Aquaculture: With Special Reference to Developments in Asia.2

Aquaculture in Asia

Sena S. De SilvaNetwork of Aquaculture Centers in Asia Pacific, Bangkok, Thailand

andSchool of Life and Environmental Sciences, Deakin University, Australia

Network of Aquaculture Centres in Asia-Pacific

The topics covered

• What is aquaculture• Current production trends in Asian

aquaculture• Aquaculture practices

– Farming systems– New practices

• Constraints to aquaculture development

Asian aquaculture: historical aspects

• Aquaculture: – FAO definition

• A farming practice• Increased production through intervention in

the life cycle• Ownership of the stock

• Asia:aquaculture, in one form or the other, practiced for >2 millennia

• First publication on Aquaculture >1500 years old:

Asian aquaculture: historical aspects

• Aquaculture was practiced by boat people; perhaps the origin of cage culture practices

• Was integrated with agriculture from time immemorial– Still practiced widely– Many modern challenges

• Rice cum fish-culture equally old

Asian aquaculture: production trends• Globally, 350 species belonging to 245 are cultured

– Asia & the Pacific 204 species; 84 families– Perhaps a disadvantage

– However, about 12 species produced in excess of 1 million tonnes

– China’s dominance in production volume and value is most obvious

Leading Nations in Aquaculture Production

05

1015202530354045

China

IndiaPhilip

pinesIndon

esia

Japan

VietNam

Thailan

d

ROKBan

glades

h

Chile

Prod

uctio

n/ V

alue Production (t) Value (x 1000 US$)

Percent Contribution in Volume and Value to Global

01020304050607080

China

IndiaPhilip

pinesIndon

esia

Japan

VietNam

Thailan

d

ROKBan

glades

h

Chile

Perc

ent

Production (%) Value (%)

Drawn from FAO, 2007, based on 2004 statistics

Asian aquaculture: production trends

• Globally Aquaculture :– production in 2005 > 50

million t– Valued at over 70 billion

US$• Asia accounts for > 85• Average rate of growth

about 9% per year• Fastest growing primary

industry sector in the last 50 years 0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

Valu

e (U

S$ x

100

0)

1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005

Asia total Global total

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

Prod

uctio

n (m

illio

n t)

1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005

Asia total Global total

Asian aquaculture: environments

• Asian aquaculture:– Freshwater– Brackish water– Marine

• Marine high due to seaweed

• If not still dominant in freshwater– In volume– In value

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

Prod

uctio

n (m

il lio

n t)

1996 2000 2005

Asia total Asia brackish water Asia mariculture Asia freshwater

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70Va

lue

(US$

x 1

000)

1996 2000 2005

Asia total Asia brackish water Asia mariculture Asia freshwater

In Asia: the main commodities

• Commodity wise– Finfish most important

• Seaweeds• Molluscs

• Almost the same production trends– Slight increase in

crustacean

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

Prod

uctio

n (t)

1996 2000 2005

Finfish Crustaceans Molluscs Seaweeds Others

Finfish47%

Crustaceans6%

Molluscs21%

Seaweeds25%

Others1%

2005

Fi nf i sh4 9 %

Cr ust a c e a ns3 %

M ol l usc s2 5 %

S e a we e ds2 3 %

Ot he r s0 %

1996

In Asia: the main commodities- Value

• Value;– Minor changes– The proportionate

contributions have remain almost unchanged

1996

Finf ish, 15,13 8 ,4 78 ,

4 9 %

C rust aceans, 9 2 5,0 10 , 3 %

M olluscs, 7,54 5,152 , 2 5%

Seaweeds, 7,0 79 ,59 7, 2 3 %

Ot hers, 6 1,9 78 , 0 %

2005

Finfish, 26,757,552,

47%

Crustaceans, 3,644,151, 6%

Molluscs, 12,355,967,

21%

Seaweeds, 14,760,825,

25%

Others, 453,987.90, 1%

Marine/ Brackish water farming systems: Production trends

• Relatively new development in Asia• Still restricted to

– a few countries in the region– a few “high valued species’

