Arabian Corridor 5

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Proceedings f he eminarorArabian tudies 8 (2008): 25-42

Climate hange ndhuman riginsnsouthernrabiaA.G. Parker&. J.I.Rose

SummaryOverthepastfewyears, rehistoriansavebegun o consider outhArabiawith ncreasinglyreaternterest. s thecorpus fgenetic atagrows,cholars owrealize heprominentole he Arabian orridormust aveplayed nmodern uman rigins.Unfortunately,alaeolithicnvestigationshroughouthepeninsula ave agged adlybehind; t the ime fwritingherereonlythree ated, tratifiedalaeolithic ites hat allwithin heUpper leistocene ime eriodShi batDihya, l-Hatab,nd Jebel aya1).While here remeagre ata o discuss hehuman ootprintpon he andscape,wepossessabundantnformationo describethe and tself.Thispaper s intended o synthesizendpresenthepalaeoenvironmentalecord hroughouthe ateQuaternaryn SouthArabia,herebyresentinghe andscapecrosswhich he arliest umans raverseduringhe nitialxpansionromheir ncestralhomeland.WepresentheHOPE ENV database,which s a compositeumprobabilityurve hatncorporateseveralhundredproxy ignals sedtodiscern ncient limatic onditions. hispaper onsiders hiftsnthe errestrialandscapemorphology,swell s reconfigurationf he horelinesuetoeustatic nd sostaticea levels hange.We discusshow his ecord f nvironmentalchangemight ave ffectedumanmergence,rom he irstppearancef natomically odern omo apiens o the evelopmentofcomplex ivilizationnthemiddleHolocene.Keywords: umanrigins,limatehange, rabian eninsula,alaeoenvironment,rehistoricrchaeology

IntroductionThe pendulumf environmentalhange n Arabia hasoscillatedbetween climatic extremes hroughoutheQuaternaryeriod. he andscapes riddled ithvidencefor ncient luviais, pparentnthe acustrineediments,alluvial fans and gravels, alaeosols, nd speleothems(e.g. McClure1976; Schultz& Whitney 986; Parkeretal 2006; Lzine et al 2007; Fleitmannt al 2007).Conversely,here re numerousignals hatArabiawassubjectedo xtremesn ridity,ost bviously anifestedinthe xpansive and seas comprisingheNafud,Rub'al-Khali, nd Wahibadeserts,s well as hyperalkalinespringsClark& Fontes 1990) and petrogypsicoilhorizonsRose 2006).

The earliestwesternxplorersopenetrateheRub'al-Khali ften escribed series f smallbuttestandingout nstarkwhite rgrey gainst he eeminglyndlesswasteland f monotonous ust-colouredand. Duringhispioneeringourneycross hedesertn1932, t JohnPhilby ecognized hesefeaturess smalleroded akebasins omprisedfmarl erracesndhardenedvaporitic

crusts,noting ssociated freshwaterhells and lithicimplementscattered round heedges (Philby1933).The occurrencef ncienttone oolsnear elictakebedsisubiquitous hroughoutouthArabia nd hints t a richprehistoricast,one of which rchaeologistsaveonlyyet ncounteredhe ip f the ceberg.The aimof thispaper s topresenthebackdrop fSouthArabianprehistoryyprovidingn overview fthemosaicofshiftingandscapes uringheQuaternary.Thesedataprovide useful rameworkor nderstandingtherole of the limatenpatterninghe bb and flow fhominin ccupation cross the Arabiancorridor acriticaleographiconethat asrecentlyeen stablishedas a conduit ridgingarly uman opulationsnEurope,Africa,ndAsia.Geography, eology,nd climate

TheArabian eninsulas bounded n thewest y heGulfofAqaba and theRed Sea, on the outh ytheGulfofAden nd theArabian ea, and on the astbytheGulf fOman and theArabianGulf.The subcontinent easures

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26 A.G. Parker . J.I.Rose2 1 0km rom ortho outhlong heRed Sea coast, ndnearly 000 kmacross at its maximum idth romhewesternmostegion fYemen o the asternmostointnOman.The littorals characterizedy tropicalnd sub-tropical cosystems, hilethebasin-shapednteriorsdominatedy alternatingteppe nd desert andscapes.Threemajor and eas arefoundnArabia: heRub' al-Khali 600,000 km2),Nafud 72,000 km2), nd WahibaSands 12,500km2)Goudie2003).Arabia s skirted ymountainouserrainlongthewestern, outhern,nd eastern dges of thepeninsula.The AsirHighlands un longthewesternlank ftheKingdom f SaudiArabia, alled theYemenHighlandswherethey xtend nto theRepublicof Yemen. Thismountainhainreachesnearly 000 m above sea levelinthe outh thehighest oint n the ntire eninsula;as a result,t receivesup to 1000mm of rainfall erannum. he coastalplainof southern rabia s boundedby the Hadramawtin Yemen) and Nejd (in Oman)plateaus. xtendingorth rom he Dhofar scarpment,sedimentaryeds rise harplyo an elevation f 1000mabove sea level,graduallyevelling ffnorthwardsntotheNejd. The entire egion s comprised f upliftedTertiaryimestonehat raduallylopes nto heRubal-4Khalibasin.Theridge ftheDhofar scarpment arksthewatershedivide; outhwards-flowingrainagesreseasonally ctiveunder resentonditions,ncising helimestoneliffs t a steepgrade ndcreatingpringsndlagoons s they oolonto he oastal lain.Presently,henorthwards-flowingrainages eceive lmostno stormflowbut,during luvial cycles,themagnitudef themonsoonwas sufficientnough oproducehigh-energyfluvialystems.The tectonicplate that constitutes he ArabianPeninsulas derived rom frica. or most fgeologicalhistory,oth andmasses ormed artof a pan-Afro-Arabian ontinent.hen, round 0 million ears gotheArabian late roke ff romheAfrican hield ndbegantoslide othenorth-east,otatingna counter-clockwisedirection.his vent riggeredchain eaction f eismictransformationshat ave hadan indelible ffectn thecourse fpalaeoenvironmentalndpalaeoanthropologicalhistory.nesignificantodificationas the ormationftheRed Sea trough. hisnarrow,longate epressionsmore han 000 km ong ndvaries nwidth rom 80 to300 km long hemain hannel. heriftingf these woplates lso triggeredolcanic ctivitylongthewesternedgeofArabia, roducingheaggedbasaltpeaksof the'Asir- emenHighlands.The genesisof Arabia's easternmountainange s

