Archaeology and Chronology of 2nd and 1st

Millennium BC, including the Time of Buddha and Mahavira : An Overview

B. R. Mani

The Prelude

Some of the fresh investigative studies in recent

times indicate the evolution and development of

early settlements in northern South Asia and provide

evidence on rise of civilizations emerging from the

Neolithic farming communities through chalcolithic

cultures.

In this process the settlements in groups can be

indentified located within pockets of geo-political

boundaries which are comparable to the Vedic janas

which definitely came into existence in the third

millennium BCE or earlier and were transformed into

janapadas and mahajanapadas towards the end of

the second millennium BCE or the beginning of the

first millennium BCE, much before their normally

accepted period of the sixth century BCE by which

time they had been fully established with various

urban centers.

Archaeological investigations at the ancient city sites in northernSouth Asia indicate their early settlements going back to thesecond millennium BCE in most of the cases.

Most of them can be identified with the city sites mentioned inthe later vedic Sanskrit literature of Aranyakas and Brahmanasand mentioned in the early Pali and Prakrit Buddhist and Jainatexts in the context of Sixteen Great States (shodasha -mahajanapada).

These early settlements of the second millennium BCE becamesignificant urban centres in the beginning of the first millenniumBCE, much before the time of compilation of Buddhist and Jainatexts.

The prominent city sites became the capital of themahajanapadas. The process of development of the janapadasand mahajanapadas continued in the early historical age whenfinally they were merged and unified under the Magadha empirearound fourth century BCE.

In this context, the evidence of settlements at these city sites of the great

mahajanapadas going back to the second millennium BCE from Sarai Khola

(Taxila) and Pushkalavati (Charsadda) in Gandhara; BMAC and Gandhara

Grave Culture sites in Kamboja; Bairat, Gilund and Ojiana in Matsya;

Mathura, Sonkh and Noh in Surasena; Hastinapura, Hulas and Alamgirpur in

Kuru; Ahichchhatra, Atranjikhera, Kannoj, Sankisa and Kampilya in

Panchala; Ujjain, Kayatha, Nagda, Ahar in Avanti; Eran and Tripuri in Chedi;

Kaushambi and Jhusi in Vatsa; Rajghat-Sarai Mohana in Kasi;

Ayodhya,Sravasti, Lahuradewa, Siswania in Kosala; Rajdhani, Narhan,

Sohgaura in Malla; Rajgir, Chirand and Juafardih (Nalanda) in Magadha;

Vaisali and Lauriya Nandangarh in Vrijji, Champa and Oriup in Anga and

Adam and Inamgaon in Asmaka provide valuable data.

In view of the archaeological evidence from the sites of the

mahajanapadas it could be authentically concluded that these political

principalities and states were well established during the second millennium

BCE, though the settlements started at many of these sites even much

earlier.

Early Settlements of the Mahajanapadas

The Technological Change

The date of the beginning of iron smelting in India on the basisof the evidence from Gufkral, Dadupur, Malhar, Raja Nal Ka Tila andalso from sites of Ahar culture may well be placed as early as 16th

century BCE and by about the early decades of the 13th centuryBCE iron smelting was done on a bigger scale. This is the period when Painted Grey Ware and Northern BlackPolished Ware emerged as main ceramics in the northern Indiabesides black slipped and black-and-red ware, again suggesting atechnological change in development and urban growth from earlierOCP-Copper Hoard cultures of the Chalcolithic period. In peninsular India archaeological data from excavationsat Hallur (Karnataka) or Adichannallur (Tamil Nadu) suggest thebeginning of iron age around 1000 BCE. The evidence fromKomaranhalli (Karnataka) show that smiths produced large ironobjects, implying that they had already been experimenting thetechnology for centuries. The literary evidence throughout the world including SanskritVedic literature, Chinese literature, Avestan gathas and HebrewBible indicate that everywhere iron age followed the bronze age.

Section Scraping at Gosna Mound, Mathura - 2010

PGW deposit.

Two C14 dates –i. 2160 +- 150 BCEii. 2170 +- 150 BCE

The OCP - Copper Hoard Culture

Black-and- Red Ware

Painted Gray Ware

The Scenario

With the passage of time chalolithic cultures merged into iron age

cultures as visible in late phase of Malwa and Jorwe cultures with

representations at Nagda, Eran, Chichli and Ahar in the latter half of

the second millennium BCE.

Megalithic sites in central India, Deccan and south also

represent the iron age culture while Painted Grey Ware and Northern

Black Polished Ware are the predominant ceramics of iron age whose

evolution around 12th century BCE has been suggested on a large

number of evidence from radiometric dates from many sites.