• Groupers (Epinephalus spp.)• Seabass (Lates calcarifer)• Cobia (Rachycentron canadum)• Crab fattening• Babylon culture

• Investment costs relatively high

Asia dominates marine & brackish water aquaculture

World and Asia Brackishwater Aquaculture from 1980-2004 (5 year average)

85%

83%82%

76%78%

0

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

3000

1980-1984 1985-1989 1990-1994 1995-1999 2000-2004

Year

Prod

uctio

n (1

04)

70%

72%

74%

76%

78%

80%

82%

84%

86%

% A

sia

Asia World % of Asia

World and Asia Mariculture from 1980-2004 (5 year average)

86%

87%

89% 90% 90%

0

5000

10000

15000

20000

25000

30000

1980-1984 1985-1989 1990-1994 1995-1999 2000-2004

Year

Prod

uctio

n (1

04)

83%

84%

85%

86%

87%

88%

89%

90%

% A

sia

Asia World % of Asia

Marine/ Brackish water farming systems: Production trends

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004

Year

Prod

uctio

n (x

106 t)

0

5

10

15

20

25

Valu

e (x

109 U

S$)

Production Brackish Production Marine

Value Brackish Value Marine• Production and value of brackish & marine increased steadily

• Brackish water more value compared to production proportion

Marine/ Brackish water farming systems: Production trends

• Marine fin fish – 1.021x106 t; 0.33x106 t in

1992– Accounts for 38% of global

• Brackish water:– 0.713x106 t; 0.393 x106 in

1992– Accounts for 62% of global

• Assumptions– Marine finfish- cage– 50% of brackish w. cages;

• Total cage Asian production– 1.378x106 t– 4.052 x109US$

Marine

0

2000

4000

6000

8000

10000

12000

14000

1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004

Year

Prod

uctio

n (x

103 t

)

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

Perc

enta

ge

Finfish CrustaceansMolluscs % Finfish% Crustaceans % Molluscs

Brackish water

0

500

1,000

1,500

2,000

2,500

1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004

Year

Prod

uctio

n (x

103 t

)

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

Per

cent

age

Finfish CrustaceansMolluscs %Finfish%Crustaceans %Molluscs

Commodity groups in Asian marine & brackish water aquaculture

Asian Brackishwater and Mariculture Production by Species Group based on FAO Classification from 1980-

2004 (5 year average)

Pelagic Fish8%

Crustaceans4%

Demersal Marine Fish1%

Freshw ater & Diadromous Fish

17%

Misc Aquatic Animal

1%

Molluscs68%

Marine Fish Nei1%

Aquaculture at a glance: the farming systems

Extensive

Semi-intensive

Intensive

Continuum

SD

Natural food

External feedSusceptibility /Disease

Basic distinction :

In intensive culture all nutrition for the stock has to be provided for externally:

Management inputs

Capital lay out

Features of Asian aquaculture

• The great bulk of Asian aquaculture production

– Is through small scale, individual holdings

– Holdings clustered together • generate synergies

– Easier for dissemination of • Technologies• best management practices

XinCun Bay, PR ChinaCirata Reservoir, Indonesia Shrimp farms in Thailand

Shrimp farm size distribution in India. Total acreage 0.152 x106 ha (Jyaraman, 2007)

<2ha 91%

2-5 ha 6%

>5 ha 3%

Features of Asian aquaculture 2. What is small scale?

– Difficult to define!!– Limited land or water area– Family sized operations/businesses– Often using family labor– Often based on family land– Maybe diffused through a local area– Or highly concentrated around specific resource

(e.g. water supply)– Often with limited access to technical financial and

market services

The importance of small-scale farming in Asia:

– Largest group of aquaculture farmers in Asia– Major contributor to production in many countries

• over 80% in some countries (eg Vietnam)– Therefore major contributor to global fish supplies!– Highly innovative sector– Critical for rural development, employment and poverty

reduction– Large numbers of farmers, but difficult to regulate– Individual farms not particularly impacting, when aggregated

their impact may be significant

Asian aquaculture: its future

Can Asian aquaculture grow unabated?