linked o the sametectonicmovements well.As theArabianplatetravels owardAsia, the Indianplateissliding eneatht ndforcinghe ncient edof he ethysSea to thrustpward. onsequently,heHajarMountainsform he pine fsouth-easternrabia, eaching000 mabove sea level innorth-westernman. Thisrelativelylongchainof mountainstretchesrom as al-Hadd neastern man othe ip f heMusandam eninsula t theStrait fHormuz, distance fover600 km.Large, owanglealluvialfans oalesceat themountainront,romwhich n extensive etwork f widis flow nlandfromtheHajarMountainsnto heRub'al-Khali, heUmm s-Samim,ndtheHaushi-Huqfasins.Perhaps hemostprofoundutcome f theAfrican-Arabian ectonic iftinghathas affected he courseofhuman istorys compressionf theArabian late s itpushes gainst urasia. hisprocess as ed togeologicalsubsidencehroughouthe asternortionfArabia,mostnotably shallowdepressionhat omprisesheArabo-PersianGulfbasin. In addition, uckling edimentarystrata reated series of north-southolds,therebycreatinghe world's argest il reservoirs eneath heArabian helf.Under hepresentrid climatic egime,the ow-lyingasinsof eastern rabia re dominatedyaeoliandeposition,lanketedymassive and eas.The Wahiba Sands are located in easternOman,north-eastf theHaushi-Huqf epression. his desertis comprisedf lineardunesoriented n a north-southaxis that un arallel o one another or everalhundredkilometres.he dunes each pto 100m nelevationndare eparatedy wales 1-3kmwide Glennie Singhvi2002; Preusser, adies & Matter002).The most ecentaeoliandepositsnWahiba ormeduringhe astglacialmaximum,t which ime heemergedontinentalhelfprovided bundant nconsolidatedarbonates vailablefor eoliantransportGlennie1988; Preusser, adies &Matter002).Encompassingnearly600,000 km2,most of theinterior f southern rabia is blanketed y the Rub'al-Khali sand sea. This massivebasin slopes from nelevation f approximately200m above sea level inthewest onearlyea level nthe ast.The dunes f theRub' al-Khali nclude varietyftypes, esultingromthe lternatingind atternsnddiverse ources f and.The dunes re tallestnthe outh-westernortionfthebasin, s much s 200m inheight. ike theWahiba, heextanteaturesftheRub'al-Khali unes ormeduringthelatePleistocene, omprised rimarilyf reworkedPleistoceneedimentsbovea bed of Pliocene lluvialgravelsMcClure1978).



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Climatehange nd human riginsn outhern rabia 27The peninsula s subjectto two different eatherregimes Barth& Steinkohl 004). From the northcomeAtlanticate-winterorth-westerlies,hichmoveeastwards ver heMediterraneanea,down heArabianGulf, nd eventually issipate ver the Rub' al-Khalidesert nd MusandamPeninsula, ringingool gentlewinds nd light recipitationParker t al. 2004). Thesecondweatheregimeonsists f ummertormsroughtbythe outh-westndianOcean monsoon ystem. romJune o September,hehighlandsfYemen ndOmanreceiverelatively eavyrainfall s the mountainousterrain f southern rabia trapsmoisture rom themonsoonLzineet al 1998;Glennie& Singhvi 002).Consequently,he Asir and DhofarMountains eceivebetween 00-1000mmannually;while areasclosertosea level eldom ollectmore han 00-200mmperyear(Schyfsma 978).

Flora and faunaThe environmentalradientscrossArabia,the floralvarieties n adjacent territories,nd the legacy ofQuaternarylimate hangehave all had a significanteffectpon hedistributionfplant ypes hroughouthesubcontinentParkert al 2004). Insouthernrabia, hesparse egetationover s groupedwithinhefollowingbiotopes:coastal habitat,nterior asin, Asir- emenHighlands, hofarMountains, nd Hajar Mountains.Flora uch s Cressa reticacressa),Nitraria etusasalttree) ndJuncusmaritimussea rush) re found rowingon themarinehores nd saltflats.Wildrue,mangrove,indigo, atepalms,henna, amarinds, istletoe,nd ilbprosper round oastalwadi banks,particularlyhosealongthe Tihama Red Sea) and al-BatinahGulfofOman) oastsMiller& Thomas1996).In the interior,lantssuch as tamarisks,oplars,acacias, and several other pecies of reeds,grasses,and small shrubs re found cattered eardepressionsand seasonaldrainage ystems hatreceive a limiteddegree fmoistureHugh& Mason1946).Due toheavyprecipitationeposited ythesummermonsoon, hereis a widevarietyf flora nthe Asir- emenHighlands.Wild figs, eguminous rees,tamarisks, ate palms,indigo, at, myrrh,nd a variety f floweringushesandherbs refound long hewadibanks,whileforestsof uniper over hemountainlopesbetween 500 and3000 m elevations1946). PollensamplestakenfromthewoodedYemenihighlandshow a predominancefacacia, ZygophyllumSyrianbean caper),and severalspecies from he familyChenopodiaceae goosefoot)

