record as dying aroundA.D.840from a footinfection. In 1928 WKH VNHOHWRQ ZDV VHDOHG LQVLGH D OHDG FRQ

DQG UHEXULHG LQ WKH *RNVWDG PRXQG 7KH VWRQH VDUFRSKDJXVFRQWDLQLQJ WKH FDVNHW ERUH WKH LQVFULSWLRQ ,Q WKLV FRQ 2ODY*HLUVWDGDOYV ERQHV ZHUH SODFHG DQHZ

7KH VNHOHWRQ UHPDLQHG LQWHUUHG LQ WKH UHFRQVWUXFWHGmound on the original site until 2007 ZKHQ 3HU +ROFN

professor emeritus from the Department of Anatomy at theUniversity of Oslo, led a team of scientists urging that theUHPDLQV EH H[KXPHG +ROFN ZDV SDUWLFXODUO\ ZRUULHG WKDWWKH OHDG FRQ LQ ZKLFK WKH ERQHV KDG EHHQ VHDOHG PD\ KDYHtrapped damaging moisture. I expressed my concern aboutWKH VNHOHWRQ DV WKH PRLVW FRQGLWLRQV FRXOG KDYH GHVWUR\HG LWcompletely. I also pointed out that the former examinationshad not mentioned several sorts of pathology at all, and no;UD\V KDG EHHQ WDNHQ VD\V +ROFN

The exhumation allowed for a modern forensic invesWLJDWLRQ RI WKH *RNVWDG UHPDLQV DQG SURYLGHG UHVXOWV WKDW

HLWKHU DQFLHQW RU PRGHUQ WUHDVXUH VHHNHUV +RZHYHU LQ WKH FDVHRI WKH *RNVWDG UHVHDUFKHUV KDYH UHFHQWO\ FRQUPHG WKDW WKH

UHDVRQ IRU WKH EUHDNLQ ZDV PRUH VLQLVWHU WKDQ D VLPSOH GHVLUHIRU ULFKHVLW ZDV SHUVRQDOTo access the burial chamber, the ancient raiders dug exten

sive trenches measuring about 60feet long, 15feet deep, andVHYHUDO IHHW ZLGH 7KLV XQGHUWDNLQJ ZDV WRR ODUJH WR EH D VHFUHWLYH PLVVLRQ REVFXUHG E\ WKH FRYHU RI GDUNQHVV EXW UDWKHU ZDVa deliberate and highly visible act. Fortunately, the intrudersleft behind evidence of their conduct, in the form of a dozenwooden spades. Using new, nondestructive techniques of dendrochronological analysis, researchers from the Museum ofCultural History at the University of Oslo dated these artifacts,SRWHQWLDOO\ LGHQWLI\LQJ WKH FXOSULWV 7KH HYLGHQFH VKRZV WKDW

WKH EUHDNLQ RI WKH *RNVWDG PRXQG RFFXUUHG EHWZHHQ A.D.950and 1000. In conjunction with other dendrochronologicaldata from sites including the Oseberg ship burial, which hadbeen discovered in the early twentieth century some 15milesaway, archaeologists concluded that during the tenth century, aV\VWHPDWLF FDPSDLJQ RI PRXQGEUHDNLQJ ZDV GLUHFWHG WRZDUGthe monumental burials of eastern Norway. And that the manOLNHO\ UHVSRQVLEOH ZDV WKH 'DQLVK NLQJ +DUDOG %OXHWRRWK

As the Dane sought to extend his power over the regionin the second half of the tenth century, he aimed to undermine the authority of the local ruling dynasties. BecauseEXULDO PRXQGV VXFK DV WKH *RNVWDG UHSUHVHQWHG WKH OHJDF\ DQG

authority of these dynasties, both symbolically and physically,WKH\ ZHUH SXUSRVHO\ DQG V\VWHPDWLFDOO\ ZUHFNHG %\ GHVWUR\ing the previous rulers remains, memory of him could beGHVWUR\HG 7KH *RNVWDG FKLHIWDLQV VNHOHWRQ ZDV LQWHQWLRQDOO\dismembered, his valuables plundered, and the symbolic transition of power was complete.