Or can it be sustained at the current levels?

What are the constraints?

Can these be overcome?

y = -0.3719x2 + 6.1379x + 44.466R2 = 0.8681

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

5 10 15 20

Five year blocks

Perc

ent c

hang

e

Freshwaters limited:What is the way foreword?

• Intensification– Improved management– Genetic improvement of

suitable species– Increased efficacy of farm

made feeds– More integration with animal

production– Improved marketing; better

profits– Still be low cost

Asian aquaculture: how has it reached this level?

• Increase in culture area– Freshwater– Marine (relatively new)– Brackish water

• Improved technologies– Hatchery technologies– Reduced dependence on wild caught fry

• Better quality and availability of seed stocks– Better health/ feed management– Intensification– Diversification

• Culture systems:– Cage– Pond– Pens

• Integrated farming• Rice-fish culture

Constraints to aquaculture developments:

Freshwater aquaculture

• Freshwater resources limiting;– Increases in production through

intensification– Improved

• Husbandry• Feeds• Genetically, etc.

Constraints to aquaculture developments:freshwaters: useable fw on the planet very limited

Water resources; freshwater is very limiting on earth (from Shiklomanov, 1990; Smith, 1998)

• World’s total water (1,385 ,984 ,000 km3)

saline ocean & seas97.5%

Worlds freshwater (35,029,000 km3)

Freshwater2.5% Ice caps & glaciers

76.0%

Groundwater23.5%

Surface, soil, atmosp.

Soil & surface fw lakes-54%

0.5% (94578 km3)

soil moist.38%

• World’s total water (1,385 ,984 ,000 km3)

saline ocean & seas97.5%

Worlds freshwater (35,029,000 km3)

Freshwater2.5% Ice caps & glaciers

76.0%

Groundwater23.5%

Surface, soil, atmosp.

Soil & surface fw lakes-54%

0.5% (94578 km3)

soil moist.38%

Constraints to aquaculture developments:freshwaters: Asia has the lowest per caput availability

2900

7890

4050

13510

12030

2360

4.23

17.40

5.72 3.92

38.20

82.20

0

2000

4000

6000

8000

10000

12000

14000

16000

Europe N&C America Africa Asia S America Australia &Oceania

Continent

Tota

l ava

ilabi

lity (k

m3 /y

r)

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

Per

cap

ita a

vaila

bilit

y (m

3 /yr)

Total availabilityPer capita availability

From Nguyen & De Silva, 2006; based on data from Shiklomanov, 1998

Asia is blessed with the largest extent of inland water resources, but caput availability is lowest in the world

300

200

100

Incr

ease

in p

rodu

ctiv

ity(%

)

1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000

poultry

milk

pork

salmon

1945 1985

Egg production 120 egg/year 320 egg/year

Milk production 2000 l/year 5000 l/year

Adaptet from Aquagen / Eknath et al., 1999

Freshwaters limited: What is the way foreword?Genetic improvement (not specific to fw)

Intensification

• Has limits• Needs to be based on the carrying capacity of the water

body– Often exceeded

• Proneness to diseases increased• Fish kills• Conflicts with other users• Economically disastrous

Abandoned cages

Constraints to aquaculture developments:feeds and feed management

• Feeds used in aquaculture –– Three basic types– Usage related to intensity of practice

(from De Silva, 2007)

Feeds and feed management: some generalizations

– Great bulk of carp culture e.g. India• Mix of ingredients• farm-made feeds

– Freshwater carnivores• Farm-made feeds; use trash/ low value fish

– Commercial feeds• Carps, tilapias, shrimp, brackish water fin fish

– Bulk of marine fin fish culture• trash/ low value fish

Feeds

• Commercial feeds– One main ingredient

• Fish meal/ fish oil: – finite biological resources (5 kg raw fish1 kg fish meal) – Almost a peak in traditional production– Amounts used varies from feed to feed