(Lzine et al 1998).A similar istributionf florahasbeen identifiednthe DhofarMountainsnd describedas rolling rasslandsnd denseand verdantopsesandwoodlands, eminiscentather fuplandregionsntheAfrican avannah.Indeed, he lose resemblancefSouthArabian loralvarieties o that fAfricas due to thefact hatmany fthese axa pread astwards rom frica. hesewoodlandandgrassland cosystemselong othe Saharo-SindianandSaharo-Arabianhytogeographicones Mandaville1985;Ghazanfar Fisher1998;Ghazanfar 999).Thecompositionfplant ommunitiesnd themorphologyofendemicpecies uggest close botanical elationshipbetweenAfrica nd ArabiathroughoutheQuaternary.Examplesof East African-derivedlant types ncludeAcacia sp. (Acacia), Ziziphusziziphus Jujube), ndApocynoideaehazya dogbane).Planttypes n south-easternrabian the modernterritoriesf northernmanand theUAE) show trongties to the floraof Iran and south-westernakistan(Baluchistan), omprisinghe Omano-Makranianub-zoneof heNubo-Sindianentre f ndemismMandaville1985;Ghazanfar Fisher 998;Ghazanfar999).Floralelements hat re inked oAsiantaxa nclude uphorbialarica succulentpurge), runus mygdalusalmonds),Ficus carica (figs),Lawsonia inermis henna), andIndigofera inctoriatrueindigo).These pronouncedaffinitiesn plant distributioncross the Omano-Makranianub-zone reattributedo thefact hat uringmuch f heQuaternaryhe asin f heArabian ulfwasexposed,formingne continuouserritoryrom rabiainto outhAsia Williams Walkden002).Of the largemammals, nimalsbelonging o thefamily ovidae are by farthe mostprominentn thePeninsula.These include one species of oryx,threespeciesofGazella,two peciesofCapra,onebelongingtothe enusHemitraguswildgoat), ndone of he enusOvis wildsheep).These animals ypicallyccupy reasthat eceivemoderateohigh mounts f rainfalluch stheYemenihighlands,hofar,nd theHajarMountains.Gazelle have been notedfrommore ridsettingsuchas thehigh lateaus,while hedesert-adaptedryxwereonceubiquitous hroughouthe nterior,ven withinheRub' al-KhaliHarrison 980).Small mammals nclude variousspecies from hefamilyoricidae shrews), rder odentiarodents),ndorderChiropterabats). There are carnivores uch asmongooses, enets, ogs,wolves,and foxes Harrison1980).A varietyffelines represent,ncludingellssilvestriswild cat),Felis margaritasand cat),Caracal



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Climatehange ndhuman riginsn outhern rabia 29

Figure2. Relict luvial errace n WadiAr h,southern man.ArabiaWildman000;Wildman t al 2004; Fernandes,Rohling Siddell2006). That heEastAfrican aboonlineage s older han heArabianmplies hat heremusthave been a demographicottleneckelease sometimeduringheUpper leistocene.

Pleistocene ndEarlyHoloceneclimatechange nArabiaMostofthe recipitationhat alls verArabia sbroughtby he fore-mentionedouth-westndian ceanmonsoonsystem,onsiderablyore o than romnorth-westerlywinter torms. onsequently,heenvironmentalate ftheregion,meliorationr desiccation,estsupontheintensityf themonsoon,whichhasbeen nflux or tleastthe astquarterfa million ears Clemens t al1991;Muzuka 000;Fleitmannt al 2004).Indian Ocean monsoon ycles: ife nddeath oftheSouthArabian andscapeMarine oresfrom he ndianOcean,Gulf fOman, ndthe rabianeaprovidedetailed istoryf he outh-westIndian ceanmonsoonystemhroughoutheQuaternary.Analysis fdinoflagellateyst ontentrom rabian eadeep ea coresduringhe astglaciationeveals nabruptfluctuationt 12,500years go (Zonneveld t al 1997).

Thisspike s attributedo thedisappearancef snow ndice cover over centralAsia, Tibet, nd theHimalayas,suggestinghat ne of theprimary echanismsrivingmonsoon luctuationsre climatic onditionstglacial-interglacialoundaries. iogeochemicalnd lithogenicdata from rabian ea coresspanninghe ast350,000years lso supporthenotion hatmonsoonwindsweresensitive o changing lacial climates.The retreat fice sheets, herise ncontinentallbedo solarradiationreflectedff theearth's urface), nd the increaseofwater urface emperaturesn thewesternndianOceantriggeredpikes nmagnitudeClemens t al 1991).Computerimulations avebeenused toestimateheaveragewindspeedof the south-west onsoon uringsuchphasesof ntensification.peedscurrentlyveragearound 0m/sec, hile ncreased eriods factivityhesawwind peedsreaching 5m/sec. recipitationouldhave been 50 % greaterhan tspresent alue,growingfrom5 mm/dayo 7.5 mm/day. orthwards-shiftinginsulationatternsrove he monsoons urthernto heArabianPeninsula,withevidencefor seasonal stormsreachings farnorth s Bubiyan sland ntheArabianGulf Sarnthein972;Kutzbach 981).Researchers ave attemptedo model the rate ofchange uringhiftsnmonsoonmagnitude.nalysis f15Nsotopeswas conducted nan ntervalfArabian ea



