April-May 2012 issue

There is a lot of water on Earth, but more than 97% of it is salty and over half of the remainder is frozen at the poles or in glaciers. Meanwhile, around a fifth of the world's population suffers from a shortage of drinking water and that fraction is expected to grow. One answer is desalinationbut it is an expensive answer because it requires a lot of energy.

Existing desalination plants work in one of two ways. Some distil seawater by heating it up to evaporate part of it. They then condense the vapoura process that requires electricity. The other plants use reverse osmosis. This employs high-pressure pumps to force the water from brine through a membrane that is impermeable to salt. That, too, needs electricity. Even the best reverse-osmosis plants require 3.7 kilowatt hours (kWh) of energy to produce 1,000 litres of drinking water.

Recent researches indicate that we can produce that much fresh water with less than 1 kWh of electricity, and no other paid-for source of power is needed. This process is fuelled by concentration gradients of salinity between different vessels of brine. These different salinities are brought about by evaporation. The process begins by spraying seawater into a shallow, black-bottomed pond, where it absorbs heat from the atmosphere. The resulting evaporation increases the concentration of salt in the water from its natural level of 3.5% to as much as 20%. Low-pressure pumps are then used to pipe this concentrated seawater, along with three other streams of untreated seawater, into the desalting unit.

Salt is made of two ions: positively charged sodium and negatively charged chloride. These flow in opposite directions around the circuit. Each of the four streams of water is connected to two neighbours by what are known as ion bridges. These are pathways made of polystyrene that has been treated so it will allow the passage of only one sort of ioneither sodium or chloride. Sodium and chloride ions pass out of the concentrated solution to the neighbouring weak ones by diffusion though these bridges (any chemical will diffuse from a high to a low concentration in this way). The trick is that as they do so, they make the low-concentration streams of water electrically charged. The one that is positive, because it has too much sodium, thus draws chloride ions from the stream that is to be purified. Meanwhile, the negative, chloride-rich stream draws in sodium ions. The result is that the fourth stream is stripped of its ions and emerges pure and fresh.

It is a simple idea that could be built equally well on a grand scale or as rooftop units the size of refrigerators. Of course, a lot of clever engineering is involved to make it work, but the low pressure of the pumps needed (in contradiction to those employed in reverse osmosis) means the brine can be transported through plastic pipes rather than steel ones. Since brine is corrosive to steel, that is another advantage. Moreover, the only electricity needed is the small amount required to pump the streams of water through the apparatus. All the rest of the energy will come free, via the Air and from the Sun!!

Solar Power Tree - a new concept of harnessing

solar power in a smaller space By Dr. S.N. Maity

Green Business Ideas: Cheap Solar Power is possibleBy Sandeep Goswami

Elements for an Energy Efficient House By Dr. L. Ashok Kumar

Why desalination plants successful around the world? And, why can't India take a serious look at this technology?By Ramanathan Menon

Concentrated Solar Power (CSP) Technology:

Sahara Forest Projects new source of fresh water, food and energyBy Staff Writer

An Analysis of India's Biodiesel ProgramBy Salman Zafar

Extraction process of biofuel from Algae and its importanceBy Er. R.V.Ramana Rao B.E.,B.L. FIE

Prospects for Renewable Energy in Commercial Marine PropulsionBy Harry Valentine

WATER: Essence of human and industrial survivalBy A.K.Shyam

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There is a lot of water on Earth, but more than 97% of it is salty and over half of the remainder is frozen at the poles or in glaciers. Meanwhile, around a fifth of the world's population suffers from a shortage of drinking water and that fraction is expected to grow. One answer is desalinationbut it is an expensive answer because it requires a lot of energy.

Existing desalination plants work in one of two ways. Some distil seawater by heating it up to evaporate part of it. They then condense the vapoura process that requires electricity. The other plants use reverse osmosis. This employs high-pressure pumps to force the water from brine through a membrane that is impermeable to salt. That, too, needs electricity. Even the best reverse-osmosis plants require 3.7 kilowatt hours (kWh) of energy to produce 1,000 litres of drinking water.

Recent researches indicate that we can produce that much fresh water with less than 1 kWh of electricity, and no other paid-for source of power is needed. This process is fuelled by concentration gradients of salinity between different vessels of brine. These different salinities are brought about by evaporation. The process begins by spraying seawater into a shallow, black-bottomed pond, where it absorbs heat from the atmosphere. The resulting evaporation increases the concentration of salt in the water from its natural level of 3.5% to as much as 20%. Low-pressure pumps are then used to pipe this concentrated seawater, along with three other streams of untreated seawater, into the desalting unit.

Salt is made of two ions: positively charged sodium and negatively charged chloride. These flow in opposite directions around the circuit. Each of the four streams of water is connected to two neighbours by what are known as ion bridges. These are pathways made of polystyrene that has been treated so it will allow the passage of only one sort of ioneither sodium or chloride. Sodium and chloride ions pass out of the concentrated solution to the neighbouring weak ones by diffusion though these bridges (any chemical will diffuse from a high to a low concentration in this way). The trick is that as they do so, they make the low-concentration streams of water electrically charged. The one that is positive, because it has too much sodium, thus draws chloride ions from the stream that is to be purified. Meanwhile, the negative, chloride-rich stream draws in sodium ions. The result is that the fourth stream is stripped of its ions and emerges pure and fresh.

It is a simple idea that could be built equally well on a grand scale or as rooftop units the size of refrigerators. Of course, a lot of clever engineering is involved to make it work, but the low pressure of the pumps needed (in contradiction to those employed in reverse osmosis) means the brine can be transported through plastic pipes rather than steel ones. Since brine is corrosive to steel, that is another advantage. Moreover, the only electricity needed is the small amount required to pump the streams of water through the apparatus. All the rest of the energy will come free, via the Air and from the Sun!!

Solar Power Tree - a new concept of harnessing

solar power in a smaller space By Dr. S.N. Maity










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following a pattern of spiralling phyllotaxy as Today there is a very big demand of an alternative found in a natural tree. It would take only 1% of power, a feasible source of non-conventional land area in comparison to general PV-housing energies which would be purely green like solar layout as being practiced at present. As example, it energy, wind energy, tidal power, hydro power etc. requires 0.4 Sq.M basements for 2.2 Kwh PV Power from sun, as it is believed, is the only major power, whereas by present general method of alternative in comparison to other sources of housing the PV arrays a land of 40 Sq.M is renewable energies presently being tried to replace necessary for layout. It has so many other the conventional source of energies like coal, gas, advantages to be discussed in this paper.oil, etc

Introduction: There is a big hue and cry over Then how to tap the power of sun for our purpose energy crisis from all over the world mainly for two on earth? There are many ways being devised reasons, firstly the natural resources are going to be from time to time for absorbing the sun rays exhausted very soon and the other is whether we coming towards the surface of earth. But most should continue with the available natural simplest and efficient is the solid silicon crystalline resources of carbonaceous compound which is photo voltaic (PV) module till date. The other posing threat of greenhouse gas effect to human methods of sun absorption like reflection, being every day. People are trying over different concentration, water heating etc. are the costly and sources to find out non conventional energies, complicated and efficiency is also less compared to mainly some sort of renewable source of energy or crystalline photovoltaic (PV) modules laid direct the green energy like solar energy, wind energy, to the sun.tidal power, hydro power etc. Power from sun, as it One need to erect the PV panels under the sun so is thought today, is the only major alternative in that the surface of panel gets the maximum sun of comparison to other sources of renewable energies the day being laid at an angle. Today the general presently being tried to replace the conventional method is that hut like inclined structures are made source of energies like coal, gas, oil etc.over the land surface to hold the solar panels. Now

for an example, the generation of 2MW power Then how to tap the power of sun to be absorbed for from PV module system requires the land of 10 our purpose? There are many ways being devised Acres approx. for housing the panels only. But time to time for absorbing the sun rays coming land is going to be the greatest crisis of the earth towards the surface of earth, but most efficient and rather it is already a burning crisis in most of the easily available is the solid silicon crystalline countries. The cultivable land which is going to be photo voltaic (PV) module form till date. There are the costliest commodity in the near future, if used other forms like for other than agriculture, it will be uncountable amorphous or loss. Our many national projects are facing the thin film etc. But severe problem of acquisition of land. Therefore if efficient most is land area is used for capturing the solar power it t h e s o l i d would never be cost effective and viable for the crystalline PV human society. cells for direct absorption of sun Therefore there is a need for devising a method and light. The other fabricating a suitable device so that the solar power methods of sun can be absorbed without occupying much surface absorption like area, rather utilizing the minimum amount of land r e f l e c t i o n , and the electricity must be economically viable... concentra t ion, Here comes the idea of a Solar Power Tree a new water heating etc. invention of installing PV modules on a tall pole are the costly and like structure with leaf like branches surrounding it

Solar Power Tree - a new concept of harnessing solar power in a smaller space By Dr. S.N. Maity

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following a pattern of spiralling phyllotaxy as Today there is a very big demand of an alternative found in a natural tree. It would take only 1% of power, a feasible source of non-conventional land area in comparison to general PV-housing energies which would be purely green like solar layout as being practiced at present. As example, it energy, wind energy, tidal power, hydro power etc. requires 0.4 Sq.M basements for 2.2 Kwh PV Power from sun, as it is believed, is the only major power, whereas by present general method of alternative in comparison to other sources of housing the PV arrays a land of 40 Sq.M is renewable energies presently being tried to replace necessary for layout. It has so many other the conventional source of energies like coal, gas, advantages to be discussed in this paper.oil, etc

Introduction: There is a big hue and cry over Then how to tap the power of sun for our purpose energy crisis from all over the world mainly for two on earth? There are many ways being devised reasons, firstly the natural resources are going to be from time to time for absorbing the sun rays exhausted very soon and the other is whether we coming towards the surface of earth. But most should continue with the available natural simplest and efficient is the solid silicon crystalline resources of carbonaceous compound which is photo voltaic (PV) module till date. The other posing threat of greenhouse gas effect to human methods of sun absorption like reflection, being every day. People are trying over different concentration, water heating etc. are the costly and sources to find out non conventional energies, complicated and efficiency is also less compared to mainly some sort of renewable source of energy or crystalline photovoltaic (PV) modules laid direct the green energy like solar energy, wind energy, to the sun.tidal power, hydro power etc. Power from sun, as it One need to erect the PV panels under the sun so is thought today, is the only major alternative in that the surface of panel gets the maximum sun of comparison to other sources of renewable energies the day being laid at an angle. Today the general presently being tried to replace the conventional method is that hut like inclined structures are made source of energies like coal, gas, oil etc.over the land surface to hold the solar panels. Now

for an example, the generation of 2MW power Then how to tap the power of sun to be absorbed for from PV module system requires the land of 10 our purpose? There are many ways being devised Acres approx. for housing the panels only. But time to time for absorbing the sun rays coming land is going to be the greatest crisis of the earth towards the surface of earth, but most efficient and rather it is already a burning crisis in most of the easily available is the solid silicon crystalline countries. The cultivable land which is going to be photo voltaic (PV) module form till date. There are the costliest commodity in the near future, if used other forms like for other than agriculture, it will be uncountable amorphous or loss. Our many national projects are facing the thin film etc. But severe problem of acquisition of land. Therefore if efficient most is land area is used for capturing the solar power it t h e s o l i d would never be cost effective and viable for the crystalline PV human society. cells for direct absorption of sun Therefore there is a need for devising a method and light. The other fabricating a suitable device so that the solar power methods of sun can be absorbed without occupying much surface absorption like area, rather utilizing the minimum amount of land r e f l e c t i o n , and the electricity must be economically viable... concentra t ion, Here comes the idea of a Solar Power Tree a new water heating etc. invention of installing PV modules on a tall pole are the costly and like structure with leaf like branches surrounding it

Solar Power Tree - a new concept of harnessing solar power in a smaller space By Dr. S.N. Maity

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complicated and efficiency is also less compared to Fig. 2 Conventional solar plantPV modules. Fig. 3 Conceptual model of solar power tree

General methodology: In our country the solar Need for new invention: Therefore there is a need power generation system are generally being for devising a method and fabricating a suitable designed by this type of solid crystalline (PV) in device so that the solar power can be absorbed different places. One needs to erect the PV panels without occupying much surface area or land under the sun so that the surface of panel gets the which is going to be the costliest commodity in the maximum sun of the day being laid at an angle. The near future. Rather, the device and method should very common application of solar panel is that a be such that it would be utilizing the minimum land poll of small height having one or two panels for maximum solar power absorption by creating clamped on its top with a single or couple of lights maximum solar surface and it was only possible (stand alone) fixed below to enlighten the roads by devising a holding system of PV modules with a etc. (Fig. 1). For more power in kilowatts it is vertical pole standing on the ground and holding required to have suitable structure over the landed the PV panels at a height. area in an open space to hold the solar panels. Therefore hut like permanent fixed structure are Here comes the idea of a device of installing a tall made (Fig. 2) to lay the PV panel over them. Now metallic pole of 50 to 70 feet height founded on a for an example for the generation of 1MW power basement of (2 X 2) Sq. feet area, which will hold from PV module system i.e. conventional inclined all the required panels on its body like a tree (Fig-hut like structures (Fig. 2 & 7) requires the land 3,4&5). The surface land therefore is used only a surface of 8 to 10 Acres approximately for housing maximum of 4 the panels only. But land is going to be the greatest to 5 Square feet. crisis of the earth rather it is already a burning crisis Of course, it in most of the countries. One can find there are n e e d s s o m e news of fights frequently between the farmers and base foundation the administration for acquisition of land for any for holding the industrial purposes. Again most of the agricultural taller pole but areas are generally away from the conventional most of the power plants and are in need of electricity. But f o u n d a t i o n

again if you cover work will be the agricultural b e l o w t h e land for laying ground surface.solar panels then how cultivation Fig. 4 Solar would be possible? power tree for 2 The cultivable land KWh (Area 3 if used for other Sq. Ft)than agriculture it Uniqueness and Advantages: The uniqueness of w o u l d b e this single pole/solar power tree system is that the uncountable loss. solar PV modules will be fixed throughout the tall And thus many pole following a pattern of spiralling phyllotaxy national projects with due adjustment of load distribution over the are facing the pillar for its balancing. At the same the pattern is so severe problem of maintained that the top panels wouldn't obstruct acquisition of land. the bottom ones and each panel of the tree would Therefore if vast get the maximum sun in a day time. land is used for capturing the solar The other uniqueness is that all the Solar Panels power it would will be hanging through their connecting stem-neve r be cos t system attached with the main trunk (Pole) and

effective and viable for the human society. may be made flexible in all direction so that they can best avoid the wind pressure due to heavy 8

complicated and efficiency is also less compared to Fig. 2 Conventional solar plantPV modules. Fig. 3 Conceptual model of solar power tree

General methodology: In our country the solar Need for new invention: Therefore there is a need power generation system are generally being for devising a method and fabricating a suitable designed by this type of solid crystalline (PV) in device so that the solar power can be absorbed different places. One needs to erect the PV panels without occupying much surface area or land under the sun so that the surface of panel gets the which is going to be the costliest commodity in the maximum sun of the day being laid at an angle. The near future. Rather, the device and method should very common application of solar panel is that a be such that it would be utilizing the minimum land poll of small height having one or two panels for maximum solar power absorption by creating clamped on its top with a single or couple of lights maximum solar surface and it was only possible (stand alone) fixed below to enlighten the roads by devising a holding system of PV modules with a etc. (Fig. 1). For more power in kilowatts it is vertical pole standing on the ground and holding required to have suitable structure over the landed the PV panels at a height. area in an open space to hold the solar panels. Therefore hut like permanent fixed structure are Here comes the idea of a device of installing a tall made (Fig. 2) to lay the PV panel over them. Now metallic pole of 50 to 70 feet height founded on a for an example for the generation of 1MW power basement of (2 X 2) Sq. feet area, which will hold from PV module system i.e. conventional inclined all the required panels on its body like a tree (Fig-hut like structures (Fig. 2 & 7) requires the land 3,4&5). The surface land therefore is used only a surface of 8 to 10 Acres approximately for housing maximum of 4 the panels only. But land is going to be the greatest to 5 Square feet. crisis of the earth rather it is already a burning crisis Of course, it in most of the countries. One can find there are n e e d s s o m e news of fights frequently between the farmers and base foundation the administration for acquisition of land for any for holding the industrial purposes. Again most of the agricultural taller pole but areas are generally away from the conventional most of the power plants and are in need of electricity. But f o u n d a t i o n

again if you cover work will be the agricultural b e l o w t h e land for laying ground surface.solar panels then how cultivation Fig. 4 Solar would be possible? power tree for 2 The cultivable land KWh (Area 3 if used for other Sq. Ft)than agriculture it Uniqueness and Advantages: The uniqueness of w o u l d b e this single pole/solar power tree system is that the uncountable loss. solar PV modules will be fixed throughout the tall And thus many pole following a pattern of spiralling phyllotaxy national projects with due adjustment of load distribution over the are facing the pillar for its balancing. At the same the pattern is so severe problem of maintained that the top panels wouldn't obstruct acquisition of land. the bottom ones and each panel of the tree would Therefore if vast get the maximum sun in a day time. land is used for capturing the solar The other uniqueness is that all the Solar Panels power it would will be hanging through their connecting stem-neve r be cos t system attached with the main trunk (Pole) and

effective and viable for the human society. may be made flexible in all direction so that they can best avoid the wind pressure due to heavy 8

of paddy land are used for solar power tree plantation, the shadow being created by the panels would not touch the land in most of the cases (as the Solar Power Trees would be very tall) and even if it touches, it won't cover the surrounding field by its penumbra so that growth of plants would be restricted.