» Tilapia feeds on average 15-20%» Marine fish feeds on average 40-50%» Eel feeds on average 40-45%

– Global, controversial issue » Environmental» Resource limitations» Moral & ethical; Improper resource usage

• Needs to look for new alternatives

Types of feeds used

• Commercial, pelleted feeds– Marine and diadromous

species• Sea bass, grouper, milk fish

– Crustaceans• shrimp

– Freshwater species• e.g. eels, tilapias

• Farm- made feeds – Marine and brackish water

species– Extensive crustacean culture– Carp culture

• Trash fish– Marine fish

• grouper– Crustaceans

• mud crabs– Molluscs

• Babylon

Constraints to aquaculture developments:feeds and feed management

• The main bone of contention is:– Fish meal / fish oil availability/ price

• Limited resource• Ethical issues on use of a biological

resource – Animal feeds– Potential direct human consumption

• Extensive use by the aquaculture sector– Trash fish/ low value fish direct usage in

aquaculture(from De Silva, 2007)

Fish meal production: Global perspective

0

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

1400

1600

1800

1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004

Fish

mea

l - C

hina

(x

1000

t)

Production Consumption

Global production trends (from IFFM web site)

Production and consumption in China (from GAIN report, 2005)

China currently uses18% of fish global fish meal production

Feeds: Global perspective

Aquafeeds 1994 : 963.000 tonn2003 : 2.936.000 tonn

1994 : 234.000 tonn2003 : 802.000 tonn

52,6% (2003)

86,8% (2003)

Fish meal usage - global (based on data from Pike & Barlow, 2003)

• Use of fish meal in poultry and pig industries is destined to decline

– Not because of a reduction in production volume

– But because of improved feeds - less fishmeal but equally effective

– Can the aquaculture industry achieve likewise?

2002

Aquaculture34%

Poultry27%

Pigs29%

Ruminants1%

Others9%

9

2715

2010

Aquaculture48%

Poultry15%

Pigs22%

Ruminants0%

Others15%

Fish meal usage in AsiaEstimations based on production

• Based on production values for 1990, 2000, 2004 (FAO statistics)

• Species groups considered– Crustaceans– Marine diadromous finfish

• Milk fish• Freshwater fish

– Catfish– Cichlids– Anguillids

• Different criteria– % production based on fish

feeds – Amount of fish meal in feeds– CE

0

500,000

1,000,000

1,500,000

2,000,000

2,500,000

Fish

mea

l usa

ge in

feed

s in

Asi

a (t)

1990 2000 2004 2010/a 2010/b 2010/c

2010/a - 10% increase in production from 2004 level

2010/b - 15% increase in production from 2004 level

2010/c - 20% increase in production from 2004 level

Fish oil usage - global (based on data from Pike & Barlow, 2003)

2010

2002

95

2 1 2

2010

56

2

30

12

Aquaculture Industrial Edible Pharmaceutical

79

2

14

5

Fish meal usage in Asian aquaculture

• Asia uses nearly 84% of fishmeal that is globally used in aquaculture

• But Asia produces only about 17%

• Silver lining– FM usage is

expected to decline in spite of production increases

– Is this decline sufficient to attain long term sustainability?

– What is needed to be done?

0

1,000,000

2,000,000

3,000,000

4,000,000

5,000,000

6,000,000

7,000,000

Fish

mea

l (to

nnes

)

Production Usage/Aquac. % Usage

World Asia

0

500,000

1,000,000

1,500,000

2,000,000

2,500,000

Fish

mea

l usa

ge in

feed

s in

Asi

a (t)

1990 2000 2004 2010/a 2010/b 2010/c

Trash fish/ low valued species used in Asian aquaculture:single species/ mixed specious lots

Atule spp.