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30 A.G. Parker . J.I.Rose

Figure 3. Late Pleistocene une rofiletash-Shwaib, AE.corespanninghebracket f timebetween 3,000and42,000years go- awell-establishedlimaticoundary.Significanthanges nmeanstrengthccurred ithinspanof200 years,which s relativelynstantaneousna Pleistocene ime scale (Higginson 004). While theonset fthe ntensified onsoonwasrapid, vidence asbeenpresenteduggestinghat he shift ack towardsaridificationas a moregradual rocess ccurringn amillennialcale,at leastduringhemost ecentwet/dryshiftLckgeeal 2001).The table xygensotope ecord fvarious lanktonicforaminiferalpecies (i.e. Globigerinoidesruber,Globigerinaulloides,ndNeogloboquadrinautertrei)attestso emporalariationsnmarinealaeoproductivity.Analysis fspecies frequencyistributionver the astglacialcycle hows direct orrelationetween alaeo-productivityn the ArabianSea, the strengthf themonsoon,nd theglobaloxygen sotope urve. cholars

note he nset f ntensified onsoonpisodes an ag upto 1000years fter hiftsnglacialconditions,ossiblydue to the hresholdecessary or ufficientmounts fsnow nd ce to melt nd affectndianOcean insulationpatternsReichart, ourens& Zachariasse1997; Petit-Maire t al 1999; vanova t al 2003).Fluctuationsn monsoonntensityre evidenced yavarietyf ignals pon ndwithinheandscape. hemostcompleteecords omefrom series fdated peleothemsin theHajarand Dhofarmountains. ronouncedluvialconditionsre also signalled yremnantsf ancient akedepositsFig. 1),travertines,luvial erracesFig.2), andalluvialfans preadinglongthepiedmontegions. heexpansiveand eas foundhroughoutrabia'sdesert rea testamentothehyperaridhases hat aveoccasionallyswept cross hepeninsulaFig.3).Wehavecompiled ll of thesepalaeoenvironmentalsignalstogethero builda comprehensiveatabaseof



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Climatehange nd human riginsn outhern rabia 3 1

Figure4. HOPE ENV sum robabilityurve epicting et/dryignals hroughoutrabiaduringheUpperPleistocene.climate hange n Arabia,referredo as HOPE ENV.Thesedata re derived romublishedources s well asnew vidence ollected ythe uthorsn the ield. asedon a total f 396 absolute ates,wepresent compositesum probabilityurve (Fig. 4) to illustrate limaticoscillations ver hepast175,000years, romMIS 6 topresent. eaks in sumprobabilityepresent eriods fincreased etness, hile roughs ighlightrier hases.Alldates rereportedncalendar ears P.Climatic onditionsuringhe ateMiddle ndUpperPleistocene re ofparticularnteresto ourstudy, iventhathis pan f ime ormedhe ackdropf arly umanemergence romAfrica.Was the climate ridenoughduringhe astfewglacialmaxima opreclude omininhabitation nd, conversely,were conditionshumidenough o facilitate uman ccupation uring he LastInterglacial?Anton 1984) speculated hat he environment ashyperariduringMIS 6, giventhatmonsoonntensityroughlyracks ith heglobalmarinesotope urve. heemerging icturenArabia ndicates he situation asmore aried han his nitial ssessment; smatteringf

Chronometrieatessuggests herewere brief ulses nprecipitation.ompellingvidence or ncreasedmoistureattheMIS 7-MIS6 interfaceomesfrompeleothemsnHotiCave, northernman,whereU/Thmeasurementsexhibitn increase ngrowthatebetween 00-180ka(Burns t al 2001).Theprospectfstage sub-pluvialsare orroboratedyoptical ates nfluvial ilts tSabkhaMatti 147,000 12,000BP) (Goodall 1995),two U/Th measurements rom freshwatermollusca withinlacustrineediments t Mudawwara170,000 14,000BP and 152,000 8,000BP) (Petit-Mairet al 1999),opticallyated luvial ilts tFalaj al-Moalla ntheWadiDhaid,UAE (193,110 30,750BP), OSL measurementson fluvial ilts recorded t the Camel Pit Site,Ummal-Qawain,UAE (174,300 24,110 BP), and opticalmeasurementsnevaporiticacustrineedimentsampledfrom relict nterdunalabkha ntheLiwaregion f theRub'al-Khali, AE (160,000 8000BP) (Wood,Rizk&Alsharhan003).The onset of the Last Interglacial eriodaround130,000yearsago was punctuatedy an abrupt nddrasticncreasenrainfallver SouthArabia hat asted