The unique advantage is that because of pattern of laying of panels following phylotaxy of natural trees and using the storm affecting over the main pole / trunk. The

small size panels, the shadows coming from the leaves (panels) would preferably be spring loaded panels of upper level do not interfere with the and the Joints of stems would be flexible. The lower panels in most of the daytime. If panels will be naturally facing towards the sun at an sometimes they obstruct the lower ones that angle as required so that they can fix up maximum cover only very small percentage of panel area solar energy in a day time.and for a little while only.

The advantages of this system is that it takes about The dust deposition on the panels is a big 1% of land area in comparison to general PV problem for such type of solar power generation. housing layout, as example it requires 0.5 Sq M Generally, as the panels of SPT are placed at basement for 2.2 KWH PV power (Fig. 8) whereas higher height they are less subject to dust for the same solar power by present general method deposition. Again as the SPT structure is like a of housing the PV arrays, a land of 50 Sq M is pagoda tree and an arrangement of water necessary for layout (Fig. 7).spraying from the top of the tree could make the panels clean if it works for a few minutes in the The other advantage is that this system does not morning every day.require the acquired big landed property at a single

place, rather for this type of solar power generation There is a big advantage in laying of panels the Road sides, the islands in between wide roads / inherited in this device of SPT that all the panels highways, the boundary walls of paddy lands, the can be laid in East West direction, unlike the crossings of boundary walls etc. can be used.general fixed hut like structure where they are laid in South North direction in general. An easy Another advantage is that even if the divider walls method can be devised with this SPT so that all the panels can be tilted around an angle of 450 as to get the maximum sun for whole the day. Instead of sophisticated electro-automated device, a simple mechanical device of pulling a rope can tilt all the panels from East West to West East direction to get the maximum sun path in a day quite economically.

Fig. 9 Solar power tree is a tall single trunk with m u l t i - l e a v e s

Example: Fabrication, Installation and Commissioning of Solar Power Tree10

of paddy land are used for solar power tree plantation, the shadow being created by the panels would not touch the land in most of the cases (as the Solar Power Trees would be very tall) and even if it touches, it won't cover the surrounding field by its penumbra so that growth of plants would be restricted.

The unique advantage is that because of pattern of laying of panels following phylotaxy of natural trees and using the storm affecting over the main pole / trunk. The

small size panels, the shadows coming from the leaves (panels) would preferably be spring loaded panels of upper level do not interfere with the and the Joints of stems would be flexible. The lower panels in most of the daytime. If panels will be naturally facing towards the sun at an sometimes they obstruct the lower ones that angle as required so that they can fix up maximum cover only very small percentage of panel area solar energy in a day time.and for a little while only.

The advantages of this system is that it takes about The dust deposition on the panels is a big 1% of land area in comparison to general PV problem for such type of solar power generation. housing layout, as example it requires 0.5 Sq M Generally, as the panels of SPT are placed at basement for 2.2 KWH PV power (Fig. 8) whereas higher height they are less subject to dust for the same solar power by present general method deposition. Again as the SPT structure is like a of housing the PV arrays, a land of 50 Sq M is pagoda tree and an arrangement of water necessary for layout (Fig. 7).spraying from the top of the tree could make the panels clean if it works for a few minutes in the The other advantage is that this system does not morning every day.require the acquired big landed property at a single

place, rather for this type of solar power generation There is a big advantage in laying of panels the Road sides, the islands in between wide roads / inherited in this device of SPT that all the panels highways, the boundary walls of paddy lands, the can be laid in East West direction, unlike the crossings of boundary walls etc. can be used.general fixed hut like structure where they are laid in South North direction in general. An easy Another advantage is that even if the divider walls method can be devised with this SPT so that all the panels can be tilted around an angle of 450 as to get the maximum sun for whole the day. Instead of sophisticated electro-automated device, a simple mechanical device of pulling a rope can tilt all the panels from East West to West East direction to get the maximum sun path in a day quite economically.

Fig. 9 Solar power tree is a tall single trunk with m u l t i - l e a v e s

Example: Fabrication, Installation and Commissioning of Solar Power Tree10

This is a collection of 26 Nos. Solar PV Panels, After erection the whole assembly is to be which is mounted on a single tall pole with the help painted to prevent from corrosion.of suitable supporting arrangement. Total power generation is 2KWh at peak hour on a clear sunny The whole assembly is to be anchored and

day. grouted firmly at the site of erection.

The arrangement maintains a Phyllotaxy Data Collection : The table given below shows pattern. the day wise variation and comparison of The electricity so produced being stored controller current between standard 40W panels in a battery bank of suitable capacity fixed with an inclined hut like structure and The battery bank being protected from similar type panels attached with the solar power overcharging by Auto Cut-off tree under the invention. The data was collected

for three days. Mechanical System

The following drawing shows the General arrangement of the PV Panels, Panel Supports and the Pole. Altogether 26 Nos. of panels are arranged in a Phyllotaxy pattern. The Dimensions are tentative and may be deviated if required according to height of the pole.

Foundation of Battery Bank

Foundation of Pole

Civil Works

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This is a collection of 26 Nos. Solar PV Panels, After erection the whole assembly is to be which is mounted on a single tall pole with the help painted to prevent from corrosion.of suitable supporting arrangement. Total power generation is 2KWh at peak hour on a clear sunny The whole assembly is to be anchored and

day. grouted firmly at the site of erection.

The arrangement maintains a Phyllotaxy Data Collection : The table given below shows pattern. the day wise variation and comparison of The electricity so produced being stored controller current between standard 40W panels in a battery bank of suitable capacity fixed with an inclined hut like structure and The battery bank being protected from similar type panels attached with the solar power overcharging by Auto Cut-off tree under the invention. The data was collected

for three days. Mechanical System

The following drawing shows the General arrangement of the PV Panels, Panel Supports and the Pole. Altogether 26 Nos. of panels are arranged in a Phyllotaxy pattern. The Dimensions are tentative and may be deviated if required according to height of the pole.

Foundation of Battery Bank

Foundation of Pole

Civil Works

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Conclusion: The solar power trees can be planted shows that if the National Highway is used for without any acquisition of vast land exclusively plantation of solar power trees from Kolkata to for this purpose in a particular place. They can be Asansol which is around 300 kms in length it would installed on the road sides as they consume be possible to produce 110 MW by installing solar around 4 Sq. Feet of area for a single tree. The power trees of 2KW capacity through the road sides village roads and the big boundary walls of at a certain interval (say 15 meter between two trees). paddy lands can provide sufficient space for This would actually require 660 Acres of land for the planting solar power trees that can supply enough same power generation at a single place by the power for electrification of villages and existing method of laying out solar panels in a irrigation activities. The state and national conventional way i.e. over the roofs of low height highways are big sources for Solar Power Tree fixed structures. Hopefully if this new method of (SPT) plantations. Two sides of single road high SPT plantation is adopted widely it would be ways and the three sides of double road highways possible to produce sufficient energy and to satisfy including Island in between can be utilised for the demand of power for the world keeping the best solar power trees (Fig. 9). A simple calculation ecological balance and preserving the nature as it is.

Dr. S. N. Maity is a Chief Scientist with CSIR-CMERI, Durgapur & Ex-Controller General of Patents Designs and Trademarks (CGPDTM). He has a Ph.D. (ENGG.) (Design & Development of Mechanical Supports).

Completed 55 R&D Projects as project leader/coordinator mainly on underground structure, mechanicalsupport design & solar projects; 62 Patents, 3 US & 5 European patents; Published 57 Technical papers; Tech. Transfer: 14 Patents Commercialised with earnings more than Rs.70 lakhs; CGPDTM: As Controller General of Patents Designs

and Trademarks Could make Indian Patent system fastest in the world within a period of 13 months of deputation; Awards : i) CSIR Golden Jubilee CMRI Whitaker Award -1993-94; ii) NRDC Invention Award - Republic Day, 1995; iii) CSIR Technology Award 26th Sept., 1995; iv) National Design Award 2000, and V) Arya Bhatt Award 2006

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enterprises to take up the challenge and having Most Small Companies who are installing roof installed Solar Parks would still be holding on to the top Solar Panels are doing so to get the Tax rebate "old" SPV for its 25 year life span.in India. They are also doing it to "earn" Carbon

Credits. For the lay business person "earning" carbon credits means "profit". While it cannot be So how does one make the Solar PV industries grow? true because the system of Carbon Credit fund is How would the cost be covered and more efficient just to improve your IRR, and can't be found panels generating more power and consuming less under BUA; I do not like to discourage this trend. space and lighter in weight too come into the market?

W h y ? One idea could be by selling old solar panels ! It is a Simple - to great eco-idea and to encourage this, we need earn Carbon participation from all stake holders.Credits one has to do a Second sale is popular in automobile, mobile phone C D M and many products, the market system is mature. All project. And it needs is to tweak it to conform to the SPV industry.I love that. Imagine villages in India, Africa, Brazil and other Then if it developing nations who have a huge socio-economic c a n b e gap among its Peoples and yet are emerging proven to be economies of the future; could create a Program of

a valid project worthy of Carbon Credit funds, Activities where in a Public -Private partnership can great! By that time they understand that, they do a be mooted and a viable business plan developed.good job and can see the benefits all around to bother much for the "profit" through CER's. If From Village roofing; thus eliminating traditional they get it its nice but the life-cycle benefits of a thatch roof which is becoming more dearer as Green Building is consolation enough. communities shift away from agrarian life-style and

there is land use change; to community shelters for But Carbon Credit can become profitable, at least the destitute sleeping in the cold & rain; to roofing with due diligence and revised thought by the alternatives for very small-scale or cottage CDM authority. And be given as an incentive to industries; to providing power to their electric those who would be able to do rural s t o v e s , t h u s electrification or as in the case of India, provide eliminating the electricity in tier III towns for a decent time with G H G f r o m the help of the wires and cables the Government G o b a r G a s of the day may have installed during the election plants the ideas years, but forget to insure supply of power on a can be many and regular basis once chosen to govern. Not because e a c h m o r e they chose not too, but during the heat of practical and elections most forget that there is a term - wonderful than technical and/ or economic feasibility. But when the earlier.did full truth ever help win an election in the Now add to this World? t h e G r e e n Let us discuss an idea, about how we can make Climate Fund and let the project proponents recoup Solar Power at a cheaper cost. some of their investment (which is lower to start with

in second sale product) through Carbon Credit.The life of a Solar panel is 25 years, but it is assumed that the efficiency drops to 80% in the Hope someone would develop on this idea and 10th year. And by the first five years the RoI is present it at the Rio+20 to be held in Rio de Janeiro, achieved. Now as newer and more efficient Brazil, on June 20-22, 2012. panels are being produced, there could be a cause for worry that it would be more and more difficult to sell them, as the traditional first


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Conclusion: The solar power trees can be planted shows that if the National Highway is used for without any acquisition of vast land exclusively plantation of solar power trees from Kolkata to for this purpose in a particular place. They can be Asansol which is around 300 kms in length it would installed on the road sides as they consume be possible to produce 110 MW by installing solar around 4 Sq. Feet of area for a single tree. The power trees of 2KW capacity through the road sides village roads and the big boundary walls of at a certain interval (say 15 meter between two trees). paddy lands can provide sufficient space for This would actually require 660 Acres of land for the planting solar power trees that can supply enough same power generation at a single place by the power for electrification of villages and existing method of laying out solar panels in a irrigation activities. The state and national conventional way i.e. over the roofs of low height highways are big sources for Solar Power Tree fixed structures. Hopefully if this new method of (SPT) plantations. Two sides of single road high SPT plantation is adopted widely it would be ways and the three sides of double road highways possible to produce sufficient energy and to satisfy including Island in between can be utilised for the demand of power for the world keeping the best solar power trees (Fig. 9). A simple calculation ecological balance and preserving the nature as it is.

Dr. S. N. Maity is a Chief Scientist with CSIR-CMERI, Durgapur & Ex-Controller General of Patents Designs and Trademarks (CGPDTM). He has a Ph.D. (ENGG.) (Design & Development of Mechanical Supports).

Completed 55 R&D Projects as project leader/coordinator mainly on underground structure, mechanicalsupport design & solar projects; 62 Patents, 3 US & 5 European patents; Published 57 Technical papers; Tech. Transfer: 14 Patents Commercialised with earnings more than Rs.70 lakhs; CGPDTM: As Controller General of Patents Designs

and Trademarks Could make Indian Patent system fastest in the world within a period of 13 months of deputation; Awards : i) CSIR Golden Jubilee CMRI Whitaker Award -1993-94; ii) NRDC Invention Award - Republic Day, 1995; iii) CSIR Technology Award 26th Sept., 1995; iv) National Design Award 2000, and V) Arya Bhatt Award 2006

14

enterprises to take up the challenge and having Most Small Companies who are installing roof installed Solar Parks would still be holding on to the top Solar Panels are doing so to get the Tax rebate "old" SPV for its 25 year life span.in India. They are also doing it to "earn" Carbon

Credits. For the lay business person "earning" carbon credits means "profit". While it cannot be So how does one make the Solar PV industries grow? true because the system of Carbon Credit fund is How would the cost be covered and more efficient just to improve your IRR, and can't be found panels generating more power and consuming less under BUA; I do not like to discourage this trend. space and lighter in weight too come into the market?