The PGW levels at Noh and Atranjikhera had already

established the early beginning of the culture in 11th and 12th century

BCE and after excavations at Ayodhya followed by evidence from

many sites in middle Ganga Valley the same origin has been ascribed

to the NBP Ware culture which has common shapes and overlaps at

many sites with PGW.

PGW and Associated Pottery from Sankisa

The objects of PGW period : Sankisa Excavations (1995-97)

The Objects of PGW/ NBPW Period : Sankisa Excavations (1995-97)

Following Shorter Chronology....

The early association of NBPW was suggested by Marshall after

his excavations at Bhita (800 BCE) and later around 500 BCE after

his excavations at Taxila.

Many early historical sites were excavated afterwards in the

middle and latter half of the 20th century and some of them yielded

samples which were dated and others where samples were not

collected, the NBPW levels were dated on relative dating and

comparative studies.

In this process for nearly half a century a generally accepted

date of NBPW was considered by most of the scholars to be about

600 BCE to 200 BCE. However, the dates from Mathura, Noh,

Sohgaura, Jhusi and Korkai etc. still suggested dates of NBPW

before 600 BCE.1. Mathura (i) 730 BCE (730 ± 150 BCE)

(ii) 660 BCE (660 ± 100 BCE)

2. Noh 685 BCE (685 ± 115 BCE)

3. Sohgaura (i) 756 BCE

(ii) 692 BCE

4. Jhusi 680 BCE (680 ± 90 BCE)

5. Korkai (T.N.) 805 BCE (755 ± 95 BCE)

The Ayodhya Evidence

Ayodhya

Trench Depth Dates in BP Calibrated Dates (in

BCE)

J3 (i) 620-622 cm 2660 ± 90 (710 BCE) 900-790 BCE

(ii) 622-625 cm 2270 ± 80 (320 BCE) 400-200 BCE

(iii) 680 cm 2480 ± 70 (530 BCE) 790-410 BCE

(iv) 680 cm 2730 ± 80 (780 BCE) 970-810 BCE

G7 (i) 9.15 cm 2830 ± 100 (880 BCE) 1190-840 BCE

(ii) 11.0 cm 2860 ± 100 (910 BCE) 1210-900 BCE

(iii) 11.53 3200 ± 130 (1250 BCE) 1680-1320 BCE

The excavations at Ayodhya (2002-03) provided definite and

elaborate evidence of early introduction and continuity of NBPW

which could be placed at least 500 years earlier than what was

considered. The consistent 7 dates of NBPW are significant which

provide a time span of about 1250 to 200 BCE.

The Current Dating

1. Jhusi (i) 799 BCE (2590 ± 90 BP)

(ii) 763 BCE (2500 ± 90 BP)

2. Charda 764 BCE

3. Agiabir (i) 696 BCE

(ii) 797 BCE

(iii) 889 BCE

4. Juafardih (i) 1259 BCE (3010 ± 90 BP)

(ii) 1562 BCE (3280 ± 90 BP)

(iii) 1002 BCE (2850 ± 80 BP)

(iv) 857 BCE (2740 ± 100 BP)

5. Gotihwa

(Nepal)

1310 ± 930 BCE

6. Rajdhani (i) 997-805 BCE

(ii) 812 BCE

(iii) 885 BCE

7.

8.

9.

Kolhua

(Vaishali)

Ramnagar

Kapilavastu (i)

(ii)

3060 ± 140 BP (Cal. 3250 ± 160 BP or

1300 BCE)

3200 +- 100 BP ( Cal. 3412 BP) or 1190 BCE

1070 +- 70 BCE

700 +- 70 BCE

Following the Ayodhya

evidence, at least nine more

sites provided early dates of

NBPW levels in the beginning

of the present century. The

early dates from such levels

are mentioned below :

G. Verardi’s excavations at

Gotihwa in Nepal yielded

seven more samples dating

between 900-400 BCE and the

same were determined using

AMS by Beta Analytic Inc.

(USA).

Stratigraphy of the Site at Ayodhya

Excavations at thedisputed site ofAyodhya haveyielded acontinuous culturalsequence containedin the totaldeposition of about10.80 m.

Divided into 9cultural periods onthe strength ofcombined andcorroborativeevidences ofpottery sequence,structural remainsand other datablefinds.

NBPW

SUNGA

KUSHAN

GUPTA

POST GUPTA - RAJPUT

EARLY MEDIEVAL-PRE SULTANATE

MUGHAL

LATE MUGHAL

J3G7

Rajghat Excavations (2014)

A C14 date determined by BSIP recently has proved the antiquity of ancient Kasi (Rajghat) to be much earlier than what has been considered till now.

The date from Period I at the site is :( BS-3865, RGT-6, 2.87m )

Charcoal Cal. Age 1600 BCE± 90 yr.

NBPW (Plain and Painted) from Period II

Rajghat Excavations (2014)

No Dark Age.....