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32 A.G. Parker . J.I.Roseuntilpproximately20ka,followedy second eak nprecipitationorrespondingithMIS 5a (82-74 ka). U/Thdates npalaeosolsfrom hewesterniedmontftheHajarMountainsnOman hat re orrelated ithsotopiestages e and 5a (Sanlaville1992).Soils were lso notedin thead-DahnaDesertof northernrabia,where atePleistocene unesoverlie woseparate edogenic tratathat ouldonlyhave formed n stabilized unes witha dense coverof vegetationAnton 1984). There s anetwork f Plio-Pleistocene as-relief ravelchannelswest f heWahiba eserthatssuperimposedy hinnerfluviatileravels entativelyssociatedwith articularlyhumid pisodes duringMIS 5e and MIS 5a (Maizels1987).Stokes ndBray2005)obtained ver iftypticaldates rommegabarchanunesntheLiwaregion, hichliesalong he asternmarginf theRub' al-Khali.Theirfindingsuggest prolonged eriod fdune ccumulationfrom 30 to 75 ka. Thisdeposition as attributedo aunique ombinationffactorsuch s reduced ea levelsin theArabo-Persian ulfthat roducedn abundanceofsedimentaryaterial vailablefor ransport,rise nregional roundwaterevels, ndvegetationover thatstabilized hedunes.MultipleMIS 5pluvial pisodes resignalled ythe forementionedotiCave speleothems,which ieldU/Th ates ndicatingapid rowthetween135-120 ka and 82-78 ka. Researchersnoted thatspeleothemrowth as most ronounceduring IS 5e,more o than ll subsequent luviaisBurns t al. 1998;2001). Mostrecently,e havedated seriesof buriedalluvialfans nterstratifiedithfluvial andsalongthewesterndgeoftheHajarMountainsnRas al-Khaimah,UAE. OSL ages obtained romhese edimentsndicatetheyweredepositedt 117,030 15,080BP and107,970 9660 BP.There remeagre limatic atafromMIS 4 andearlyMIS 3 in southern rabia. ndirect videncefrom heHOPE ENV summed robabilityurve s well as theindexofIndianOceanMonsoon ctivityFleitmanntal. 2007) suggestshis ime ramewas characterizedyincreasinglyyperaridonditionsulminatinground 0ka,followedy returno more umidegime y50,000years go. The onlyphysical vidence or ridificationduringMIS 4 can be inferredromtratigraphierofilesin theRub' al-Khali,which ttest o a stageof aeolianaccumulationometime efore 7,000years go. Thisdeposition,owever,s relatively inor s comparedothe mmense eolianstructureshat ccumulateduringthe erminalleistoceneMcClure1978).Geological nvestigationsntheheart f theRub' al-Khali sandsea have revealed landscapeduringMIS

3 that eatured series f small akesspread crosstheinteriorMcClure 1984). Radiocarbonmeasurementson mollusc hells nd marls ndicate he akesreachedtheir ighestevels around 7,000BP (McClure1976).Theseplayas ranged rom phemeral uddles o poolsup to 10 m deep,and numbered ell over 1000.Theyareprimarilyistributedlongan east-west xis acrossthe entre ftheRub' al-Khali asin, overing distanceof some 1200 km McClure 1984). Similar akebasinshave beenreportedrom heRamlat s-Sabatayn esertinYemenLzineet l 1998;2007),as wellas theNafudinnorthernrabia Garrard Harvey1981; Schulz&Whitney986).Researcherspeculate hatake-fillingpisodeswereshort-lived;hesepoorlydrainedbasins would havebeenrechargedyoccasional orrentialtormflowunoffanddisappeared ithin fewyears.Due to theregion'swide catchmentrea,theMundafan epression as theexception o this model.Arabia's thickestacustrinedepositswere recorded ere,where ingle akeperiodsare estimatedo have asted t east800years. ossilizedfaunal emains xcavatedwithinheMundafanedimentsyielded menagerief argevertebratesncluding ryx,gazelle, urochs, ild ss, hartebeest,ater uffalo,ahr,goat,hippopotamus,ildcamel, nd ostrichMcClure1984).Most f hese pecies elong o he amilyovidae,whose survival equired xpansive rasslands roducedby light o medium ainfall istributedvenly ver theRub' al-Khali.Ostracodand freshwaterolluscandicative f owsalinitywerepresent t Mundafan,s well as speciesof foraminiferahat ttest ohighly rackish onditions(McClure& Swain 1974).Evidence fgrasses, hrubs,and herbs re ndicatedyboth hytolithsnd dikakathin, ubular ragmentsf fossilizedmaterialcatteredin the eolian sedimentsround hebasins.These floralfossilswereformed hen issolved alcium arbonatenthewater recipitatednto lants s the akeevaporated.Evidence of fish remains are conspicuously bsentfrom heRub' al-Khali akes,because akes wererarelyrefillednd became oo alkaline ooquicklyodeveloppopulationMcClure1984).In addition o interioralaeolakes, ther ignalsforan MIS 3 wet phase includedepositional erracesnthe Wadi Dhaid; although ndated, heir tratigraphieposition uggests n age between35 and 22 ka BP(Sanlaville 1992). Interdunal ibakhrecorded n theLiwa region f theUAE haveproduced hirty-oneates(bothuncalibrated 4Cas well as OSL) thatclusterbetween 6,500 and 21,500BP (Wood& Imes 1995;