W h y ? One idea could be by selling old solar panels ! It is a Simple - to great eco-idea and to encourage this, we need earn Carbon participation from all stake holders.Credits one has to do a Second sale is popular in automobile, mobile phone C D M and many products, the market system is mature. All project. And it needs is to tweak it to conform to the SPV industry.I love that. Imagine villages in India, Africa, Brazil and other Then if it developing nations who have a huge socio-economic c a n b e gap among its Peoples and yet are emerging proven to be economies of the future; could create a Program of

a valid project worthy of Carbon Credit funds, Activities where in a Public -Private partnership can great! By that time they understand that, they do a be mooted and a viable business plan developed.good job and can see the benefits all around to bother much for the "profit" through CER's. If From Village roofing; thus eliminating traditional they get it its nice but the life-cycle benefits of a thatch roof which is becoming more dearer as Green Building is consolation enough. communities shift away from agrarian life-style and

there is land use change; to community shelters for But Carbon Credit can become profitable, at least the destitute sleeping in the cold & rain; to roofing with due diligence and revised thought by the alternatives for very small-scale or cottage CDM authority. And be given as an incentive to industries; to providing power to their electric those who would be able to do rural s t o v e s , t h u s electrification or as in the case of India, provide eliminating the electricity in tier III towns for a decent time with G H G f r o m the help of the wires and cables the Government G o b a r G a s of the day may have installed during the election plants the ideas years, but forget to insure supply of power on a can be many and regular basis once chosen to govern. Not because e a c h m o r e they chose not too, but during the heat of practical and elections most forget that there is a term - wonderful than technical and/ or economic feasibility. But when the earlier.did full truth ever help win an election in the Now add to this World? t h e G r e e n Let us discuss an idea, about how we can make Climate Fund and let the project proponents recoup Solar Power at a cheaper cost. some of their investment (which is lower to start with

in second sale product) through Carbon Credit.The life of a Solar panel is 25 years, but it is assumed that the efficiency drops to 80% in the Hope someone would develop on this idea and 10th year. And by the first five years the RoI is present it at the Rio+20 to be held in Rio de Janeiro, achieved. Now as newer and more efficient Brazil, on June 20-22, 2012. panels are being produced, there could be a cause for worry that it would be more and more difficult to sell them, as the traditional first


15

“Energy efficiency is the fastest, cheapest, and cleanest energy resource we have. Efficiency is not conservation or deprivation; it is getting what you want for less. Efficiency saves consumers and businesses money on their energy bills, reduces global warming pollution. It is Government policy to reduce energy use and carbon dioxide emissions from the burning of fossil fuels. Energy performance standards will continue to rise so that, by 2016, it is intended that new houses will be mainly passive, that is to say, designed to consume little or no energy in use. However, upgrading the thermal efficiency of the existing building stock presents a challenge, particularly where the building was built using traditional materials and construction methods and is of architectural or h i s t o r i c a l i n t e r e s t ”

draughty, and the degree of tolerance shown by their users is testimony to the value people place on architectural character and a sense of place, which compensate to quite a large extent for any shortcomings in comfort.

Historically, heating solutions included a roaring fire or an ever-burning stove emitting pleasurable warmth. Of course, our forebears were somewhat hardier than ourselves, having different expectations in terms of heat and comfort. Extra clothing and bedclothes, hot water bottles and even different dietary habits played their part in keeping people warm in their day-to-day lives during the colder months. From the mid twentieth century onwards, the availability of cheap fossil fuels enabled an increasing number of households to avail of central heating, supplying heat to all rooms; a concept almost unheard of in earlier times.People enjoy old buildings for the sense of history Today, however, there is an increasing awareness they evoke, the craftsmanship they represent and of the importance of energy and fuel conservation. for the solidity of their construction. However, In tandem with higher expectations in relation to there is sometimes a perception that old buildings the general warmth of the indoor environment, this are cold. It is true that they can sometimes be


16

awareness has led to new standards and types of construction methods include the following:building construction intended to ensure that the energy consumed by a building during its useful life is minimised. These new standards in modern This method uses wood only where it is most buildings have influenced the expectations of users effective, thus reducing costly wood use and of older buildings. When dealing with a historic saving space for insulation. The amount of lumber building, there are other matters which the users has been determined to be structurally sound and building professionals who care for old through both laboratory and field tests. However, buildings should address, matters that are to do the builder must be familiar with this type of with the architectural character of a building, repair construction to ensure a structurally sound house.and maintenance issues, older forms of construction and the particular characteristics of traditional building materials. These sheets are generally made of plywood or

oriented-strand board (OSB) that is laminated to This article sets out to provide introductory foam board. The foam may be 4 to 8 inches thick. guidance for owners and to act as an aide-memoire Because the SIP acts as both the framing and the for building professionals and contractors. You insulation, construction is much faster than OVE or have much to consider when designing and stick framing. The quality of construction is often building a new energy-efficient house, and it can be superior because there are fewer places for workers a challenge. However, recent technological to make mistakes.improvements in building elements and construction techniques also allow most modern energy-saving ideas to be seamlessly integrated Houses constructed in this manner consist of two into house designs while improving comfort, layers of extruded foam board (one inside the health, or aesthetics. And even though some house and one outside the house) that act as the energy-efficient features are expensive, there are form for a steel-reinforced concrete center. It's the others that many home buyers can afford. While fastest technique and least likely to have design costs, options, and styles vary, most energy- construction mistakes. Such buildings are also efficient homes have some basic elements in very strong and easily exceed code requirements common: a well- constructed and tightly sealed for areas prone to tornadoes or hurricanes.thermal envelope; controlled ventilation; properly sized, high-efficiency heating and cooling systems; and energy-efficient doors, windows, and An energy-efficient house has much higher appliances. insulation R-values than required by most local

building codes. An R-value is the ability of a material to resist heat transfer, and the lower the

A thermal envelope is everything about the house value, the faster the heat loss. For example, a that serves to shield the living space from the typical house in New York might have insulation of outdoors. It includes the wall and roof assemblies, R-11 in the exterior walls and R-19 in the ceiling, insulation, air/vapor retarders, windows, and while the floors and foundation walls may not be weather stripping and caulking. insulated. A similar, but well- designed and

constructed house will have insulation levels that range from R-20 to R-30 in the walls and from R-

Most builders use traditional wood frame 50 to R-70 in the ceilings. Carefully applied construction. Wood framing is a “tried and true” fiberglass batt or rolls, wet-spray cellulose, or construction technique that uses a potentially foam insulation will fill wall cavities completely. renewable resourcewoodto provide a structurally sound, long-lasting house. With proper Foundation walls and slabs should be as well construction and attention to details, the insulated as the living space walls. Poorly insulated conventional wood-framed home can be very foundations have a negative impact on home energy- efficient. It is now even possible to energy use and comfort, especially if the family purchase a sustainably harvested wood. uses the lower parts of the house as a living space. Some of the available and popular energy- efficient Also, appliancessuch as domestic hot water

Optimum Value Engineering (OVE)

Structural Insulated Panels (SIPs)

Insulating Concrete Forms (ICF)

Insulation

Thermal Envelope

Wall and Roof Assemblies

17

“Energy efficiency is the fastest, cheapest, and cleanest energy resource we have. Efficiency is not conservation or deprivation; it is getting what you want for less. Efficiency saves consumers and businesses money on their energy bills, reduces global warming pollution. It is Government policy to reduce energy use and carbon dioxide emissions from the burning of fossil fuels. Energy performance standards will continue to rise so that, by 2016, it is intended that new houses will be mainly passive, that is to say, designed to consume little or no energy in use. However, upgrading the thermal efficiency of the existing building stock presents a challenge, particularly where the building was built using traditional materials and construction methods and is of architectural or h i s t o r i c a l i n t e r e s t ”

draughty, and the degree of tolerance shown by their users is testimony to the value people place on architectural character and a sense of place, which compensate to quite a large extent for any shortcomings in comfort.

Historically, heating solutions included a roaring fire or an ever-burning stove emitting pleasurable warmth. Of course, our forebears were somewhat hardier than ourselves, having different expectations in terms of heat and comfort. Extra clothing and bedclothes, hot water bottles and even different dietary habits played their part in keeping people warm in their day-to-day lives during the colder months. From the mid twentieth century onwards, the availability of cheap fossil fuels enabled an increasing number of households to avail of central heating, supplying heat to all rooms; a concept almost unheard of in earlier times.People enjoy old buildings for the sense of history Today, however, there is an increasing awareness they evoke, the craftsmanship they represent and of the importance of energy and fuel conservation. for the solidity of their construction. However, In tandem with higher expectations in relation to there is sometimes a perception that old buildings the general warmth of the indoor environment, this are cold. It is true that they can sometimes be


16

awareness has led to new standards and types of construction methods include the following:building construction intended to ensure that the energy consumed by a building during its useful life is minimised. These new standards in modern This method uses wood only where it is most buildings have influenced the expectations of users effective, thus reducing costly wood use and of older buildings. When dealing with a historic saving space for insulation. The amount of lumber building, there are other matters which the users has been determined to be structurally sound and building professionals who care for old through both laboratory and field tests. However, buildings should address, matters that are to do the builder must be familiar with this type of with the architectural character of a building, repair construction to ensure a structurally sound house.and maintenance issues, older forms of construction and the particular characteristics of traditional building materials. These sheets are generally made of plywood or

oriented-strand board (OSB) that is laminated to This article sets out to provide introductory foam board. The foam may be 4 to 8 inches thick. guidance for owners and to act as an aide-memoire Because the SIP acts as both the framing and the for building professionals and contractors. You insulation, construction is much faster than OVE or have much to consider when designing and stick framing. The quality of construction is often building a new energy-efficient house, and it can be superior because there are fewer places for workers a challenge. However, recent technological to make mistakes.improvements in building elements and construction techniques also allow most modern energy-saving ideas to be seamlessly integrated Houses constructed in this manner consist of two into house designs while improving comfort, layers of extruded foam board (one inside the health, or aesthetics. And even though some house and one outside the house) that act as the energy-efficient features are expensive, there are form for a steel-reinforced concrete center. It's the others that many home buyers can afford. While fastest technique and least likely to have design costs, options, and styles vary, most energy- construction mistakes. Such buildings are also efficient homes have some basic elements in very strong and easily exceed code requirements common: a well- constructed and tightly sealed for areas prone to tornadoes or hurricanes.thermal envelope; controlled ventilation; properly sized, high-efficiency heating and cooling systems; and energy-efficient doors, windows, and An energy-efficient house has much higher appliances. insulation R-values than required by most local

building codes. An R-value is the ability of a material to resist heat transfer, and the lower the

A thermal envelope is everything about the house value, the faster the heat loss. For example, a that serves to shield the living space from the typical house in New York might have insulation of outdoors. It includes the wall and roof assemblies, R-11 in the exterior walls and R-19 in the ceiling, insulation, air/vapor retarders, windows, and while the floors and foundation walls may not be weather stripping and caulking. insulated. A similar, but well- designed and

constructed house will have insulation levels that range from R-20 to R-30 in the walls and from R-

Most builders use traditional wood frame 50 to R-70 in the ceilings. Carefully applied construction. Wood framing is a “tried and true” fiberglass batt or rolls, wet-spray cellulose, or construction technique that uses a potentially foam insulation will fill wall cavities completely. renewable resourcewoodto provide a structurally sound, long-lasting house. With proper Foundation walls and slabs should be as well construction and attention to details, the insulated as the living space walls. Poorly insulated conventional wood-framed home can be very foundations have a negative impact on home energy- efficient. It is now even possible to energy use and comfort, especially if the family purchase a sustainably harvested wood. uses the lower parts of the house as a living space. Some of the available and popular energy- efficient Also, appliancessuch as domestic hot water

Optimum Value Engineering (OVE)

Structural Insulated Panels (SIPs)

Insulating Concrete Forms (ICF)

Insulation

Thermal Envelope

Wall and Roof Assemblies

17

heaters, washers, dryers, and freezers that supply northern, eastern, and western sides. Total window heat as a byproduct are often located in the area should also not exceed 8 to 9 percent of the basement. By carefully insulating the foundation floor area for those rooms, unless the designer is walls and floor of the basement, these appliances experienced in passive solar techniques. If this is can assist in heating the house. While most new the case, then increasing window area on the houses have good insulation levels, it is often southern side of the house to about 12 percent of poorly installed. In general, gaps and compaction the floor area is recommended. This is often called of insulation reduce its effectiveness. solar tempering.A properly designed roof

overhang for south-facing windows will help prevent overheating in the summer. North, east,

Water vapor condensation is a major threat to the and west windows should have low Solar Heat structure of a house, no matter what the climate. In Gain Coefficients (SHGC). South windows with cold climates, pressure differences can drive properly sized overhangs should have a high warm, moist indoor air into exterior walls and SHGC to allow winter sun (and heat) to enter the attics. The air condenses as it cools. The same can house. The overhang blocks the high summer sun be said for southern climates, just in reverse. As the (and heat). If properly sized overhangs are not humid outdoor air enters the walls and encounters possible, a low SHGC glass should be selected for cooler wall cavities, it condenses into liquid water. the south windows.This is the main reason why some buildings in the South have problems with mold and rotten wood At the very least, you should use windows (and after they're retro- fitted with air conditioners. A doors) with an Energy Star label, which are twice vapor retarder is a material or structural element as energy efficient as those produced 10 years ago, that can be used to inhibit the movement of water according to regional, climatic guidelines (note: vapor, while an air retarder can inhibit airflow, into houses with any kind of solar tempering have other and out of a house's envelope. How to design and guidelines). The best windows are awning and install vapor retarders depends a great deal on the casement styles because these often close tighter climate and on the chosen construction method. than sliding types. In all climates, window glass However, any water vapor that does manage to get facing south without overhangs can cause a into the walls or attics must be allowed to escape. problem on the cooling side that far exceeds the Regardless of climate, water vapor migration benefit from the winter solar gains.should be minimized by using a carefully designed thermal envelope and sound construction practices. Systems that control air and water vapor You should seal air leaks everywhere in a home's movement in homes rely on the nearly airtight thermal envelope to reduce energy loss. Good air installation of sheet materials on the interior as the sealing alone may reduce utility costs by as much main barrier. as 50 percent. When compared to other houses of

the same type and age. You can accomplish most The Airtight Drywall Approach (ADA) uses the air sealing by using two materials: caulking and drywall already being installed along with gaskets weather stripping. Caulking can be used to seal and caulking to create a continuous air retarder. In areas of potential air leakage into or out of a house. addition, seams where foundation, sill plate, floor And weather stripping can be used to seal gaps joist header, and subfloor meet are also carefully around windows and exterior doors.sealed with appropriate caulk or gasket material.

Consult your local building codes official on the Since an energy-efficient house is tightly sealed, it best vapor retarder method to use in your area. needs to be ventilated in a controlled manner.

Controlled, mechanical ventilation prevents health risks from indoor air pollution, promotes a more

The typical home loses more than 25 percent of its comfortable atmosphere, and reduces air moisture heat through windows. Even modern windows infiltration, thus reducing the likelihood of insulate less than a wall. Therefore, an energy- structural damage. Furnaces, water heaters, clothes efficient house in a heating-dominated climate dryers, and bathroom and kitchen exhaust fans should, in general, have few windows on its expel air from the house, making it easier to

Air/Vapor Retarders

Weather stripping and Caulking

Controlled Ventilation

Windows

18

depressurize an airtight house if all else is ignored. Specifying the correct sizes for heating and cooling But natural-draft appliances may be back-drafted systems in airtight, energy-efficient homes can be by exhaust fans, which can lead to a lethal buildup tricky. Rule-of-thumb sizing is often inaccurate, of toxic gases in the house. For this reason, sealed- resulting in wasteful operation. Conscientious combustion heating appliances, which use only builders and heating, ventilation, and air-outside air for combustion and vent combustion conditioning contractors size heating and cooling gases directly to the outdoors, are very important equipment based on careful consideration of the for ventilation energy efficiency and safety. thermal envelope characteristics. Generally,

energy-efficient homes require relatively small Heat recovery ventilators (HRV) or energy heating systems, typically less than 50,000 recovery ventilators (ERV) are growing in use for Btu/hour even for very cold climates. Some require controlled ventilation in airtight homes. These nothing more than sunshine as the primary source ventilators can salvage about 70 percent of the of heat along with auxiliary heat from radiant in-energy from the stale exhaust air and transfer that floor heating, a standard gas-fired water heater, a energy to the fresh air entering by way of a heat small boiler, a furnace, or electric heat pump. Any exchanger inside the device. They can be attached common appliance that gives off “waste” heat can to the central forced air system or may have their also contribute significantly to the heating own duct system. requirements for such houses.