Nemipterus sppSardinella spp

Selar spp

Rasterlliger spp.

Mixed spp

Trash fish usage in Asian aquaculture

• The term trash fish/ low value used rather loosely• Often fish destined for human consumption is used as trash fish;

– even bought from the normal market in some small scale mariculture practices

• Trash fish usage increased with increased mariculture activities• Primarily used for species such as grouper, seabass (also for catfish

culture - Vietnam)• Estimated use of trash fish in Asian aquaculture about 2 to 3x106 t

year-1

Trash fish usage in Asian aquaculture: the need for level playing field-globally

Schematic diagram indicating the different channels of usage of fish as feed in the

Asia- Pacific region

Indirect(Trash fish fishery)

Direct

Farm made feedsCommercial feeds

Processed Forms

Raw materials (10.3 m.t.)

Fish meal(2.4 m.t.)

Fish oil(tonnage usage?)

Raw Forms

Live e.g. Chinese

Mandarin fish(676,000 t)

Used for Human Food Production

By-catchesTrash fish / low

valued fish(2.167-3.862 m.t.)

May be suitable for human consumption

Unsuitable for humanconsumption

Fish as Feed

Pet Food Industry

Cat feed(2.319 m.t.)

Fish meal ?

Gourmet feeds?

Trash fish usage- also need fro a global level playing field

The proportion of global trash fish/ low valued fish by different sectors (from De

Silva et al., 2007b)

Aquaculture 44.8%(4 million t as raw fish and 13.4 million

tonne reduced into fish meal)

Poultry 22.5%(8.8 million t reduced into fish meal)

Pigs 18.4%(7.1 million t reduced into fish meal)

Ruminants 0.8%(0.3 million t reduced into fish meal)

Domestic cats 6.0%(2.3 million t as raw fish )

Others (fur animal and pet) 7.5%(2.9 million t reduced into fish meal)

260.1 million t of meat, 626.4 million t of milk and 63.3 million t of eggs, produced globally

32.2 million t of finfish and crustaceans

produced by aquaculture globally

5.2 million t of wild catch fish exploited for

hedonist needs satisfaction

Animal protein ashuman food

13.2 million t of molluscs produced by aquaculture globally

56.1 million t of wild finfish, crustaceans and

molluscs caught globally used for human

consumption

38.9 million t of wild catch fish globally not directly exploited as

human food

Aquaculture 44.8%(4 million t as raw fish and 13.4 million

tonne reduced into fish meal)

Poultry 22.5%(8.8 million t reduced into fish meal)

Pigs 18.4%(7.1 million t reduced into fish meal)

Ruminants 0.8%(0.3 million t reduced into fish meal)

Domestic cats 6.0%(2.3 million t as raw fish )

Others (fur animal and pet) 7.5%(2.9 million t reduced into fish meal)

260.1 million t of meat, 626.4 million t of milk and 63.3 million t of eggs, produced globally

32.2 million t of finfish and crustaceans

produced by aquaculture globally

5.2 million t of wild catch fish exploited for

hedonist needs satisfaction

Animal protein ashuman food

13.2 million t of molluscs produced by aquaculture globally

56.1 million t of wild finfish, crustaceans and

molluscs caught globally used for human

consumption

38.9 million t of wild catch fish globally not directly exploited as

human food

Trash fish usage in Asian aquaculture

• Trash fish used mostly due to:– Farmer perception that it is more

effective– Pellet feeds more costlier

• Ignores the fact that CE – 8-16:1 with trash fish – 1.5 to 1.7 with pellet feeds

• Needs farmer education• A step wise transformation to pellet

feeds– Trash fish + ingredients; farm made

feed– Wean gradually to pellet feed– Demonstration units

– Often farmers collect their own trash fish

Trash fish usage in Asian aquaculture

• Trash fish many disadvantages– Availability highly seasonal– Quality variable– Very low conversion

efficiency• Nutrient discharge to the

environment greater– High wastage

How do we reduce the dependence on fishmeal?