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Climatehange nd human riginsn outhern rabia 33Juyal, inghvi& Glennie 1998; Glennie & Singhvi2002). Palaeosols have beenrecordedn the ad-Dahnadesert,which are stratigraphicallyositioned etweenMIS 4 and MIS 2 aeoliandepositsAnton1984).Clarkand Fontes1990) dated alciteformationsrom ncienthyperalkalineprings n northern man, producingradiocarbongesbetween 3 and 19ka.Two oilhorizonswerediscoveredround he entrallateau f heYemenihighlands,haracterizeds molissols soils hat orm nlandscapesovered y avannah egetation.ncalibratedradiocarbon easurementsere 6,150 350BP for helower tratum,nd19,290 350BP for he pper orizon(Brinkmann Ghaleb1997).Researcherspeculatehathe erminalleistoceneryphasewas more rid han hepeninsula adexperiencedsince the Penultimate laciation,f not earlierAnton1984).Agesobtained rom uneformationsntheRub'al-Khali McClure1984;Goudie et al 2000; ParkerGoudie, 007),an-NafudAnton 984), nd theWahibaSands (Gardner1988; Glennie& Singhvi2002) allsignal majorphaseof aeolian accumulation etween17,000 nd 9000 BP. Calcitefracturesnnorthernmancorroboratehe vidence orncreasingridity,ndicatingtherewasconsiderablyess moisturenthe nvironmentstartinground19,000BP (Clark 1990).The TerminalPleistocenehyperaridhase ended withyet anotherpronouncedscillation ack to humid onditions.hispluvial haseperiodasted ntil . 5000BP, twhich imethepresentlimatic egimewas establishedOverstreet& Grolier 988; Cleuziou, nizan& Marcolongo 992;Sanlaville1992;Brunner997;Wilkinson997;Stokes& Bray 005;Parker t al. 2004;2006a; 20066;2006c).Shiftinghorelines nd humanrefugiaAs profounds these climatic scillations ave beenover he ourse f theQuaternary,he ise ndfall f sealevelhas hadanevengreaterffect nthe onfigurationof the Arabian ubcontinent.aking nto accounttheshallowbathymetryf theArabo-Persian ulf nd RedSea basins,nearly1 millionkm2of contiguousandhavebeenrepeatedlyxposed ndsubmergedy glacio-eustatic yclesof marine egressionnd transgression(Fig. 5). Theemergencef thecontinentalhelf roundArabiahaddirectmplicationsor rehistoricccupation,since he xposedandmass rovidedbundantources ffresh ater midst generallyesiccatedandscape. herole f ittoralones nthe ispersalfmodern umanssthe rux fongoing iscussion; ecentmodels f humanemergencerom frica nvision apid oastalmigration

across thesouthern oute f dispersal, acilitatedy anewadaptationoaquaticresourcese.g. Stringer000;Mithen Reed2002;Mellars 006).Evidenceuggestingthe mportancef low-lyingoastalhabitats uringheearlyndmiddleHolocenehasbeendiscoveredyBaileyet al. (2007; 2001b) around heFarasan slands nthesouthernedSea,whoreport nearlyontinuousineofover 1000 shellmoundslong hebeachfront.Faure,Walter nd Grant 2002) have identifiedprocess f littoralreshwaterpwelling hey efero asthe coastaloasis hypothesishatmayhelp explain heimportancef coastalhabitats or arlyhumans roups.Depressed ea levelsduring lacialmaxima ausedanincrease fhydraulic ressurewithinubmarineivers;consequently,more freshwaterlowedthroughheseaquifers. ventually,hisprocess ed to the creationfspringsn favourable oci on theemerged helfwithlithology,aults,athymetry,nd/oropographyonducivetoupwelling.uch a phenomenonan be observedodayin the abundantubmergedeeps at thebottom f theArabo-Persian ulf. he area roundmodern atar stheterminusf several ubmarine ivers hat lowbeneathArabia, reating mass ofupwelling lumes nce usedby ncient eafarers or estockingheir reshwatertores(Church 996).Indeed, godknown s Enki, he Lordofthe weetWaters ,was revered ythe Gulf's earliest nhabitants- a groupwhich riginatednthebasinprioro tsfinalinundationn he ourth illennium.Enkiwasbelievedto dwell within he Abzu ,thefreshwaterf thedeep;inthe Myth f Enki ndNinhursag e is credited ithbuildinganals tobring reshwateroDilmunJacobsen1987). This exampletakenfrom umerianmythologyserves s a usefulframe freferenceo highlightoththe vailabilitynd mportancef freshwaterithin heArabo-Persian ulf basin throughouthe PleistoceneandEarlyHolocene. The Gulf s the shallowestnlandsea in theworld, veraging ust 40 m in depth ndcoveringome225,000km2Sarnthein972).Therefore,between 15,000 nd6,000years go,when ea levelsweredepressed elowcurrentevels,we speculate hatthis egion erved s a large efugiumor ocal biomass(including ominins)onstrictedyaridconditionsforfurtheriscussion f theroleoftheGulfbasin nproto-historyee Sayceetal 1912;Barton 929;Cooke1987;Teller et al 2000; Kennett Kennett 006; Sanford2006).ThroughoutheUpperPleistocene ndEarly/MiddleHolocene,nearly ll excess runoffn south-west siawasfunnellednto heGulf asinvia submarinequifers



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34 A.G. Parker . J.I.Rose

Figure 5.Map ofArabia howing rainage hannels ndsignificantleistocene eomorphiceatures.

'L l ' ' ' Ur-Schatt>/ t' --- ' / v Riveralleyv' 'i -, --, _ IWlf f man ^ >

lV NV ^~'~''^^ ArabianeaJn^^GulfofAden ancient river ravels ^


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Climatehange ndhuman riginsn outhern rabia 35unansweredebate: from hence ame he umerins?(Barton 1929). This questionbecomes even moreintriguingn ight fnewgeneticvidence btained rommodernopulationsround heGulf,who arry ignaturelineages rom frica, sia,andEurope Reguiero t al.2006;Shepard Herrera006).Based onthese indings,Reguierot l. 2006)describe he rea sa tricontinentalnexus or uman issemination.