The early dates from Ganwaria, Prahladpur, Siswania,

Khairadih, Takiaper, Dadupur and Mathura should not be just

ignored which may not be accidental and caused due to wildfire, but

may be due to human activity.

Similarly the early evidence of neolithic and chalcolithic phases

in the region require special attention for understanding their origin,

development and material culture.

The new evidence give sufficient material to fill the gap between

the time of the disappearance of the Harappan Civilization and the

beginning of early historical period when the so called second

urbanization took place which is expected to remove the myth of any

dark age in the history of India.

Some Early Brahmi Inscriptions

Believed to be Pre-Mauryan

Early Brahmi Inscriptions

Besides the well known inscriptions, inscribed Brahmi

potsherds found along with coins in the middle levels of

NBPW deposits in excavations at Jhusi have been

considered to be much earlier than the time of Asoka

and thus throw new light on the antiquity of art of

writing in India.

Potsherds from some sites in South India and

Srilanka have also been dated to be of about 5th century

BCE.

The Evidence of Brahmi Script in the 5th Century BCEExcavations of Megalithic Burials at Kodumanal and Purunthal

After K. Rajan

“ The charcoal sample (NO. S. 3591, Sample – 3), which wascollected from Layer 10 in Trench A1 (at the depth of 4.8 – 5.2m), has been dated to Radiocarbon Age 3200 +- 100 yrs BP(calibrated Age 3412 Yrs BP), by the Birbal Sahani Institute ofPalaeobotany, Lucknow. This date is countable to 1190 BCE(calibrated 1405 BCE), would thus, fall in the range of 1290-1090 BCE.”

Personal communication : Prof. Vidula Jayaswal

Interestingly the deposit of the NBPW phase has also yieldedpotsherds having incised Brahmi letters, suggesting the antiquity ofBrahmi script somewhere around the beginning of the first millenniumBCE, if not a little earlier.

New Evidence of Early Brahmi from Excavations at

Ramnagar

The Buddha’s Relics

Rajgir (Ancient Girivraja or Rajagriha)

Rajgir was known in ancient times with different names, such asVasumat in Ramayana , Barhadrathapura in Mahabharata and Puranasand Girivraja in Mahabharata, besides Kusagrapura in some Jaina andBuddhist texts. Girivraja was the most popular name of the capital city inMahabharata.

The names of the surrounding hills are also found in Mahabharata,Buddhist and Jaina texts.

Some structures in Rajgir such as Jarasandha–ki-Baithak andJarasandha-ka Akhara are still connected with the name of Jarasandha, theking of Magadha in the time of Mahabharata War.

Buddhaghosha, a Pali commentator mentions two fortified parts ofcity – inner and outer ( antarnagara and bahirnagara ), having 32 large and64 smaller gates. The fortifications are still visible.

The capital city lost its status in the time of Udayin (c. 459-443 BCE)when the capital was shifted to Pataliputra.

Rajgir : The Cyclopean Wall

Cyclopean wall near southern gateway(Old Rajgir)

A. Ghosh says “ At a very early stage inthe life of the city the natural defenceswere substantially re-inforced by afortification consisting of a high rubble –wall running at the top of all the hills,with a circuit of about 25 miles and thenatural gaps between the hills wereutilised as gates in the fortification. Insidethe valley were other defencive wallsbuilt in different periods…..” (AI, No.7).

Attributing constructions toJarasandha, it has been opined “ SuchCyclopean fortification walls have beenfound in ancient Greece (Mycenaean cityand Tiryns) and placed in the later half of2nd millennium B.C. (1400-1300 B.C.). ”(S.C.Saran in Purabharati, Delhi, 2006,Vol.1, p.27).

Rajgir Excavations : 1950 A small scale excavation was carried out at Rajgir by A. Ghosh in 1950 ( Rajgir

1950, Ancient India, No.7, ASI,1951, pp.66-78).

The cultural sequence as mentioned by A. Ghosh is as below –

Period I : earlier than the fifth century B.C.

Period II : fifth century B.C. (or earlier) to second century B.C.

Period III : first century B.C.

Period IV : first century A.D.

Period I was characterised by about 1.20m deposit having rolled “rare sherds”,

burnt earth and charcoal pieces. Period II with a deposit of about 2.40m having

three phases is characterised by the presence of NBPW.

An interesting feature noticed in the limited excavation was the evidence of ten

post-cremation burials, previously unknown.

The conventional date of NBPW believed by the excavator, needs revision in

view of the large number of scientifically determined dates from many recent

excavations and accordingly the chronological sequence could be pushed back to

several centuries.

Recent findings from the excavations at Ghorakatora

The archaeology of Ghorakatora has pushed back thechronology of Rajgir and its neighborhood to the stage ofemergence of the early farming as was done for Nalanda bythe findings at Jufardih.