• Improved feed formulation– Expected reduction in fish

meal inclusion in feeds• E.g. shrimp 25 to 20%• Marine fish 45 to 40%• Tilapia 7 to 5%

– More effective utilization by products in feeds in the region

• animal industry• Aquatic food industry

waste (tuna canning)– Increase feed utilization

efficiency; better feed management practices

• We overfeeding our fish• Feed storage

Feed bags exposed to the elements: quality deteriorates: feed utilization efficiency decreases

Aren’t we overfeeding our fish?

Feed utilization

• The key nutrients utilized for growth is rather small

• Needs to increase the utilization of nitrogen, provided in the form of protein, in particular

• Also increase the utilization of phosphorous

• Increased utilization results in– Better growth and higher profits– Decrease discharge of these

elements– Reduces negative impacts on

water quality

We do not wish to see fish kills and / or red tides

Feeds – EnvironmentSource and fate of nutrients in aquaculture - feed utilization

Nutrients in feed

(N and P)

Body tissues

Gill excretion (N)

Assimilated

Faeces

Correct size

Fines/dust Uneaten food

Consumed

Dissolved Nutrients (N and P)Particulate matter (N and P)

The Environment

Feeds-Environment: Food utilization in cage culture

Particulate fraction (13%)

Food Production (25%)

Dissolved fraction (62%)

Feeds - EnvironmentNutrient Mass Balance model for silver perch

NUTRIENT INPUTNUTRIENT INPUT NUTRIENTS NUTRIENTS ININ

EFFLUENTEFFLUENT

NUTRIENT REMOVED PERNUTRIENT REMOVED PERTONNE OF FISH HARVESTEDTONNE OF FISH HARVESTED

FCR = 2.45P in feed = 1.4%N in feed = 6.6%

162 kg N/tonne fish34 kg P/tonne fish

17.5% Not consumed29 kg N & 6 kg P

per tonne fish82.5% consumed

133 kg N & 28 kg Pper tonne fish

Faecal & excretedwastes

101 kg N & 18 kg Pper tonne fish

32 kg N & 10 kg Pper tonne fish

The Environment130 kg N & 24 kg P

per tonne fish

General considerationsFeeds and feed management

• Key issues – Use of low value/ “trash” fish, – Use of sustainable sources– Need to reduce dependence on

fishmeal & fish oil– Efficient use of feeds

• Management options – Feed is major cost providing

incentive for better management– Alternatives to “fish as fish food”

will be essential (plant-based for many freshwater fish)

– Increase the efficacy of “farm-made” feeds

Major issues

• Apart from feeds others go hand in hand in order to be sustainable– Environmental– Technical– Social– Economic– Markets– Government policy,

institutions and skills levels are generally supportive

General considerations: Species selection, movements

• Key issues – species selection/suitability

to local environment,– exotics,– trans-boundary movements, – use of wild fry, – ecological impacts of

introductions/escapes• Management options

– Gov’t control on introductions/movements (partial success)

– Responsible and awareness of business sector

General considerationsHabitats, sitting, location

• Key issues – Impacts on habitats, other

aquaculture farms– Resource users– Suitable sites

• Management options– Site selection, licensing– Zoning of suitable areas– Common practice, sometimes

difficult (skills/management required)

– Many on-farm management options

– Vast potential for improvement

General considerationsMain Lessons

• Coastal aquaculture contributes to fish production and continues to grow– General reasons:

• Market demand (and driven)• Government policy support• Input resources (feed, seed, water

areas, finance available etc)• Economics and profit• Skills/Technical support

– Lessons:• Coastal aquaculture is

“vulnerable”• Successes and failures• Management actions by Govt and

private sector can reduce risk• “Balanced” approach essential

considering all fish production systems and users

When we have such good fish why go for alien species?

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