Other ventilation devices, such as through-the- If an air conditioner is required, it's often a small wall or “trickle” vents, may be used in conjunction unit and sufficient for all but the warmest climates. with an exhaust fan. They are, however, more Sometimes only a large fan and the cooler evening expensive to operate and possibly more air are needed to make the house comfortable. The uncomfortable to use because they have no energy house is closed up in the morning and stays cool recovery features to precondition the incoming air. until the next evening. Smaller-capacity heating Uncomfortable incoming air can be a serious and cooling systems are usually less expensive to problem in northern climates and can create buy and operate. This helps recover the costs of moisture problems in humid climates. Therefore, purchasing more insulation, and other energy-this ventilation strategy is only for arid climates. efficient products, such as windows and Other systems pull outside air in with a small appliances. Always look for the Energy Guide outside duct on the return side of the furnace label on heating and cooling equipment. The label

will rate how efficient it is as compared to others Air leakage can occur in many places available on the market.throughout a home In climates where summer cooling requirements

dominate, light-colored materials and coatings (paint) on the exterior siding and roof can help

reduce cooling requirements by up to 15 percent. Carefully selected and placed vegetation in any climate also contributes to reduced cooling and heating loads.

Appliances with relatively high operating efficiencies are usually more expensive to purchase. However, higher efficiency appliances provide a measure of insurance against increases in energy prices, emit less air pollution, and are attractive selling points when the home is resold.

Home buyers should invest in high-efficiency appliancessuch as water heaters, clothes washers a n d d r y e r s , d i s h w a s h e r s , a n d refrigeratorsespecially if these appliances will be

Heating and Cooling Systems

Energy-Efficient Appliances

Heat recovery ventilation

19

heaters, washers, dryers, and freezers that supply northern, eastern, and western sides. Total window heat as a byproduct are often located in the area should also not exceed 8 to 9 percent of the basement. By carefully insulating the foundation floor area for those rooms, unless the designer is walls and floor of the basement, these appliances experienced in passive solar techniques. If this is can assist in heating the house. While most new the case, then increasing window area on the houses have good insulation levels, it is often southern side of the house to about 12 percent of poorly installed. In general, gaps and compaction the floor area is recommended. This is often called of insulation reduce its effectiveness. solar tempering.A properly designed roof

overhang for south-facing windows will help prevent overheating in the summer. North, east,

Water vapor condensation is a major threat to the and west windows should have low Solar Heat structure of a house, no matter what the climate. In Gain Coefficients (SHGC). South windows with cold climates, pressure differences can drive properly sized overhangs should have a high warm, moist indoor air into exterior walls and SHGC to allow winter sun (and heat) to enter the attics. The air condenses as it cools. The same can house. The overhang blocks the high summer sun be said for southern climates, just in reverse. As the (and heat). If properly sized overhangs are not humid outdoor air enters the walls and encounters possible, a low SHGC glass should be selected for cooler wall cavities, it condenses into liquid water. the south windows.This is the main reason why some buildings in the South have problems with mold and rotten wood At the very least, you should use windows (and after they're retro- fitted with air conditioners. A doors) with an Energy Star label, which are twice vapor retarder is a material or structural element as energy efficient as those produced 10 years ago, that can be used to inhibit the movement of water according to regional, climatic guidelines (note: vapor, while an air retarder can inhibit airflow, into houses with any kind of solar tempering have other and out of a house's envelope. How to design and guidelines). The best windows are awning and install vapor retarders depends a great deal on the casement styles because these often close tighter climate and on the chosen construction method. than sliding types. In all climates, window glass However, any water vapor that does manage to get facing south without overhangs can cause a into the walls or attics must be allowed to escape. problem on the cooling side that far exceeds the Regardless of climate, water vapor migration benefit from the winter solar gains.should be minimized by using a carefully designed thermal envelope and sound construction practices. Systems that control air and water vapor You should seal air leaks everywhere in a home's movement in homes rely on the nearly airtight thermal envelope to reduce energy loss. Good air installation of sheet materials on the interior as the sealing alone may reduce utility costs by as much main barrier. as 50 percent. When compared to other houses of

the same type and age. You can accomplish most The Airtight Drywall Approach (ADA) uses the air sealing by using two materials: caulking and drywall already being installed along with gaskets weather stripping. Caulking can be used to seal and caulking to create a continuous air retarder. In areas of potential air leakage into or out of a house. addition, seams where foundation, sill plate, floor And weather stripping can be used to seal gaps joist header, and subfloor meet are also carefully around windows and exterior doors.sealed with appropriate caulk or gasket material.

Consult your local building codes official on the Since an energy-efficient house is tightly sealed, it best vapor retarder method to use in your area. needs to be ventilated in a controlled manner.

Controlled, mechanical ventilation prevents health risks from indoor air pollution, promotes a more

The typical home loses more than 25 percent of its comfortable atmosphere, and reduces air moisture heat through windows. Even modern windows infiltration, thus reducing the likelihood of insulate less than a wall. Therefore, an energy- structural damage. Furnaces, water heaters, clothes efficient house in a heating-dominated climate dryers, and bathroom and kitchen exhaust fans should, in general, have few windows on its expel air from the house, making it easier to

Air/Vapor Retarders

Weather stripping and Caulking

Controlled Ventilation

Windows

18

depressurize an airtight house if all else is ignored. Specifying the correct sizes for heating and cooling But natural-draft appliances may be back-drafted systems in airtight, energy-efficient homes can be by exhaust fans, which can lead to a lethal buildup tricky. Rule-of-thumb sizing is often inaccurate, of toxic gases in the house. For this reason, sealed- resulting in wasteful operation. Conscientious combustion heating appliances, which use only builders and heating, ventilation, and air-outside air for combustion and vent combustion conditioning contractors size heating and cooling gases directly to the outdoors, are very important equipment based on careful consideration of the for ventilation energy efficiency and safety. thermal envelope characteristics. Generally,

energy-efficient homes require relatively small Heat recovery ventilators (HRV) or energy heating systems, typically less than 50,000 recovery ventilators (ERV) are growing in use for Btu/hour even for very cold climates. Some require controlled ventilation in airtight homes. These nothing more than sunshine as the primary source ventilators can salvage about 70 percent of the of heat along with auxiliary heat from radiant in-energy from the stale exhaust air and transfer that floor heating, a standard gas-fired water heater, a energy to the fresh air entering by way of a heat small boiler, a furnace, or electric heat pump. Any exchanger inside the device. They can be attached common appliance that gives off “waste” heat can to the central forced air system or may have their also contribute significantly to the heating own duct system. requirements for such houses.

Other ventilation devices, such as through-the- If an air conditioner is required, it's often a small wall or “trickle” vents, may be used in conjunction unit and sufficient for all but the warmest climates. with an exhaust fan. They are, however, more Sometimes only a large fan and the cooler evening expensive to operate and possibly more air are needed to make the house comfortable. The uncomfortable to use because they have no energy house is closed up in the morning and stays cool recovery features to precondition the incoming air. until the next evening. Smaller-capacity heating Uncomfortable incoming air can be a serious and cooling systems are usually less expensive to problem in northern climates and can create buy and operate. This helps recover the costs of moisture problems in humid climates. Therefore, purchasing more insulation, and other energy-this ventilation strategy is only for arid climates. efficient products, such as windows and Other systems pull outside air in with a small appliances. Always look for the Energy Guide outside duct on the return side of the furnace label on heating and cooling equipment. The label

will rate how efficient it is as compared to others Air leakage can occur in many places available on the market.throughout a home In climates where summer cooling requirements

dominate, light-colored materials and coatings (paint) on the exterior siding and roof can help

reduce cooling requirements by up to 15 percent. Carefully selected and placed vegetation in any climate also contributes to reduced cooling and heating loads.

Appliances with relatively high operating efficiencies are usually more expensive to purchase. However, higher efficiency appliances provide a measure of insurance against increases in energy prices, emit less air pollution, and are attractive selling points when the home is resold.

Home buyers should invest in high-efficiency appliancessuch as water heaters, clothes washers a n d d r y e r s , d i s h w a s h e r s , a n d refrigeratorsespecially if these appliances will be

Heating and Cooling Systems

Energy-Efficient Appliances

Heat recovery ventilation

19

used a great deal. Because all major appliances evaluated to determine the optimum design and must have an Energy Guide label, read the label orientation for the house. There are energy-related carefully to make sure you buy the most efficient computer software programs that can help with appliance. To help you choose wisely, major these evaluat ions . The des ign should appliances with an Energy Star label exceed the accommodate appropriate insulation levels, federal government's minimum efficiency moisture dynamics, and aesthetics. Decisions standards by a large percentage. regarding appropriate windows, doors, and

heating, cooling and ventilating appliances are Energy-efficient lighting helps keep energy bills central to an efficient design. Also the cost, ease of down by producing less heat and reducing cooling construction, the builder 's limitations, and local requirements. Fluorescent lighting, both building code compliance should be competently conventional tube and compact, is generally the evaluated. Some plans are relatively simple and most energy- efficient for most home applications. inexpensive to construct, while others can be

extremely complex and, thus, expensive.Houses that incorporate all of the above elements of energy efficiency have many advantages. They An increasing number of builders are participating feel more comfortable because the additional in the federal government's Building America and insulation keeps the interior wall at a more Energy Star Homes programs, as well as local comfortable and stable temperature. The indoor home energy rating programs, all of which pro- humidity is also better controlled, and drafts are mote the construction of energy-efficient houses. reduced. A tightly sealed air/vapor retarder Many of these builders construct energy-efficient reduces the likelihood of moisture and air seeping homes to differentiate themselves from their through the walls. They are also very quiet because competitors. Construction costs can vary the extra insulation and tight construction helps to significantly depending on the materials, keep exterior noise out better. construction techniques, contractor profit margin, But these houses also have some potential experience, and the type of heating, cooling, and disadvantages. They may cost more and take ventilation system chosen. Because energy-longer to build than a conventional home if there's a efficient homes require less money to operate, lack of builder familiarity with new construction many lenders now offer energy-efficient techniques and products available on the market. mortgages (EEMs). EEMs typically have lower Even though the house's structure may differ only points and allow for the stretching of debt-to-slightly from conventional homes, the builder and income ratios. State and local government energy contractors may be unwilling to deviate from what offices can be contacted for information on region-they've always done before. They may need more specific financing. In the end, your energy-training if they have no experience with these efficient house will provide you with superior systems. comfort and lower operating costs, not to mention a

higher real estate market value.

Before you start a home-building project, the building site and its climate should be carefully

Advantages and Disadvantages

Building and Buying

Dr. L. Ashok Kumar has completed his B.E., (EEE) from University of Madras and ME (Electrical Machines) from PSG College of Technology, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, and MBA (HRM) from IGNOU, New Delhi and PhD (Wearable Electronics) from Anna University, Chennai. He has both teaching and industrial experience of 14 years. At present he is working as Associate Professor in the Department of Electrical & Electronics Engg. He has got 11 research projects from various Government funding agencies. He has published 32 Technical papers in reputed National and International Journal and presented 65 research articles in International and National Conferences. He has received YOUNG ENGINEER AWARD from Institution of Engineers, India. He is a member of various National & International Technical bodies like ISTE, IETE, TSI, BMSI, ISSS, SESI, SSI & TAI. His areas of specializations are Wearable Electronics and Renewable Energy Systems. His contact: [email protected] - Mob # 098432 81115

20

submarines. Most of the modern interest in Minjur desalination plant is the largest desalination desalination is focused on developing cost-plant in India being built on a 60-acre site in effective ways of providing fresh water for human Kattupalli village near Chennaiuse in regions where the availability of fresh water is, or is becoming, limited.

Large-scale desalination typically uses extremely large amounts of energy as well as specialized, expensive infrastructure, making it very costly compared to the use of fresh water from rivers or groundwater. However, along with recycled water this is one of the few non-rainfall dependent water sources particularly relevant to countries like Australia which traditionally have relied on rainfall in dams to provide their drinking water supplies.The traditional process used in these operations is vacuum distillationessentially the boiling of water

at less than atmospheric pressure and thus a much lower temperature than normal. This is because the boiling of a liquid occurs when the vapor pressure equals the ambient pressure and vapor pressure increases with temperature. Thus, because of the reduced temperature, energy is saved. A leading distillation method is multi-stage flash distillation accounting for 85% of production worldwide in 2004.

Desalination, desalinization, or desalinisation refers to any of several processes that remove some amount of salt and other minerals from water. More generally, desalination may also refer to the The principal competing processes use membranes removal of salts and minerals, as in soil to desalinate, principally applying reverse osmosis desalination. Water is desalinated in order to technology. Membrane processes use semi-convert salt water to fresh water so it is suitable for permeable membranes and pressure to separate human consumption or irrigation. Sometimes the salts from water. Reverse osmosis plant membrane process produces table salt as a by-product. systems typically use less energy than thermal Desalination is used on many seagoing ships and

”Water demand and supply have become an international issue due to several factors: global warming (droughts are more often in arid areas), low annual rainfall, a rise in population rates during last decades, high living standards, and the expansion of industrial and agricultural activities. Fresh water from rivers and groundwater sources are becoming limited and vast reserves of fresh water are located in deep places where economical and geological issues are the main obstacles. Therefore, it has turned into a competition to get this vital liquid and to find more feasible and economical sources that can ameliorate the great demand that the world is living nowadays and avoid water restrictions and service interruptions to domestic water supply. And, desalination is an excellent alternative for getting fresh water”

Introduction Basics of desalination plants

Fresh drinking water from the ocean


21

used a great deal. Because all major appliances evaluated to determine the optimum design and must have an Energy Guide label, read the label orientation for the house. There are energy-related carefully to make sure you buy the most efficient computer software programs that can help with appliance. To help you choose wisely, major these evaluat ions . The des ign should appliances with an Energy Star label exceed the accommodate appropriate insulation levels, federal government's minimum efficiency moisture dynamics, and aesthetics. Decisions standards by a large percentage. regarding appropriate windows, doors, and

heating, cooling and ventilating appliances are Energy-efficient lighting helps keep energy bills central to an efficient design. Also the cost, ease of down by producing less heat and reducing cooling construction, the builder 's limitations, and local requirements. Fluorescent lighting, both building code compliance should be competently conventional tube and compact, is generally the evaluated. Some plans are relatively simple and most energy- efficient for most home applications. inexpensive to construct, while others can be

extremely complex and, thus, expensive.Houses that incorporate all of the above elements of energy efficiency have many advantages. They An increasing number of builders are participating feel more comfortable because the additional in the federal government's Building America and insulation keeps the interior wall at a more Energy Star Homes programs, as well as local comfortable and stable temperature. The indoor home energy rating programs, all of which pro- humidity is also better controlled, and drafts are mote the construction of energy-efficient houses. reduced. A tightly sealed air/vapor retarder Many of these builders construct energy-efficient reduces the likelihood of moisture and air seeping homes to differentiate themselves from their through the walls. They are also very quiet because competitors. Construction costs can vary the extra insulation and tight construction helps to significantly depending on the materials, keep exterior noise out better. construction techniques, contractor profit margin, But these houses also have some potential experience, and the type of heating, cooling, and disadvantages. They may cost more and take ventilation system chosen. Because energy-longer to build than a conventional home if there's a efficient homes require less money to operate, lack of builder familiarity with new construction many lenders now offer energy-efficient techniques and products available on the market. mortgages (EEMs). EEMs typically have lower Even though the house's structure may differ only points and allow for the stretching of debt-to-slightly from conventional homes, the builder and income ratios. State and local government energy contractors may be unwilling to deviate from what offices can be contacted for information on region-they've always done before. They may need more specific financing. In the end, your energy-training if they have no experience with these efficient house will provide you with superior systems. comfort and lower operating costs, not to mention a

higher real estate market value.

Before you start a home-building project, the building site and its climate should be carefully

Advantages and Disadvantages

Building and Buying

Dr. L. Ashok Kumar has completed his B.E., (EEE) from University of Madras and ME (Electrical Machines) from PSG College of Technology, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, and MBA (HRM) from IGNOU, New Delhi and PhD (Wearable Electronics) from Anna University, Chennai. He has both teaching and industrial experience of 14 years. At present he is working as Associate Professor in the Department of Electrical & Electronics Engg. He has got 11 research projects from various Government funding agencies. He has published 32 Technical papers in reputed National and International Journal and presented 65 research articles in International and National Conferences. He has received YOUNG ENGINEER AWARD from Institution of Engineers, India. He is a member of various National & International Technical bodies like ISTE, IETE, TSI, BMSI, ISSS, SESI, SSI & TAI. His areas of specializations are Wearable Electronics and Renewable Energy Systems. His contact: [email protected] - Mob # 098432 81115

20

submarines. Most of the modern interest in Minjur desalination plant is the largest desalination desalination is focused on developing cost-plant in India being built on a 60-acre site in effective ways of providing fresh water for human Kattupalli village near Chennaiuse in regions where the availability of fresh water is, or is becoming, limited.