The site is located below the foothills of Giriyak, spreadbetween the flood plain of Panchane and Goithawan.

The location of the site provides natural resources for metaland minerals and stone, besides games of wild animals andsituation for agro-pastoral subsistence.

The excavation has reported following sequence: earlyfarming stage of neolithic/chalcolithic nature; Iron age;NBPW (Mauryan); Sung, Kushan; Gupta and Post Guptadenoting assemblage of Pala period.

From the post Gupta levels a number of storage jars havebeen reported in situ suggesting surplus production ofagricultural produce and their storage and marketing.

Chalcolithic

and Early

Ghorakatora

NBPW, Red Ware, Black- and -red ware sherds

Juafardih Investigations

During explorations in Feburary,2006

around Nalanda Monastery complex, the

author (B.R.Mani) in the company of

colleagues from Excavation Branch (ASI),

Patna discovered NBPW, black-slipped

ware, red ware and black-and-red ware

from two mounds Juaffardih (Left upper)

and Garh (Left lower), located towards

west within 2km distance from the

protected site of Nalanda.

The former site was supposed to be a

stupa mound and the latter a monastery.

(B.R.Mani, ’Fresh Investigations in Early

Chronology of Nalanda ’ ,

Puratattva,No.36,New Delhi,2006,pp.240-

247,fig.3 (pottery from Juaffardih),fig.4

(pottery from Garh).

Juaffardih Excavations 2006-07C14 Dates (i) 1259 BCE (3010 ± 90 BP)

(ii) 1562 BCE (3280 ± 90 BP)

(iii) 1002 BCE (2850 ± 80 BP)

(iv) 857 BCE (2740 ± 100 BP)

Juaffardih Excavations 2006-07

An intersting structure with large size bricks measuring 72x48x8 cm in the ratio of 1 : 6 : 9, partly exposed belonging to Perido III having 23 courses of bricks with 2m height.

Excavations at Harnol : 1997-98

Coins

The abundance of silver and copper Punch MarkedCoins and Un-inscribed Copper Cast Coins in north India isdue to the growth of urban centres in Uttarapatha in the7th-6th century BC and probably a little earlier when 16Great States had become stable with important cities andurban areas.

The coexistence of Punch-marked and un-inscribedcopper cast coins can be seen in the pre-Mauryan levels atKausambi, Taxila (Bhir mound), Mathura, Sravasti,Atranjikhera, Hastinapur, Kayatha, Maheshwar, Sonpur,Tilaurakot, Piprahwa-Ganwaria complex, Siswania andAyodhya.

Un-inscribed copper cast coins out-number the Punch-marked issues at most of these sites.

During excavations at Kausambi in 1957-59, while the levels yielding earliest Un-inscribed copper cast coins were assigned to 885 to 815 BCE, the earliest levelshaving PMC were dated around 535-465 BCE.

Earliest Coins

Piprahwa (Kapilavastu)

Excavations at Piprahwa-Ganwaria-Tola Salargarh – 2013-14

1740 +- 140 BCE

2360 +- 130 BCE

1100 +- 200 BCE

1070 +- 70 BCE

700 +- 70 BCE

Kapilavastu (Ganwaria)

Consistent C14 Dates

Some Recent Identification of Sites

On the basis of references in Pali Buddhist literature andaccounts of travellers about the status of the sites and distanceor route followed for their approach, philological similaritiesbetween ancient and present names, size of present moundsand their cultural assemblage, many cities and townships havebeen identified including Setavya with Siswania, Ukkattha withUkada, Atuma with Ama, Nagaraka nigama with Nagar,Medatalumpa with Mehdawal, Salavatika with Saltauwa,Vehalinga with Behil and others.

These Nagara-nigamas belonging to Kosala or Sakyaterritories were directly related to the life and movements ofLord Buddha though they had emerged quite earlier.

A serious thought is to be given on antiquity of suchsites as Lauria Nandangarh or Kausambi whose excavatorshave suggested long back the early chronological sequence.

The Epilogue

The Pre-NBPW cultures flourished all over the country in theend of 3rd and beginning of 2nd millennium BCE and continuedtill the emergence of NBPW in the end of 2nd millennium BCEand till the time of the rise of Buddha and Mahavira. Theexistence of the 16 Great States could also be placed in thistime period.

The latest archaeological evidence suggests that there is nobreak in cultural continuity of Indian culture and civilization.

In view of the above, there is no dark age as such after thedisappearance of Harappan civilization and before the timeof the Buddha.

This is very well suggested by the new dates of NBPW whichgo back to the end of the 2nd millennium BCE.Accordingly the emergence of coinage can also be takenback to the beginning of about first millennium BCE, if notearlier.