Discussion:modelling emographicresponseIn consideringhe earlyhumandramathatunfoldedamidstthe backdropof the wildly metamorphosingArabianandscape,t s useful o consider passagefromAbdal-Qadir l-Jilani'sinth-centuryextKitabSirr l-Asrar,ater ranslatednto nglish ySir saac Newton:thatwhich s below s like hatwhich s above Dobbs,1983).A moredown-to-earthenditionf this tatementmightmplyhat emographicistorynArabiamirrorsthe volution fthe andscape.Thismetaphors rootedndeepgeological ime, hentheArabian ectonic late plit rom frica, ormingheRed Sea trough. enetic tudies ndicate hatmodernhumanmergenceccurredn a similarmanner, hengroup erived rom tDN superhaplogroup3 branchedfromhe ncestralopulationometimerioro75,000BP(e.g. Metspalu t al. 2004),perhaps s early s 300,000years go (Yotovaet al. 2007). Far from geographicbarrier,he Red Sea was a conduit orbothplants ndanimals hroughoutheQuaternary.hile herewas nolandbridge tanypoint uringhis hase Siddalletal.2002:203-206),reduced ea levelsrenderedhenarrowcrossingtthe outhernxtentf heRed Sea a negligiblebarrier. oreover,hebody fwater lankinghe asternmargin f the Arabian ubcontinentid notexistforthemajorityf theUpperPleistoceneLambeck1996;Uchupi,wift Ross1999); he bsence f hiswaterwaywasundoubtedlyn integral art f theprehistoriclot.Distributionsfflorand fauna cross astern rabia

predominantlyalearcticaxa demonstratehe egion'snatural urasian ffinities.t s not urprisinghatUpperPleistocene ithic ndustriesollow he amegeographicpatterningRose 2007).We have seenthat ife nd deathwithin he nteriorof SouthArabiawasdependant pon he ntensityf theIndianOcean monsoon.Whenglobal nsulationatternsforced the monsoonnorthwards,he hinterland astransformednto a sub-tropicalavannah.Conversely,when ainfalleasedduring lacialmaxima,hemajorityof thepeninsula ecame barren asteland. iven heseextremeluctuations,nconjunction ith tsposition tthe ntersectionfAfrica, sia, andEurope, t s likelythat outhArabia erved unique ole n theprehistoricworld: bridge uring luviais nd a barrieruringridphases.It is only ppropriateo envision heseprocessesnthe ense of ongterm,nter-regionalenetic xchange;we do notyetpossess a suitabledegreeof resolutionwithinhepalaeoclimaticndarchaeologicalecords oassess actualdemographicvents.AnystatementboutUpperPleistocene umanmigrationsut ofAfrica ndintoArabiawouldbeprematurendgrosslyresumptive.There are data suggesting hat certainpartsof theArabiansubcontinenterved as stablerefugia uringenvironmentalownturns.hus,to understandhe roleof thepeninsulanthe toryf human rigins,t s moreproductiveo consider opulationsetheredo refugia,expanding nd contractingrom uch habitats uringcycles f meliorationnd desiccation.Thispaperhasdemonstratedhat uaternarylimatechange nArabiawas a complex rocess hat roduceddiverse andscapes cross thepeninsula. or instance,whileglacialevents esultedn an entirelynhospitableenvironmentithin he nterior,ortionsf the mergedcontinentalhelfwereparadisiacal ardens. atherhana simplisticcenario f Homosapiens marchingcrossArabia ttheonset f the human evolution ,e mustexpect hat rehistoricccupationwas as complex ndvaried s the andscapes ponwhich hey welt.

ReferencesAmbrose .1998. Late Pleistocene uman opulation ottlenecks,olcanicwinter,nd differentiationf modernhumans. ournal fHuman volution4: 623-651



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36 A.G. Parker . J.I.RoseAnderson .E.,GoudieA.S. & Parker .G.2007. GlobalEnvironmentshroughheQuaternary:xploringnvironmentalhange.Oxford: xfordUniversityress.Anton . 1 84. AspectsfGeomorphologicalvolution: aleosols ndDunes n audiArabia. ages 75-296 nA.R.Jado& J.G. tl eds),Quaternaryeriod nSaudiArabia, i.Sedimentological,ydrogeological,Hydrochemical,eomorphological,nd ClimatologicalnvestigationsfWesternaudi Arabia.Vienna: pringer-erlag.BaileyG.N., l-Sharekh.,Flemming .C.,LambeckK.,MomberG.,Sinclair . & Vita-Finzi .2007a. Coastalprehistorynthe outhern ed Sea Basin,underwaterrchaeology,nd he arasan slands.Proceedings f he eminarorArabian tudies 7: 1-16.BaileyG.N.,Flemming .C.,KingG.C.P.,LambeckK.,MomberG.,Moran .J., l-Sharekh . & Vita-Finzi .20076. Coastlines, ubmerged andscapes, nd HumanEvolution: he Red Sea Basin and theFarasanIslands.Journal f sland & CoastalArchaeology: 127-160.Barton .A.1929. Whence amethe umerians? ournalf heAmerican riental ociety 9: 263-268.BeechM. & EldersJ.

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Climatehange nd human riginsn outhern rabia 39LzineA.,Tiercelin -J.,obert , SaligeJ-R, leuziouS., InizanM-L. & Braemer .2007. Centennialomillennial-scaleariabilityfthe ndianmonsoon uringhe arlyHolocenefromsediment,ollen nd sotope ecord romhe esert fYemen. alaeogeography alaeoclimatology,Palaeoecology 43: 235-249.LckgeA.,Doose-Rolinski .,KhanA.A.,SchulzH. & Rad U. von2001. Monsoonal ariabilitynthenortheasternrabian ea duringhepast5000years:geochemicalevidencefrom aminated ediments. alaeogeography, alaeoclimatology,alaeoecology167:273-286.McClureH.A.1976. Radiocarbonchronologyf LateQuaternaryakes ntheArabian esert.Nature 63: 755-756.1978. Ar Rub' al Khali. Pages 125-138 in S.S. al-Sayari& J.G. Ztl (eds), Quaternaryeriod inSaudi Arabia, i. Sedimentological, ydrogeological, ydrochemical,eomorphological,ndClimatologicalnvestigationsn Central nd Eastern audiArabia.Vienna: pringer-erlag.1 84. LateQuaternaryalaeoenvironmentsf heRub al Khali.PhDDissertation,niversityfLondon,London Unpublished].McClureH.A. & SwainF.M.1974. The Freshwater nd BrackishWater ossilQuaternarystracoda rom heRub' al Khali,Saudi