EARLYEXAMINATIONSOFTHE*RNVWDG FKLHIWDLQ QHYHUDUULYHG DW GHQLWLYH SURRI RI ZKR KH ZDV ZKDW KH ORRNHGOLNH RU KRZ KH GLHG :KHQ 1LFROD\VHQ GLVFRYHUHG WKH

body in 1880 KH IRXQG RQO\ D KDQGIXO RI EURNHQ ERQHV IURPWKH RULJLQDO VNHOHWRQ LQFOXGLQJ SLHFHV RI IRXU OHJ ERQHV D

Although most of the Gokstad chieftains skeleton was

destroyed in antiquity, scholars have studied the remaining leg

bones and skull fragments to learn what he may have looked

like and how he died.

In 2007, researchers exhumed the Gokstad chieftains skeleton

and removed it from the potentially damaging lead coffin in

which it had been reburied in 1928, providing the opportunity

to use modern forensic techniques to examine his remains.


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although the injury had occurred several years before his deathand was partially healed when he died.

Somehow the chieftains true cause of death had been missed6D\V +ROFN 7KH IRUPHU H[DPLQDWLRQ RI WKH VNHOHWRQ GLG QRFRPPHQW RQ WKH FKLHIWDLQV IDWDO LQMXULHV ,Q KLV UHFHQW VWXG\

+ROFN ZDV DEOH WR EHWWHU GHWDLO H[WHQVLYH ZRXQGV WKDW ZHUHalmost certainly received in battle, and to identify the injurieWKDW WKH *RNVWDG FKLHIWDLQ FRXOG QRW KDYH VXUYLYHG 7KH UHVXOWtell a more vicious story than had been previously written. HeFHUWDLQO\ GLG VXHU D YLROHQW GHDWK +ROFN VD\V 7KH PDQ KDGEHHQ VHYHUHO\ VODVKHG LQ ERWK OHJV OLNHO\ E\ WZR LQGLYLGXDOV XVLQGLHUHQW W\SHV RI ZHDSRQV $ GLVWLQFW FXW IURP D WKLQEODGHG

weapon, such as a sword, was evident along his left shinbone

Although scholars cannot yet connect the buria

contrasted with the earlier conclusions. Most importantly,WKH QHZ H[DPLQDWLRQ RHUHG FOXHV DV WR ZKDW WKH *RNVWDGFKLHIWDLQ PD\ KDYH ORRNHG OLNH DQG KRZ KH GLHG 2QH RI WKHUVW WKLQJV WKDW +ROFN QRWLFHG ZDV WKH PDQV DEQRUPDOO\ ODUJHstature. Using the surviving long bones as a guide, he estimated

WKDW WKH *RNVWDG FKLHIWDLQ ZDV QHDUO\ VL[ IHHW WDOO DOPRVW KDOID IRRW WDOOHU WKDQ WKH DYHUDJH QLQWKFHQWXU\ 9LNLQJ 7KH ODFNof wear on his joints indicated that he was probably in his 40s

when he died, younger than previously thought. AlthoughPRVW RI WKH FKLHIWDLQV VNXOO ZDV PLVVLQJ PDNLQJ LW LPSRVVLEOHWR UHFRQVWUXFW KLV IDFLDO IHDWXUHV +ROFNV FORVH H[DPLQDWLRQRI DQ ;UD\ RI RQH RI WKH VNXOO IUDJPHQWV KDV SURYLGHG VRPHdetails of the mans physical characteristics. For example, the

DEQRUPDO PDVVLYHQHVV RI KLV VNHOHWRQ ZDV LQ DFFRUdance with acromegaly, a syndrome which appears

GXH WR D K\SRSK\VHDO SLWXLWDU\ JODQG WXPRU LQDGXOW DJH VD\V +ROFN +H ZRXOG KDYH KDG D ELJDQG FRDUVHOLPEHG ERG\ HQODUJHG QRVH HDUV DQG

toneless voice.

VWUHQJWK OLPLWHG PRWRU VNLOOV DQG IUHTXHQWmigraines. These symptoms, especially theFRQVWDQW KHDGDFKHV PD\ KDYH PDGH KLP LOOWHPSHUHG VD\V +ROFN ZKLFK FHUWDLQO\ ZDV D

EDG VLWXDWLRQ DW WKDW WLPH +ROFN DOVR QRWHG WKDW

GDPDJH DQG IUDFWXUHV RI WKH OHIW OHJ OLNHO\ IURPa bad fall. This may have caused him to limp,

New investigations identified serious injuries the Viking suffered in the battle that killed him. (Left to right) A knife cut to the

inside of the right femur, a deep gash to the left tibia, and an ax cut to the right fibula.

Ornate gilt bronze and lead medallions, once


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Archaeology July August 2014