Large-scale desalination typically uses extremely large amounts of energy as well as specialized, expensive infrastructure, making it very costly compared to the use of fresh water from rivers or groundwater. However, along with recycled water this is one of the few non-rainfall dependent water sources particularly relevant to countries like Australia which traditionally have relied on rainfall in dams to provide their drinking water supplies.The traditional process used in these operations is vacuum distillationessentially the boiling of water

at less than atmospheric pressure and thus a much lower temperature than normal. This is because the boiling of a liquid occurs when the vapor pressure equals the ambient pressure and vapor pressure increases with temperature. Thus, because of the reduced temperature, energy is saved. A leading distillation method is multi-stage flash distillation accounting for 85% of production worldwide in 2004.

Desalination, desalinization, or desalinisation refers to any of several processes that remove some amount of salt and other minerals from water. More generally, desalination may also refer to the The principal competing processes use membranes removal of salts and minerals, as in soil to desalinate, principally applying reverse osmosis desalination. Water is desalinated in order to technology. Membrane processes use semi-convert salt water to fresh water so it is suitable for permeable membranes and pressure to separate human consumption or irrigation. Sometimes the salts from water. Reverse osmosis plant membrane process produces table salt as a by-product. systems typically use less energy than thermal Desalination is used on many seagoing ships and

”Water demand and supply have become an international issue due to several factors: global warming (droughts are more often in arid areas), low annual rainfall, a rise in population rates during last decades, high living standards, and the expansion of industrial and agricultural activities. Fresh water from rivers and groundwater sources are becoming limited and vast reserves of fresh water are located in deep places where economical and geological issues are the main obstacles. Therefore, it has turned into a competition to get this vital liquid and to find more feasible and economical sources that can ameliorate the great demand that the world is living nowadays and avoid water restrictions and service interruptions to domestic water supply. And, desalination is an excellent alternative for getting fresh water”

Introduction Basics of desalination plants

Fresh drinking water from the ocean


21

distillation, which has led to a reduction in overall “Conservation and efficiency are cheaper at the desalination costs over the past decade. moment,” Gleick said. To build a desalination plant Desalination remains energy intensive, however, and use the water locally costs about $1,000 per and future costs will continue to depend on the acre-foot, he said, or $3.06 for 1,000 gallons.price of both energy and desalination technology.

Take, for example, the desalting plant recently built in Perth, Australia. It cost $357 million. It will desalt more than 26 million gallons of water a day,

Cogeneration is the process of using excess heat enough, on average, to serve about 58,300 homes. from power production to accomplish another task. It also will use 23 megawatts of electricity For desalination, cogeneration is the production of produced from wind, as much as used by 17,250 potable water from seawater or brackish average single-family homes.groundwater in an integrated, or "dual-purpose", facility in which a power plant is used as the source But the Perth plant like Yuma's and the many of energy for the desalination process. The others like it across the United States and around facility's energy production may be dedicated the rest of the world also proves that desalination is entirely to the production of potable water (a stand- a feasible option, proponents say.alone facility), or excess energy may be produced and incorporated into the energy grid (a true cogeneration facility). There are various forms of cogeneration, and theoretically any form of energy High efficiency solar distillation unit production could be used. However, the majority of current and planned cogeneration desalination In 2003, Zonnewater BV (The Netherlands) plants use either fossil fuels or nuclear power as developed a prototype desalination unit based on their source of energy. Most plants are located in solar energy (95% thermal solar energy and 5% the Middle East or North Africa, due to their photovoltaic or wind energy), suited for coastal petroleum resources and subsidies. The advantage areas with an average temperature of 30 deg of dual-purpose facilities is that they can be more Celsius. The prototype, installed on the Caribbean efficient in energy consumption, thus making island of Bonaire, is a small 1 m3 greenhouse-type desalination a more viable option for drinking construction that produces 40 litres of water per water in areas of scarce water resources. day (lpd). The company says that 50 lpd per m3 is

possible if use is made of internal condensation. In a December 26, 2007, opinion column in the The The only competitor, Zonnewater claims, is a Atlanta Journal-Constitution, Nolan Hertel, a Japanese model that produces 10 lpd per m3. The professor of nuclear and radiological engineering unit consists of a glass greenhouse connected to a at Georgia Tech, wrote, "... nuclear reactors can be similar unit made of concrete and painted white. used ... to produce large amounts of potable water. The high efficiency rate is a result of specialised The process is already in use in a number of places electronic equipment used to enhance air around the world, from India to Japan and Russia. circulation between the two sections. Periodic Eight nuclear reactors coupled to desalination washing with salt water reduces the negative effect plants are operating in Japan alone ... nuclear of solar reflection by the salt produced by the unit. desalination plants could be a source of large In the next development phase, Zonnewater plans amounts of potable water transported by pipelines to optimise the design, develop a marketing hundreds of miles inland. strategy and reduce costs by using other materials.

Desalting is expensive and energy-intensive, Solar desalination: vacuum system developed for according to Peter Gleick, president of the Pacific small-scale applicationsInstitute, an environmental research group based in Oakland, Calif. The institute released a study on The University of Florida's Solar Energy and desalting in June 2006 that detailed its potential but Energy Conversion Laboratory (SEECL) has also the hurdles to widespread use of the developed a low-cost gravity-induced vacuum technology. solar desalination system suitable for remote areas.

The vacuum is created by filling a 10 metre high U-

Cogeneration

New Technologies

22

shaped pipe with water and placing it upside down, consume more fresh water. In Florida, for example, with one end of the pipe suspended in a tank of salt desalination has been touted as one solution for water and one in fresh water. The vacuum metropolitan areas where freshwater resources are significantly lowers the boiling or evaporating becoming ever scarcer. With more than 97% of the temperature of the water that gets heated by a solar Earth's water supply composed of salt water, collector. The water is converted into steam in an desalination is even more urgent in developing evaporator that surrounds the U-shaped pipe, nations, such as China, Japan and India, Klausner enters a condenser and is then collected in a tank. said.Tests on a small prototype revealed an energy efficiency of 90%, compared to 50% for “China has a large and growing demand, Japan has conventional "flat basin" solar stills, according to a large demand, the Middle East, Sub-Saharan SEECL director, Prof. Yogi Goswami. Africa I look at it as a worldwide problem,” he

said. Most commercial desalination plants now use New desalination technology taps waste heat from either distillation or reverse osmosis, Klausner power plants said. Distillation involves boiling and evaporating

salt water and then condensing the vapor to Desalination is often touted as one solution to the produce fresh water. In reverse osmosis, high world's water woes, but current desalination plants pressure pumps force salt water through fine filters tend to hog energy. In 2003, University of Florida that trap and remove waterborne salts and researchers had developed a technology that can minerals.tap waste heat from electrical power plants as its main source of energy, an advance that could Boiling the vast amounts of water needed for the significantly reduce the cost of desalination in distillation process requires large amounts of some parts of the world. energy. Reverse osmosis uses less energy but has

other problems, including mineral buildup “In the future, we have to go to desalination, clogging the filters. That's the main technical issue because the freshwater supply at the moment can plaguing the largest desalination plant in the just barely meet the demands of our growing United States, Tampa Bay Water's $108 million population,” said James Klausner, a UF professor plant in Apollo Beach. Although it was supposed to of mechanical and aerospace engineering, whose produce 25 million gallons of freshwater each day, research was funded by the U.S. Department of the plant, beset by technical and financial problems Energy. “We think this technology could run off since opening in 1999, currently is shut down.excess heat from utility plants and produce millions of gallons each day,” said Klausner, lead Employing a major modification to distillation, author of an article on the system that appears in the Klausner's technology relies on a physical process current issue of the Journal of Energy Resources known as mass diffusion, rather than heat, to Technology. He co-invented the technology with evaporate salt water. In a nutshell, pumps move salt fellow UF mechanical engineering professor water through a heater and spray it into the top of a Renwei Mei. diffusion tower a column packed with a

polyethylene matrix that creates a large surface More than 7,500 desalination plants operate area for the water to flow across as it falls. Other worldwide, with two-thirds of them in the Middle pumps at the bottom of the tower blow warm, dry East, where there often is no other alternative for air up the column in the opposite direction of the fresh water, Klausner said. The technology is less flowing water. As the trickling salt water meets the common in North America, with plants located warm dry air, evaporation occurs. Blowers push mostly in Florida and the Caribbean producing the now-saturated air into a condenser, the first only about 12% of the world's total volume of stage in a process that forces the moisture to desalinated water, he said. U.S. residents get less condense as fresh water.than 1% of their water from desalination plants, he said. Klausner said the key feature of his system is that it

can tap warmed water plants have used to cool their The need for desalination is likely to grow, machines to heat the salt water intended for however, as the population increases and residents desalination, turning a waste product into a useful 23

distillation, which has led to a reduction in overall “Conservation and efficiency are cheaper at the desalination costs over the past decade. moment,” Gleick said. To build a desalination plant Desalination remains energy intensive, however, and use the water locally costs about $1,000 per and future costs will continue to depend on the acre-foot, he said, or $3.06 for 1,000 gallons.price of both energy and desalination technology.

Take, for example, the desalting plant recently built in Perth, Australia. It cost $357 million. It will desalt more than 26 million gallons of water a day,

Cogeneration is the process of using excess heat enough, on average, to serve about 58,300 homes. from power production to accomplish another task. It also will use 23 megawatts of electricity For desalination, cogeneration is the production of produced from wind, as much as used by 17,250 potable water from seawater or brackish average single-family homes.groundwater in an integrated, or "dual-purpose", facility in which a power plant is used as the source But the Perth plant like Yuma's and the many of energy for the desalination process. The others like it across the United States and around facility's energy production may be dedicated the rest of the world also proves that desalination is entirely to the production of potable water (a stand- a feasible option, proponents say.alone facility), or excess energy may be produced and incorporated into the energy grid (a true cogeneration facility). There are various forms of cogeneration, and theoretically any form of energy High efficiency solar distillation unit production could be used. However, the majority of current and planned cogeneration desalination In 2003, Zonnewater BV (The Netherlands) plants use either fossil fuels or nuclear power as developed a prototype desalination unit based on their source of energy. Most plants are located in solar energy (95% thermal solar energy and 5% the Middle East or North Africa, due to their photovoltaic or wind energy), suited for coastal petroleum resources and subsidies. The advantage areas with an average temperature of 30 deg of dual-purpose facilities is that they can be more Celsius. The prototype, installed on the Caribbean efficient in energy consumption, thus making island of Bonaire, is a small 1 m3 greenhouse-type desalination a more viable option for drinking construction that produces 40 litres of water per water in areas of scarce water resources. day (lpd). The company says that 50 lpd per m3 is

possible if use is made of internal condensation. In a December 26, 2007, opinion column in the The The only competitor, Zonnewater claims, is a Atlanta Journal-Constitution, Nolan Hertel, a Japanese model that produces 10 lpd per m3. The professor of nuclear and radiological engineering unit consists of a glass greenhouse connected to a at Georgia Tech, wrote, "... nuclear reactors can be similar unit made of concrete and painted white. used ... to produce large amounts of potable water. The high efficiency rate is a result of specialised The process is already in use in a number of places electronic equipment used to enhance air around the world, from India to Japan and Russia. circulation between the two sections. Periodic Eight nuclear reactors coupled to desalination washing with salt water reduces the negative effect plants are operating in Japan alone ... nuclear of solar reflection by the salt produced by the unit. desalination plants could be a source of large In the next development phase, Zonnewater plans amounts of potable water transported by pipelines to optimise the design, develop a marketing hundreds of miles inland. strategy and reduce costs by using other materials.

Desalting is expensive and energy-intensive, Solar desalination: vacuum system developed for according to Peter Gleick, president of the Pacific small-scale applicationsInstitute, an environmental research group based in Oakland, Calif. The institute released a study on The University of Florida's Solar Energy and desalting in June 2006 that detailed its potential but Energy Conversion Laboratory (SEECL) has also the hurdles to widespread use of the developed a low-cost gravity-induced vacuum technology. solar desalination system suitable for remote areas.

The vacuum is created by filling a 10 metre high U-

Cogeneration

New Technologies

22

shaped pipe with water and placing it upside down, consume more fresh water. In Florida, for example, with one end of the pipe suspended in a tank of salt desalination has been touted as one solution for water and one in fresh water. The vacuum metropolitan areas where freshwater resources are significantly lowers the boiling or evaporating becoming ever scarcer. With more than 97% of the temperature of the water that gets heated by a solar Earth's water supply composed of salt water, collector. The water is converted into steam in an desalination is even more urgent in developing evaporator that surrounds the U-shaped pipe, nations, such as China, Japan and India, Klausner enters a condenser and is then collected in a tank. said.Tests on a small prototype revealed an energy efficiency of 90%, compared to 50% for “China has a large and growing demand, Japan has conventional "flat basin" solar stills, according to a large demand, the Middle East, Sub-Saharan SEECL director, Prof. Yogi Goswami. Africa I look at it as a worldwide problem,” he

said. Most commercial desalination plants now use New desalination technology taps waste heat from either distillation or reverse osmosis, Klausner power plants said. Distillation involves boiling and evaporating

salt water and then condensing the vapor to Desalination is often touted as one solution to the produce fresh water. In reverse osmosis, high world's water woes, but current desalination plants pressure pumps force salt water through fine filters tend to hog energy. In 2003, University of Florida that trap and remove waterborne salts and researchers had developed a technology that can minerals.tap waste heat from electrical power plants as its main source of energy, an advance that could Boiling the vast amounts of water needed for the significantly reduce the cost of desalination in distillation process requires large amounts of some parts of the world. energy. Reverse osmosis uses less energy but has

other problems, including mineral buildup “In the future, we have to go to desalination, clogging the filters. That's the main technical issue because the freshwater supply at the moment can plaguing the largest desalination plant in the just barely meet the demands of our growing United States, Tampa Bay Water's $108 million population,” said James Klausner, a UF professor plant in Apollo Beach. Although it was supposed to of mechanical and aerospace engineering, whose produce 25 million gallons of freshwater each day, research was funded by the U.S. Department of the plant, beset by technical and financial problems Energy. “We think this technology could run off since opening in 1999, currently is shut down.excess heat from utility plants and produce millions of gallons each day,” said Klausner, lead Employing a major modification to distillation, author of an article on the system that appears in the Klausner's technology relies on a physical process current issue of the Journal of Energy Resources known as mass diffusion, rather than heat, to Technology. He co-invented the technology with evaporate salt water. In a nutshell, pumps move salt fellow UF mechanical engineering professor water through a heater and spray it into the top of a Renwei Mei. diffusion tower a column packed with a

polyethylene matrix that creates a large surface More than 7,500 desalination plants operate area for the water to flow across as it falls. Other worldwide, with two-thirds of them in the Middle pumps at the bottom of the tower blow warm, dry East, where there often is no other alternative for air up the column in the opposite direction of the fresh water, Klausner said. The technology is less flowing water. As the trickling salt water meets the common in North America, with plants located warm dry air, evaporation occurs. Blowers push mostly in Florida and the Caribbean producing the now-saturated air into a condenser, the first only about 12% of the world's total volume of stage in a process that forces the moisture to desalinated water, he said. U.S. residents get less condense as fresh water.than 1% of their water from desalination plants, he said. Klausner said the key feature of his system is that it

can tap warmed water plants have used to cool their The need for desalination is likely to grow, machines to heat the salt water intended for however, as the population increases and residents desalination, turning a waste product into a useful 23

one. He has successfully tested a small plant reliability. However, as a guideline the reader experimental prototype in his lab, producing about can take the production cost of a brackish water 500 gallons of fresh water daily. His calculations desalination plant to be Rs. 10 to 15 per m3. The show that a larger version, tapping the waste production cost for a sea water desalination plant coolant water from a typically sized 100-megawatt varies between Rs. 40 to 50 per m3. Whereas, the power plant, has the potential to produce 1.5 production cost of desalted water from effluent million gallons daily. The cost is projected at $2.50 varies from Rs. 15 to 50 per m3 depending upon the per 1,000 gallons, compared with $10 per thousand TDS load in the effluent stream.gallons for conventional distillation and $3 per thousand gallons for reverse osmosis. The world's largest desalination plant is the Jebel

Ali Desalination Plant (Phase 2) in the United Arab Because the equipment would have to extract as Emirates. It is a dual-purpose facility that uses much heat as possible from the coolant water, it multi-stage flash distillation and is capable of would need to be installed when a plant is built, he producing 300 million cubic metres of water per said. Another potential caveat is that a full-scale year. By comparison the largest desalination plant version of the mechanism would require a football in the United States is located in Tampa Bay, field-sized plot on land, likely to be expensive in Florida, and operated by Tampa Bay Water, which coastal areas where power plants are located, began desalinating 34.7 million cubic meters of Klausner said. Presumably a utility would sell the water per year in December 2007. The Tampa Bay fresh water it produces, recouping and then plant runs at around 12% the output of the Jebel Ali profiting from its investment, he said. Desalination Plants.