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Climatehange ndhuman riginsn outhern rabia 41Sarnthein .1972. SedimentsndHistoryfthePostglacial ransgressionnthePersianGulf ndNorthwesternulfofOman.MarineGeology 2: 245-266.SayceJ.J., ingL.W.,Maunsell .R. & WillcocksW.1912. The Garden f Eden nd ts Restoration:iscussion.TheGeographicalJournal0/2:145-148.Schultz .& Whitney.W.1986. UpperPleistocene nd Holocene lakes in theAn Nafud,Saudi Arabia.Hydrobiologia 43:175-190.Schyfsma.1978. Climate. ages 31-44 in S.S. al-Sayari& J.G.Ztl (eds), Quaternaryeriod n Saudi Arabia.i. Sedimentological, ydrogeological, ydrochemical,eomorphological,nd ClimatologicalInvestigationsnCentralnd Eastern audiArabia.Vienna: pringer-erlag.SeiboldE. & Vollbrecht.1969. Die Bodengestaltes Persischen olfs.Pages 31-56 in E. Seibold& H. Closs (eds), MeteorForschungsergebnisse:erausgegebenvon der DeutschenForschungsgesellschaft.erlin:Gebrderorntraeger.Shepard .M. & Herrera .J.

2006. GeneticncapsulationmongNearEastern opulations.ournal fHumanGenetics 1 467-476.SiddallM.,Rohling .J.,Almogi-Labin.,Hemleben h.,Meischner ., Schmelzer.,& SmeedD.A.2003. Sea levelfluctuationsuringhe astglacial ycle.Nature 23: 853-858.Stokes . & BrayH.2005. Late Pleistocene olianhistoryf the Liwa region,ArabianPeninsula.Geological Society fAmerica ulletin 17/11-12: 466-1480.Stringer.B.2000. Palaeoanthropology:oastingutofAfrica. ature 05: 24-26.TellerJ.T., lennie .W.,Lancaster . & Singhvi .K.2000. Calcareous unes ftheUnited rabEmirates ndNoah's Flood:thepostglacial efloodingfthePersianArabian)Gulf.Quaternarynternational8-71: 297-308.Uchupi ., Swift .A. & Ross D.A.1999. LateQuaternarytratigraphy,aleoclimatendneotectonismfthePersianArabian)Gulf egion.MarineGeology 60: 1-23.White .,GoudieA.S.,Parker .G.& al-Farraj .2001. Mapping hegeochemistryf the northern ub' al-Khaliusing multispectralemote ensingtechniques.arth urface rocesses ndLandforms6: 735-748.Wildman .E.2000. Mammalian oogeography ftheArabianPeninsula nd Hornof Africawith Focus on theCladistic hylogeographyfHamadryas aboons. PhD dissertation,ewYorkUniversity,ewYork. Unpublished].Wildman .E., Bergman .J., l-Aghbari ., Sterner .N.,Newman ..,Phillips-Conroy.E.,Jolly .J.& DisotellT.R.2004. MitochondrialNAevidence or he rigin fHamadryas aboons.Molecular hylogeneticsndEvolution 2: 287-296.Wilkinson .J.1997. HoloceneEnvironmentsf theHighPlateau,Yemen.RecentGeoarchaeologicalnvestigations.Geoarchaeology2/8: 33-864.Williams .H. & Walkden .M.2002. LateQuaternaryighstandeposits fthe outhern rabianGulf: record f ea-level ndclimatechange. ages371-386 inP.D. Clift, . Kroon,C. Gaedicke& J.Craig eds), The TectonicndClimatic volution ftheArabian ea Region. Special Publications,95). London:GeologicalSociety.



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42 A.G. Parker . J.I.RoseWoodW.W.& ImesJ.L.1995. How wet is wet?Precipitationonstraintsn latequaternarylimate n the southern rabianPeninsula. ournal fHydrology64: 263-268.WoodW.W.,RizkZ.S. & Alsharhan .S.2003. Timing frecharge,nd theorigin,volution,nd distributionfsolutes n a hyperaridquifersystem. ages295-312 inA.S. Alsharhan W.W.Wood (eds), Water esources erspectives:Evaluation,ManagementndPolicy.Amsterdam:lsevier.YotovaV.,Lefebvre -R, ohanyO.,Jurka .,Michalski .,ModianoD.,Utermann.,Williams .M. & LabudaD.2007. Tracing enetic istoryf modem umans singX-chromosomeineages. umanGenetics 22/5:13.Zonneveld .,GanssenG.,Troelstra.,Versteegh. & Visscher .1997. Mechanismsorcing brupt luctuationsf the ndianOceanSummerMonsoonDuring heLastDglaciation. uaternarycienceReview 6: 187-198.AuthorsaddressesA.G. Parker, umanOriginsnd Palaeo-EnvironmentsHOPE) ResearchGroup, epartmentfAnthropologyndGeography,xford rookesUniversity,xford X3 0BP,UK.e-mail [email protected],HumanOrigins nd Palaeo-EnvironmentsHOPE) ResearchGroup,DepartmentfAnthropologyndGeography,xford rookesUniversity,xfordX3 OBP,[email protected]

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