Klausner said a miniature version of the full-scale The largest desalination plant in South Asia is the system could be run using solar or other forms of Minjur Desalination Plant near Chennai in India heat, which might be useful for small towns or producing 100,000 cubic meters of water per day, villages. UF has applied for a patent on the or 36.5 million cubic meters of water per year. This technology. Klausner's research was funded by a Rs. 600-crore plant at Minjur was commissioned $200,000 grant from the Department of Energy. on in July 2010. This facility will draw water from

the Bay of Bengal, process it using the reverse osmosis technology and supply purified water to the city. According to International Desalination Association's 2009 Report, there are 14,451 desalination plants in operation worldwide, producing 59.9 million cubic meters per day (15.8 billion gallons a day), a year on year increase of 12.3%.

The world's first ever low temperature thermal desalination plant in Lakshadweep Islands was built at a cost of about Rs. 5 crore to produce one lakh litre of potable water from sea water. The plant uses “Low Temperature Thermal Desalination” technology. In this method relatively warm water is flashed inside a vacuum flash chamber and the resultant vapour is condensed using cold water. The temperature difference which exists between the warm surface sea water (28 to 30 degrees Celsius) and deep sea cold water (7 to15 degrees

Many factors enter into the capital and operating Celsius) would be effectively utilized to produce costs for desalination: capacity and type of plants, potable water apart from power generation, air plant location, feed water quality, labour cost, conditioning and aquaculture. energy cost, financing cost, ease of concentrate disposal, level of instrumentation / automation and This technology has been utilized in the first ever

Desalination plants around the world

“Desalination facilities exist in about 120 countries around the world. The capital and operating cost for desalination have tended to decrease over the years. Even though energy prices have increased the desalting cost have been decreasing. The cost of obtaining and treating water from conventional sources has tended to increase because of the increased levels of treatment being required in various countries to meet more stringent water quality standards. This rise in cost for conventionally treated water also is the result of an increased demand for water, leading to the need to develop more expensive conventional supplies since the readily obtainable water sources have already been used”

24

low temperature thermal desalination plant which has been commissioned at Kavaratti. The plant is housed in a structure on the shore. The bathymetry The whole of India is facing a never ending water at the island is such that 13 degrees Celsius water is crisis. India, which had enough drinking water for available at a depth of 350m at a distance around its people in 1951 at 5,177 cubic meters per person 400m from the shore. The cold water is brought to per year, is becoming a water-deficient country. In the surface through a 600m long pipe. The India, around 20 major cities are on the coast line technology was first demonstrated in a pilot project and the water requirement for all these cities in of 5000 liter/day at Chennai and is now being used 2008 stood at 6,267 million liters per day (MLD). for the first 100,000 liter/day plant at Kavaratti. The coastal cities experiencing tremendous growth The cost of desalination would be around 25 paise are Mumbai, Chennai, Surat, Kolkata, and Vizag. per litre and will progressively cost less as the Around 93% of the total water requirement from capacity is increased. coastal cities is from these five cities. The rest is

with cities such as Cochin, Bhavnagar, Kozhikode, Though the concept was known for a long time, due Mangalore, Kakinada, Tuticorin, and others. The to practical difficulties it was never attempted. This projected water requirement for all coastal cities in approach of providing water is extremely useful 2026 is estimated to be 23,607 MLD, a four-fold for islands like Kavaratti where there is no other increase from 2008.source of fresh water and the environment is

By 2026, Mumbai will be the largest consumer of water among coastal cities in the country. The city alone would account for 55% of the total water demand at that point, according to a report of Frost & Sullivan, an international consultant, released in 2010.

Scary, but given the unbridled construction activity in the already congested city and growing population, the monsoons may not be enough to meet its water needs. In anticipation of such a scenario, the Mumbai Metropolitan Region Development Authority (MMRDA), the planning body for the Mumbai metropolitan region (MMR), has decided to set up three desalination plants to retrieve normal water from sea.

extremely fragile.

Drinking water scarcity is higher in coastal regions As of June 30, 2008 there were 13,869 in comparison with the interior parts of India; in

"contracted desalination plants" worldwide, coastal areas, the groundwater is saline and not according to Global Water Intelligence and the suitable for drinking. Therefore, desalination of sea International Desalination Association. water becomes an ideal solution to bridge the

Top 10 desalination countries as of June 30, widening gap between growing water needs of 2008, according to Global Water Intelligence and urban population and scarcity in supply in major the International Desalination Association. coastal cities in India. Extending supply from dams

or transporting through tankers has been proven costlier than water supplied by desalination. Continuous efforts to amend the desalination technology have brought down the cost of desalination technique, thereby reducing the per liter cost of water.

Coastlines of India

?

?

Conclusion

“Indian coastline stretches about 5,700 kms on the mainland and about 7,500 kms including the two island territories and exhibits most of the known geomorphological features of coastal zones. The long coast line of India is dotted with several major ports such as Kandla, Mumbai, Navasheva, Mangalore, Cochin, Chennai, Tuticorin, Vishakapatnam, and Paradip” 25

one. He has successfully tested a small plant reliability. However, as a guideline the reader experimental prototype in his lab, producing about can take the production cost of a brackish water 500 gallons of fresh water daily. His calculations desalination plant to be Rs. 10 to 15 per m3. The show that a larger version, tapping the waste production cost for a sea water desalination plant coolant water from a typically sized 100-megawatt varies between Rs. 40 to 50 per m3. Whereas, the power plant, has the potential to produce 1.5 production cost of desalted water from effluent million gallons daily. The cost is projected at $2.50 varies from Rs. 15 to 50 per m3 depending upon the per 1,000 gallons, compared with $10 per thousand TDS load in the effluent stream.gallons for conventional distillation and $3 per thousand gallons for reverse osmosis. The world's largest desalination plant is the Jebel

Ali Desalination Plant (Phase 2) in the United Arab Because the equipment would have to extract as Emirates. It is a dual-purpose facility that uses much heat as possible from the coolant water, it multi-stage flash distillation and is capable of would need to be installed when a plant is built, he producing 300 million cubic metres of water per said. Another potential caveat is that a full-scale year. By comparison the largest desalination plant version of the mechanism would require a football in the United States is located in Tampa Bay, field-sized plot on land, likely to be expensive in Florida, and operated by Tampa Bay Water, which coastal areas where power plants are located, began desalinating 34.7 million cubic meters of Klausner said. Presumably a utility would sell the water per year in December 2007. The Tampa Bay fresh water it produces, recouping and then plant runs at around 12% the output of the Jebel Ali profiting from its investment, he said. Desalination Plants.

Klausner said a miniature version of the full-scale The largest desalination plant in South Asia is the system could be run using solar or other forms of Minjur Desalination Plant near Chennai in India heat, which might be useful for small towns or producing 100,000 cubic meters of water per day, villages. UF has applied for a patent on the or 36.5 million cubic meters of water per year. This technology. Klausner's research was funded by a Rs. 600-crore plant at Minjur was commissioned $200,000 grant from the Department of Energy. on in July 2010. This facility will draw water from

the Bay of Bengal, process it using the reverse osmosis technology and supply purified water to the city. According to International Desalination Association's 2009 Report, there are 14,451 desalination plants in operation worldwide, producing 59.9 million cubic meters per day (15.8 billion gallons a day), a year on year increase of 12.3%.

The world's first ever low temperature thermal desalination plant in Lakshadweep Islands was built at a cost of about Rs. 5 crore to produce one lakh litre of potable water from sea water. The plant uses “Low Temperature Thermal Desalination” technology. In this method relatively warm water is flashed inside a vacuum flash chamber and the resultant vapour is condensed using cold water. The temperature difference which exists between the warm surface sea water (28 to 30 degrees Celsius) and deep sea cold water (7 to15 degrees

Many factors enter into the capital and operating Celsius) would be effectively utilized to produce costs for desalination: capacity and type of plants, potable water apart from power generation, air plant location, feed water quality, labour cost, conditioning and aquaculture. energy cost, financing cost, ease of concentrate disposal, level of instrumentation / automation and This technology has been utilized in the first ever

Desalination plants around the world

“Desalination facilities exist in about 120 countries around the world. The capital and operating cost for desalination have tended to decrease over the years. Even though energy prices have increased the desalting cost have been decreasing. The cost of obtaining and treating water from conventional sources has tended to increase because of the increased levels of treatment being required in various countries to meet more stringent water quality standards. This rise in cost for conventionally treated water also is the result of an increased demand for water, leading to the need to develop more expensive conventional supplies since the readily obtainable water sources have already been used”

24

low temperature thermal desalination plant which has been commissioned at Kavaratti. The plant is housed in a structure on the shore. The bathymetry The whole of India is facing a never ending water at the island is such that 13 degrees Celsius water is crisis. India, which had enough drinking water for available at a depth of 350m at a distance around its people in 1951 at 5,177 cubic meters per person 400m from the shore. The cold water is brought to per year, is becoming a water-deficient country. In the surface through a 600m long pipe. The India, around 20 major cities are on the coast line technology was first demonstrated in a pilot project and the water requirement for all these cities in of 5000 liter/day at Chennai and is now being used 2008 stood at 6,267 million liters per day (MLD). for the first 100,000 liter/day plant at Kavaratti. The coastal cities experiencing tremendous growth The cost of desalination would be around 25 paise are Mumbai, Chennai, Surat, Kolkata, and Vizag. per litre and will progressively cost less as the Around 93% of the total water requirement from capacity is increased. coastal cities is from these five cities. The rest is

with cities such as Cochin, Bhavnagar, Kozhikode, Though the concept was known for a long time, due Mangalore, Kakinada, Tuticorin, and others. The to practical difficulties it was never attempted. This projected water requirement for all coastal cities in approach of providing water is extremely useful 2026 is estimated to be 23,607 MLD, a four-fold for islands like Kavaratti where there is no other increase from 2008.source of fresh water and the environment is

By 2026, Mumbai will be the largest consumer of water among coastal cities in the country. The city alone would account for 55% of the total water demand at that point, according to a report of Frost & Sullivan, an international consultant, released in 2010.

Scary, but given the unbridled construction activity in the already congested city and growing population, the monsoons may not be enough to meet its water needs. In anticipation of such a scenario, the Mumbai Metropolitan Region Development Authority (MMRDA), the planning body for the Mumbai metropolitan region (MMR), has decided to set up three desalination plants to retrieve normal water from sea.

extremely fragile.

Drinking water scarcity is higher in coastal regions As of June 30, 2008 there were 13,869 in comparison with the interior parts of India; in

"contracted desalination plants" worldwide, coastal areas, the groundwater is saline and not according to Global Water Intelligence and the suitable for drinking. Therefore, desalination of sea International Desalination Association. water becomes an ideal solution to bridge the

Top 10 desalination countries as of June 30, widening gap between growing water needs of 2008, according to Global Water Intelligence and urban population and scarcity in supply in major the International Desalination Association. coastal cities in India. Extending supply from dams

or transporting through tankers has been proven costlier than water supplied by desalination. Continuous efforts to amend the desalination technology have brought down the cost of desalination technique, thereby reducing the per liter cost of water.

Coastlines of India

?

?

Conclusion

“Indian coastline stretches about 5,700 kms on the mainland and about 7,500 kms including the two island territories and exhibits most of the known geomorphological features of coastal zones. The long coast line of India is dotted with several major ports such as Kandla, Mumbai, Navasheva, Mangalore, Cochin, Chennai, Tuticorin, Vishakapatnam, and Paradip” 25

Desalination projects not only provide solutions Desalination projects not only provide solutions for drinking water needs, but also for industrial for drinking water needs, but also for industrial needs as well. A few desalination projects have needs as well. A few desalination projects have been announced for the industrial applications been announced for the industrial applications such as the Rs. 6 billion worth project in the coastal such as the Rs. 6 billion worth project in the coastal Kutch district under Build, Operate, Own and Kutch district under Build, Operate, Own and Transfer (BOOT) basis, NTPC Tamil Nadu Energy Transfer (BOOT) basis, NTPC Tamil Nadu Energy

Company's desalination project worth Rs. 1.26 Company's desalination project worth Rs. 1.26 billion to be executed by Ion Exchange India, billion to be executed by Ion Exchange India, Rajasthan State Mines and Minerals Ltd Rajasthan State Mines and Minerals Ltd (RSMML) project worth Rs. 3 billion in Nagaur to (RSMML) project worth Rs. 3 billion in Nagaur to be executed by Doshion Limited are a few among be executed by Doshion Limited are a few among them. them.

Joint ventures and private participation would be Joint ventures and private participation would be the key to a fast development of desalination the key to a fast development of desalination projects in India. The Chennai-based Minjur projects in India. The Chennai-based Minjur desalination project is a JV between Hyderabad- desalination project is a JV between Hyderabad-based IVRCL and Befesa, Spain. JVs are ideal in based IVRCL and Befesa, Spain. JVs are ideal in this market as the domestic water firms can meet this market as the domestic water firms can meet civil and structural requirements, while the foreign civil and structural requirements, while the foreign firms can bring in the much-needed reverse firms can bring in the much-needed reverse osmosis membrane technology along with osmosis membrane technology along with operation and maintenance (O&M) expertise. operation and maintenance (O&M) expertise.

The chart given below depicts the water requirement in major coastal cities in India.

Ramanathan Menon has more than three decades of experience as a journalist and a writer on Energy and Environment subjects, interacting with energy sectorsboth conventional as well as non-conventionalin India and abroad. In the Eighties, he was the Bahrain Correspondent for 'Middle East Electricity' magazine published by Reeds, U.K. He also worked as the Media Manager (India) for Washington, DC-based publication 'Business Times' which promotes India's commercial interests in North America. He was also the editor and publisher of 'Sun Power', a quarterly renewable energy magazine. He also worked as the Sub-Editor-Media Manager for a quarterly energy/environment magazine titled 'energyn manager' published by The Society of Energy Engineers and Managers from Kerala. Currently he is the editor and publisher of a bi-monthly energy and environment magazine 'Energy Blitz'. His contact email address: [email protected] / [email protected]

26

Conceptual illustration of the Sahara Forest Project

distribution leads to c o n f l i c t . To make mat te r s worse, global warming is tending to make dry areas drier and wet areas wetter. Since the 1980's, rainfall has increased in several large regions of the w o r l d , i n c l u d i n g eastern North and South America and no r the rn Eu rope , while drying has been observed in the Sahel, the Mediterranean, s o u t h e r n A f r i c a , Australia and parts of Asia. In parts of India,

the water table is now 150m below the surface and falling by 6m a year. The International Water Management Institute recently estimated that in India, about 250 cubic kilometres of water are “The world's surface may be conveniently divided abstracted for irrigation each year. That is at least into thirds. Two thirds are covered by the oceans, 100 cubic kilometres more than the rains put back. and if the planet was ground flat by a giant scraper, It feeds India. But as every year passes, the aquifers it would be covered by seawater, a mile deep. Thus get emptier.while we are short of fresh water, we have an

abundance of seawater. Of the land's surface, Fortunately, the world is not short of water, it is just roughly one third is occupied by mankind in in the wrong place. Converting seawater to fresh various states of development, one third is forest water in the right quantities and in the right places (and shrinking) and the remaining third is desert offers the potential to solve all the problems (and growing)”described above.

The world is running short of fresh water. With Many, if not all of the world's deserts formerly agriculture accounting for some 70% of all water supported vegetation, and were it not for the lack of used, the shortage is closely linked to food fresh water, they could do so now. We have production. The provision of clean water is a pre-demonstrated, albeit on a tiny scale, that it is condition to life, health and economic relatively straightforward to convert seawater into development and the lack of water in many parts of fresh water, and thus enable crops and trees to grow the world is the root cause of much suffering and in some of the hottest and most arid places on earth. poverty. The following notes illustrate how this process Present methods of supply in arid regions include: could be scaled up in a commercially viable way over-abstraction from ground reserves, diverting and seeks to identify where it could be of greatest water from other regions and energy-intensive advantage.desalination. None of these methods are The growth in demand for water and increasing sustainable in the long term and inequitable



27

Desalination projects not only provide solutions Desalination projects not only provide solutions for drinking water needs, but also for industrial for drinking water needs, but also for industrial needs as well. A few desalination projects have needs as well. A few desalination projects have been announced for the industrial applications been announced for the industrial applications such as the Rs. 6 billion worth project in the coastal such as the Rs. 6 billion worth project in the coastal Kutch district under Build, Operate, Own and Kutch district under Build, Operate, Own and Transfer (BOOT) basis, NTPC Tamil Nadu Energy Transfer (BOOT) basis, NTPC Tamil Nadu Energy

Company's desalination project worth Rs. 1.26 Company's desalination project worth Rs. 1.26 billion to be executed by Ion Exchange India, billion to be executed by Ion Exchange India, Rajasthan State Mines and Minerals Ltd Rajasthan State Mines and Minerals Ltd (RSMML) project worth Rs. 3 billion in Nagaur to (RSMML) project worth Rs. 3 billion in Nagaur to be executed by Doshion Limited are a few among be executed by Doshion Limited are a few among them. them.

Joint ventures and private participation would be Joint ventures and private participation would be the key to a fast development of desalination the key to a fast development of desalination projects in India. The Chennai-based Minjur projects in India. The Chennai-based Minjur desalination project is a JV between Hyderabad- desalination project is a JV between Hyderabad-based IVRCL and Befesa, Spain. JVs are ideal in based IVRCL and Befesa, Spain. JVs are ideal in this market as the domestic water firms can meet this market as the domestic water firms can meet civil and structural requirements, while the foreign civil and structural requirements, while the foreign firms can bring in the much-needed reverse firms can bring in the much-needed reverse osmosis membrane technology along with osmosis membrane technology along with operation and maintenance (O&M) expertise. operation and maintenance (O&M) expertise.

The chart given below depicts the water requirement in major coastal cities in India.

Ramanathan Menon has more than three decades of experience as a journalist and a writer on Energy and Environment subjects, interacting with energy sectorsboth conventional as well as non-conventionalin India and abroad. In the Eighties, he was the Bahrain Correspondent for 'Middle East Electricity' magazine published by Reeds, U.K. He also worked as the Media Manager (India) for Washington, DC-based publication 'Business Times' which promotes India's commercial interests in North America. He was also the editor and publisher of 'Sun Power', a quarterly renewable energy magazine. He also worked as the Sub-Editor-Media Manager for a quarterly energy/environment magazine titled 'energyn manager' published by The Society of Energy Engineers and Managers from Kerala. Currently he is the editor and publisher of a bi-monthly energy and environment magazine 'Energy Blitz'. His contact email address: [email protected] / [email protected]

26

Conceptual illustration of the Sahara Forest Project

distribution leads to c o n f l i c t . To make mat te r s worse, global warming is tending to make dry areas drier and wet areas wetter. Since the 1980's, rainfall has increased in several large regions of the w o r l d , i n c l u d i n g eastern North and South America and no r the rn Eu rope , while drying has been observed in the Sahel, the Mediterranean, s o u t h e r n A f r i c a , Australia and parts of Asia. In parts of India,

the water table is now 150m below the surface and falling by 6m a year. The International Water Management Institute recently estimated that in India, about 250 cubic kilometres of water are “The world's surface may be conveniently divided abstracted for irrigation each year. That is at least into thirds. Two thirds are covered by the oceans, 100 cubic kilometres more than the rains put back. and if the planet was ground flat by a giant scraper, It feeds India. But as every year passes, the aquifers it would be covered by seawater, a mile deep. Thus get emptier.while we are short of fresh water, we have an

abundance of seawater. Of the land's surface, Fortunately, the world is not short of water, it is just roughly one third is occupied by mankind in in the wrong place. Converting seawater to fresh various states of development, one third is forest water in the right quantities and in the right places (and shrinking) and the remaining third is desert offers the potential to solve all the problems (and growing)”described above.

The world is running short of fresh water. With Many, if not all of the world's deserts formerly agriculture accounting for some 70% of all water supported vegetation, and were it not for the lack of used, the shortage is closely linked to food fresh water, they could do so now. We have production. The provision of clean water is a pre-demonstrated, albeit on a tiny scale, that it is condition to life, health and economic relatively straightforward to convert seawater into development and the lack of water in many parts of fresh water, and thus enable crops and trees to grow the world is the root cause of much suffering and in some of the hottest and most arid places on earth. poverty. The following notes illustrate how this process Present methods of supply in arid regions include: could be scaled up in a commercially viable way over-abstraction from ground reserves, diverting and seeks to identify where it could be of greatest water from other regions and energy-intensive advantage.desalination. None of these methods are The growth in demand for water and increasing sustainable in the long term and inequitable



27

shortages of supply are two of the most certain and technologies the Seawater Greenhouse and predictable scenarios of the 21st century. Concentrated Solar Power to achieve highly Agriculture, with a high demand for water, is a efficient synergies. Both processes work optimally major pressure point. A shortage of water will also in sunny, arid conditions. Seawater Greenhouses affect the carbon cycle as shrinking forests will have been built in some of the hottest regions on reduce the rate of carbon capture, and the earth, Abu Dhabi and Oman for example, where regulating influence that trees and biomass have on they create freshwater from seawater, while our climate will be disrupted, exacerbating the providing cooler and more humid growing situation further. conditions, enabling the cultivation of crops all

year round.The Sahara Forest Project is a scheme that aims to provide fresh water, food and renewable energy in Concentrated solar power is increasingly seen as hot, arid regions as well as re-vegetating areas of one of the most promising forms of renewable uninhabited desert. This proposal combines the energy, producing electricity from sunlight at a seawater greenhouse concept with concentrating fraction of the cost of photovoltaics. The process solar power (CSP). CSP is a form of renewable uses mirrors to concentrate sunlight to create heat energy that produces electricity from sunlight which is used to drive conventional steam turbines using thermal energy to drive conventional steam to generate electricity.turbines. It is claimed that these technologies together will create a sustainable and profitable Less than 1% of the world's deserts, if covered with source of energy, food, vegetation and water. The concentrating solar power plants, could produce as founding team behind the Sahara Forest Project much electricity as the world now uses. By was composed of experts from Seawater combining these technologies there is huge Greenhouse Ltd, Exploration Architecture, Max commercial potential to restore forests and create a Fordham Consulting Engineers and the Bellona sustainable source of fresh water, food and energy.Foundation. The scale of the proposed scheme is The scheme is proposed at a significant scale such such that very large quantities of seawater would that very large quantities of seawater are be evaporated. By using locations below sea level, evaporated.pumping costs would be eliminated. Among planned activities are one pilot project in Jordan Given that what goes up must come down, every and one in Qatar. drop of water evaporated will contribute to rainfall

- somewhere. A 10,000 hectare area of Seawater The Sahara Forest Project aims to provide a new Greenhouses will evaporate a million tonnes of source of fresh water, food and renewable energy seawater a day. If the scheme were located upwind in hot, arid regions, as well as providing conditions of higher terrain then the air carrying this 'lost' that enable re-vegetating areas of desert. The humidity would be forced to rise and cool, Sahara is used here as a metaphor for any desert contributing additional water to the mist or cloud. that formerly supported vegetation and could do so By using a location that lies below sea level, again, given sufficient water. seawater pumping costs may be eliminated. There

are a number of large inland depressions in Egypt, The growth in demand for water and increasing Libya, Tunisia and Eritrea for example. In each shortages are two of the most predictable scenarios case, the prevailing wind direction is from the sea of the 21st century. Agriculture is a major pressure to the mountain areas inland.point. A shortage of water will also affect the carbon cycle as shrinking forests reduce the rate of Currently there are some 200,000 hectares of carbon capture, and the regulating influence that conventional greenhouses in Mediterranean region trees and vegetation have on our climate will be and this area has been growing at around 10% a disrupted, exacerbating the situation further. year. Most of these, if not all, face water quality and Fortunately, the world is not short of water, it is just availability issues and indeed many contribute to in the wrong place and too salty. Converting the depletion of ground water. By using seawater to fresh water in the right places offers the greenhouses to create fresh water from seawater, potential to solve all these problems. the problem is reversed.This ambitious proposal combines two established 28

process of transfer from the mine to the boilers.

Coals and most other solid fuels being of variable heating value are priced based on the product of the quantity (tonnes) and the quality (gross heating

value in kcal/kg). Coal follows a long route from the time it is mined till it is ultimately combusted

Coal (popularly known as black diamond) is the primary energy source of the thermal power stations (TPS) which is the back bone of the Indian power sector. The Indian power sector with a capacity of 185 GW (December 2011) is next only

in the utility boilers. As the coal moves from the to USA (1200 GW), China (800 GW), Japan (300 mine to the coal plant and finally into the furnace GW) and Russia (250 GW). The major chunk of (boiler) there is a drop in its audited/declared India's capacity is by coal fired generation (100 quantity and quality in the course of its movement, GW). Indian coals are of high ash (25-50 %) with handling and storage. gross calorific values (GCV) in the range of 2300-

4500 kcal/kg. With the import of coal to sustain The energy efficiency of coal handling is given by, power generation on the rise, energy efficient

utilization of coal resources is essential. Efficient Typical allowable loss in coal quantity (due to use of coal calls for effective transfer, storage, moisture loss, pilferage, handling loss, etc.) can be monitoring and management to ensure that there 1.5-2 % from the mine to coal yard and 1-1.5 % in are minimal losses in quantity or quality in the

“Coal popularly known as black diamond is a national resource which needs to be used efficiently for energy security. In the present day scenario of a coal fired thermal power station, when the station coal stock is less than 10 days of plant running capacity, the energy efficiency of the coal quantity and heating value from mine to final combustion should be high (94-95 %). The operating energy efficiency for m a n y s t a t i o n s c o v e r i n g I n d i a geographically is in the range of 60 % to 90 % with an average value of around 72 %. The energy efficiency of the coal system impacts the unit and station heat rates and energy efficiency significantly. A number of measures for ensuring efficient utilization of coal such as automation of weight, tracking of railway rakes, online coal energy management through software, automated sampling, accurate gross calorific value (GCV) measurement, etc., are required to ensure that the energy efficiency of coal handling system (mine dispatch to boiler bunker) is maintained at around 94-95 %. clear cut responsibilities are to be assigned to various sections to control and track the losses”

Introduction

Energy efficiency of coal handling systems for

thermal power plantsBy M. Siddhartha Bhatt & N. Rajkumar

29

shortages of supply are two of the most certain and technologies the Seawater Greenhouse and predictable scenarios of the 21st century. Concentrated Solar Power to achieve highly Agriculture, with a high demand for water, is a efficient synergies. Both processes work optimally major pressure point. A shortage of water will also in sunny, arid conditions. Seawater Greenhouses affect the carbon cycle as shrinking forests will have been built in some of the hottest regions on reduce the rate of carbon capture, and the earth, Abu Dhabi and Oman for example, where regulating influence that trees and biomass have on they create freshwater from seawater, while our climate will be disrupted, exacerbating the providing cooler and more humid growing situation further. conditions, enabling the cultivation of crops all

year round.The Sahara Forest Project is a scheme that aims to provide fresh water, food and renewable energy in Concentrated solar power is increasingly seen as hot, arid regions as well as re-vegetating areas of one of the most promising forms of renewable uninhabited desert. This proposal combines the energy, producing electricity from sunlight at a seawater greenhouse concept with concentrating fraction of the cost of photovoltaics. The process solar power (CSP). CSP is a form of renewable uses mirrors to concentrate sunlight to create heat energy that produces electricity from sunlight which is used to drive conventional steam turbines using thermal energy to drive conventional steam to generate electricity.turbines. It is claimed that these technologies together will create a sustainable and profitable Less than 1% of the world's deserts, if covered with source of energy, food, vegetation and water. The concentrating solar power plants, could produce as founding team behind the Sahara Forest Project much electricity as the world now uses. By was composed of experts from Seawater combining these technologies there is huge Greenhouse Ltd, Exploration Architecture, Max commercial potential to restore forests and create a Fordham Consulting Engineers and the Bellona sustainable source of fresh water, food and energy.Foundation. The scale of the proposed scheme is The scheme is proposed at a significant scale such such that very large quantities of seawater would that very large quantities of seawater are be evaporated. By using locations below sea level, evaporated.pumping costs would be eliminated. Among planned activities are one pilot project in Jordan Given that what goes up must come down, every and one in Qatar. drop of water evaporated will contribute to rainfall

- somewhere. A 10,000 hectare area of Seawater The Sahara Forest Project aims to provide a new Greenhouses will evaporate a million tonnes of source of fresh water, food and renewable energy seawater a day. If the scheme were located upwind in hot, arid regions, as well as providing conditions of higher terrain then the air carrying this 'lost' that enable re-vegetating areas of desert. The humidity would be forced to rise and cool, Sahara is used here as a metaphor for any desert contributing additional water to the mist or cloud. that formerly supported vegetation and could do so By using a location that lies below sea level, again, given sufficient water. seawater pumping costs may be eliminated. There

are a number of large inland depressions in Egypt, The growth in demand for water and increasing Libya, Tunisia and Eritrea for example. In each shortages are two of the most predictable scenarios case, the prevailing wind direction is from the sea of the 21st century. Agriculture is a major pressure to the mountain areas inland.point. A shortage of water will also affect the carbon cycle as shrinking forests reduce the rate of Currently there are some 200,000 hectares of carbon capture, and the regulating influence that conventional greenhouses in Mediterranean region trees and vegetation have on our climate will be and this area has been growing at around 10% a disrupted, exacerbating the situation further. year. Most of these, if not all, face water quality and Fortunately, the world is not short of water, it is just availability issues and indeed many contribute to in the wrong place and too salty. Converting the depletion of ground water. By using seawater to fresh water in the right places offers the greenhouses to create fresh water from seawater, potential to solve all these problems. the problem is reversed.This ambitious proposal combines two established 28

process of transfer from the mine to the boilers.

Coals and most other solid fuels being of variable heating value are priced based on the product of the quantity (tonnes) and the quality (gross heating

value in kcal/kg). Coal follows a long route from the time it is mined till it is ultimately combusted

Coal (popularly known as black diamond) is the primary energy source of the thermal power stations (TPS) which is the back bone of the Indian power sector. The Indian power sector with a capacity of 185 GW (December 2011) is next only

in the utility boilers. As the coal moves from the to USA (1200 GW), China (800 GW), Japan (300 mine to the coal plant and finally into the furnace GW) and Russia (250 GW). The major chunk of (boiler) there is a drop in its audited/declared India's capacity is by coal fired generation (100 quantity and quality in the course of its movement, GW). Indian coals are of high ash (25-50 %) with handling and storage. gross calorific values (GCV) in the range of 2300-

4500 kcal/kg. With the import of coal to sustain The energy efficiency of coal handling is given by, power generation on the rise, energy efficient

utilization of coal resources is essential. Efficient Typical allowable loss in coal quantity (due to use of coal calls for effective transfer, storage, moisture loss, pilferage, handling loss, etc.) can be monitoring and management to ensure that there 1.5-2 % from the mine to coal yard and 1-1.5 % in are minimal losses in quantity or quality in the

“Coal popularly known as black diamond is a national resource which needs to be used efficiently for energy security. In the present day scenario of a coal fired thermal power station, when the station coal stock is less than 10 days of plant running capacity, the energy efficiency of the coal quantity and heating value from mine to final combustion should be high (94-95 %). The operating energy efficiency for m a n y s t a t i o n s c o v e r i n g I n d i a geographically is in the range of 60 % to 90 % with an average value of around 72 %. The energy efficiency of the coal system impacts the unit and station heat rates and energy efficiency significantly. A number of measures for ensuring efficient utilization of coal such as automation of weight, tracking of railway rakes, online coal energy management through software, automated sampling, accurate gross calorific value (GCV) measurement, etc., are required to ensure that the energy efficiency of coal handling system (mine dispatch to boiler bunker) is maintained at around 94-95 %. clear cut responsibilities are to be assigned to various sections to control and track the losses”

Introduction

Energy efficiency of coal handling systems for

thermal power plantsBy M. Siddhartha Bhatt & N. Rajkumar

29

the coal yard or 3 % in all. Likewise the drop in (through static pit type weigh bridges with load heating value in the coal yard due to storage and cells with analog output/printout or through in-handling related problems could be around 100 motion weigh bridges). At the end of each shift, the kcal/kg for storage of around 10 days station printout of the weigh bridge (or the manual supply. This gives a mass efficiency of 97 % and readings) are re-entered in a data base in a different heat efficiency of 97.5 %. The overall efficiency section. Since the wagons are spread out into could be around 94.6 % or in the range of 94 to 95 various tipplers (in the case of pit type weighment), %. reconciliation time constant to determine the

weight and transit loss is as high as 5-6 days. Even For measuring the coal system efficiency, the coal in the case of in-motion weigh bridges, the time quality (heating value, GCV in kcal/kg) and constant is as high as 4-5 days. An outage of the quantity (tonnes) need to be measured and tracked weigh bridge measurement system for one day will at three points in the fuel transition: lead to an uncertainty of 3 rakes (174 wagons) of

Mine or sending end coal. Coal yard (receiving point of the TPS)Bunker of the boiler just before its milling The measuring systems for computing transit loss and injection into the furnace. (in the case of pit type wagon to wagon weighment)

are obsolete (analog outdated instrumentation, Normally in any typical station, there will be manual recording at several places and double different varieties of coals such as imported high recording) resulting in wastage of manpower for GCV coal, washed coals, raw unprocessed coals, recording purposes when it can easily be etc. The rejects are also stored in the coal yard for automated [1]. Manual intervention increases periodic disposal. chances of errors which are difficult to debug.

Technology up gradation in this critical area of their operation is called for. Global positioning system technology for precisely mapping and

Coal measurement is first at the sending end (mine) tracking the movement of the trains for effective and then at the receiving end (TPS entrance). The tracing the origin and location of the transit loss is difference is recorded and reconciled as transit an appropriate solution. Rail signature system at loss. the sending end and receiving end are also essential The coal consumption is estimated through to avoid tampering. inventory checks once in every 10 days which are reconciled based on the station performance. Since the weigh bridges are analog in design with Measurement of individual unit consumption is open loop communication, human intervention is generally not present/practiced in most stations required and hence fully automated pitless in and consumption of individual units are motion weigh bridges with digital interface and apportioned based on their individual energy provision for data communication to a central generation, heat rate, etc. These do not give very server or receiver control room is required. The accurate individual unit performance presently existing pitless in motion weigh bridges

need to be converted into intelligent electronic devices (IEDs) and seamlessly communicate with the overall plant automation. High speed in-motion

Receipt coal is weighed (gross and tare) at the mine weighbridge solutions are also available. or sending end through weigh bridges and the weight is known through the railway receipt (RR). The Railway receipt (RR) need to be sent digitially The coal is again weighed (gross and tare) at the to the TPS through a communication media, well receiving end at the power station through weigh before the consignment actually reaches the coal bridges at the wagon tippler hopper/track yard to minimize time delay. hopper/truck hopper, etc.. In case of washed / imported coal the weighment is at receiving end Bonly and transit loss is not calculated.

Presently coal consumption measurement in The wagon at the receiving end is weighed individual units is not available in most stations. It

Quantity Measurement

Sending end measurement:

oiler consumption measurement:

30

is estimated by apportioning on the basis of units generated and specific coal consumption which do UHV = 8900 138 [Ash(%)] 138 [Moisture (%)]not reflect on the realistic coal consumption of any Based on the UHV the coals are graded into 7 particular unit in question. grades [A (if UHV exceeds 6200 kcal/kg) and G (if

lower band UHV exceeds 1300 kcal/kg)]. The coal entry into the boilers of each unit needs to be measured. Typical technologies for coal The GCV (kcal/kg) at 5 % moisture and the UHV measurement are belt weighers, gravimetric (kcal/kg) are related by the following formula feeders, online dynamic coal flow measuring and based on the following relationship:balancing systems besides a host of others. Use of fully automated IEDs for on-line coal inflow and GCV = 2437.5 + [0.6679 (UHV)] consumption may be used. Microprocessor based gravimetric feeders or belt weighers to bunkers The band width of the in-grade variation 9.7 % for (with electronic interfaces and drivers) or online A grade and goes up to 28.6 %. The allowable coal flow measuring and balancing systems may be difference in sending and receiving end UHV is installed in all units for measurement of coal 150 kcal/kg without grade slip. consumption.

In many of the TPS, an average drop of declared monthly average GCV of 500-1200 kcal/kg is seen in the coal yard itself, on a steady basis. In a well

Three heating values are of significance: managed process, small positive and negative deviations of the same magnitude are seen in the

i. UHV: Useful heating value -a commercial monthly average GCV drops. The monthly heating value for payment purposes and to average GCV of coal must not exhibit a serious reconcile sending end and receiving end heating drop between the received and fired values value. The receiving end UHV must not be lower especially when the storage must be within 10 than 150 kcal/kg of the sending end UHV and there days stock. The drop in monthly GCV between the must not be grade slip. receiving end and bunker is within ±100 kcal/kg.

ii. GCV: Gross heating value (which is Manual sampling has a tendency to restrict the coal equivalent of Higher heating value, Gross heating only to the surface of the heap. Automatic rake value and Higher calorific value) of the received sampling through auger is essential. Mechanical coal sampled at the point of unloading. GCV (as scooping (swing arm/chain bucket) is essential for fired basis) of the receipt coal at the coal yard and supply belt scraper. Primary & secondary sample sampled at the receiving point. This is connected to crushers and sample pulverizers for the sample the UHV by the formula given by Coal ministry. preparation process must be in order. The

quartering and coning processes need to be iii. GCV: Gross heating value of the coal fed streamlined and refined. into the boiler and sampled either at the conveyor belt to the bunker or at the coal feeder. This is The GCV of bunkered or fired coal needs to be sampled at the conveyor belts just prior to the determined only by an automatic combustor (bomb bunker or at the coal feeder. This value should be calorimeter). The process of transfer of data from within ±100 kcal/kg of the receipt coal GCV. the bomb calorimeter (presently manual) needs to

be automated and authenticated by back up data UHV and GCV though connected are different. either from a print out of the memory of the bomb UHV is determined by measuring the ash and calorimeter or print out of each value. The sample moisture contents. GCV is determined by to sample variation in a rake (for receiving end proximate analysis as well as by bomb calorimeter. coal) for each rake and in-sample variation will be GCV is higher than UHV as per the data given by very useful. the Coal Ministry.

Fully automatic TGA analysis of coal with For coal procurement the formula for UHV which provision for transmission of the results (TGA is used is given by, traces) to a central server or control room from

Heating Value Measurement

31

the coal yard or 3 % in all. Likewise the drop in (through static pit type weigh bridges with load heating value in the coal yard due to storage and cells with analog output/printout or through in-handling related problems could be around 100 motion weigh bridges). At the end of each shift, the kcal/kg for storage of around 10 days station printout of the weigh bridge (or the manual supply. This gives a mass efficiency of 97 % and readings) are re-entered in a data base in a different heat efficiency of 97.5 %. The overall efficiency section. Since the wagons are spread out into could be around 94.6 % or in the range of 94 to 95 various tipplers (in the case of pit type weighment), %. reconciliation time constant to determine the

weight and transit loss is as high as 5-6 days. Even For measuring the coal system efficiency, the coal in the case of in-motion weigh bridges, the time quality (heating value, GCV in kcal/kg) and constant is as high as 4-5 days. An outage of the quantity (tonnes) need to be measured and tracked weigh bridge measurement system for one day will at three points in the fuel transition: lead to an uncertainty of 3 rakes (174 wagons) of

Mine or sending end coal. Coal yard (receiving point of the TPS)Bunker of the boiler just before its milling The measuring systems for computing transit loss and injection into the furnace. (in the case of pit type wagon to wagon weighment)

are obsolete (analog outdated instrumentation, Normally in any typical station, there will be manual recording at several places and double different varieties of coals such as imported high recording) resulting in wastage of manpower for GCV coal, washed coals, raw unprocessed coals, recording purposes when it can easily be etc. The rejects are also stored in the coal yard for automated [1]. Manual intervention increases periodic disposal. chances of errors which are difficult to debug.

Technology up gradation in this critical area of their operation is called for. Global positioning system technology for precisely mapping and

Coal measurement is first at the sending end (mine) tracking the movement of the trains for effective and then at the receiving end (TPS entrance). The tracing the origin and location of the transit loss is difference is recorded and reconciled as transit an appropriate solution. Rail signature system at loss. the sending end and receiving end are also essential The coal consumption is estimated through to avoid tampering. inventory checks once in every 10 days which are reconciled based on the station performance. Since the weigh bridges are analog in design with Measurement of individual unit consumption is open loop communication, human intervention is generally not present/practiced in most stations required and hence fully automated pitless in and consumption of individual units are motion weigh bridges with digital interface and apportioned based on their individual energy provision for data communication to a central generation, heat rate, etc. These do not give very server or receiver control room is required. The accurate individual unit performance presently existing pitless in motion weigh bridges

need to be converted into intelligent electronic devices (IEDs) and seamlessly communicate with the overall plant automation. High speed in-motion

Receipt coal is weighed (gross and tare) at the mine weighbridge solutions are also available. or sending end through weigh bridges and the weight is known through the railway receipt (RR). The Railway receipt (RR) need to be sent digitially The coal is again weighed (gross and tare) at the to the TPS through a communication media, well receiving end at the power station through weigh before the consignment actually reaches the coal bridges at the wagon tippler hopper/track yard to minimize time delay. hopper/truck hopper, etc.. In case of washed / imported coal the weighment is at receiving end Bonly and transit loss is not calculated.

Presently coal consumption measurement in The wagon at the receiving end is weighed individual units is not available in most stations. It

Quantity Measurement

Sending end measurement:

oiler consumption measurement:

30

is estimated by apportioning on the basis of units generated and specific coal consumption which do UHV = 8900 138 [Ash(%)] 138 [Moisture (%)]not reflect on the realistic coal consumption of any Based on the UHV the coals are graded into 7 particular unit in question. grades [A (if UHV exceeds 6200 kcal/kg) and G (if

lower band UHV exceeds 1300 kcal/kg)]. The coal entry into the boilers of each unit needs to be measured. Typical technologies for coal The GCV (kcal/kg) at 5 % moisture and the UHV measurement are belt weighers, gravimetric (kcal/kg) are related by the following formula feeders, online dynamic coal flow measuring and based on the following relationship:balancing systems besides a host of others. Use of fully automated IEDs for on-line coal inflow and GCV = 2437.5 + [0.6679 (UHV)] consumption may be used. Microprocessor based gravimetric feeders or belt weighers to bunkers The band width of the in-grade variation 9.7 % for (with electronic interfaces and drivers) or online A grade and goes up to 28.6 %. The allowable coal flow measuring and balancing systems may be difference in sending and receiving end UHV is installed in all units for measurement of coal 150 kcal/kg without grade slip. consumption.

In many of the TPS, an average drop of declared monthly average GCV of 500-1200 kcal/kg is seen in the coal yard itself, on a steady basis. In a well

Three heating values are of significance: managed process, small positive and negative deviations of the same magnitude are seen in the

i. UHV: Useful heating value -a commercial monthly average GCV drops. The monthly heating value for payment purposes and to average GCV of coal must not exhibit a serious reconcile sending end and receiving end heating drop between the received and fired values value. The receiving end UHV must not be lower especially when the storage must be within 10 than 150 kcal/kg of the sending end UHV and there days stock. The drop in monthly GCV between the must not be grade slip. receiving end and bunker is within ±100 kcal/kg.

ii. GCV: Gross heating value (which is Manual sampling has a tendency to restrict the coal equivalent of Higher heating value, Gross heating only to the surface of the heap. Automatic rake value and Higher calorific value) of the received sampling through auger is essential. Mechanical coal sampled at the point of unloading. GCV (as scooping (swing arm/chain bucket) is essential for fired basis) of the receipt coal at the coal yard and supply belt scraper. Primary & secondary sample sampled at the receiving point. This is connected to crushers and sample pulverizers for the sample the UHV by the formula given by Coal ministry. preparation process must be in order. The

quartering and coning processes need to be iii. GCV: Gross heating value of the coal fed streamlined and refined. into the boiler and sampled either at the conveyor belt to the bunker or at the coal feeder. This is The GCV of bunkered or fired coal needs to be sampled at the conveyor belts just prior to the determined only by an automatic combustor (bomb bunker or at the coal feeder. This value should be calorimeter). The process of transfer of data from within ±100 kcal/kg of the receipt coal GCV. the bomb calorimeter (presently manual) needs to

be automated and authenticated by back up data UHV and GCV though connected are different. either from a print out of the memory of the bomb UHV is determined by measuring the ash and calorimeter or print out of each value. The sample moisture contents. GCV is determined by to sample variation in a rake (for receiving end proximate analysis as well as by bomb calorimeter. coal) for each rake and in-sample variation will be GCV is higher than UHV as per the data given by very useful. the Coal Ministry.

Fully automatic TGA analysis of coal with For coal procurement the formula for UHV which provision for transmission of the results (TGA is used is given by, traces) to a central server or control room from

Heating Value Measurement

31

where the different groups can view it, is required. This analysis must be done before the coal goes to A software is to be in place for online coal energy the bunker so that the operator is well aware of the management in the plant. The software inputs data

f rom the var ious f ie ld instruments (IEDs) for coal receipt from various sources, coal consumption at various bunkers and inventory levels. This must also computes the coal consumption, heat consumption, heat rate, etc., at various points, on line.

The sharing of responsibility of coal consumption in the plant can be as follows:? Coal weight and coal GCV/UHV between the coal mine and the entrance of the CHP of the TPS: Fuel Management/Co-ordination Cell which functions outside the TPS.

combustion characteristic during the shift. This is a ? Coal weight and coal GCV drop between good aid for combustion control and boiler excess Coal Handling Plant and the bunker: Coal handling air and carbon monoxide control. Plant. It will be the responsibility of the coal

handling plant to account for coal weight and coal Ultimate analysis (CHN elemental analysis) GCV drop between receipt point and the bunkers. mapping of coal from different mines and sources Coal weight and coal GCV beyond the bunker: is essential at least once a month instead of Operations In-chargebiannually. This is useful for process optimization of boiler efficiency and is an essential requirement Some of the technical measures for coal for optimization of heat rate since it is used for management are as follows:computing the flue gas flow quantities and excess Sourcing and storage plan of coalsair flow through the boiler.

Stacking is done in as many as five places may be reduced to one/two stack yard to avoid multiple handling.

Figure 1 gives energy efficiencies of coal systems Coal compartments of different collieries, raw of some of the stations recorded during studies. It and washed must be isolated as the type of coal can be seen the energy efficiency for various compatibility is required to be established. stations is in the range of 60% to 88 %. The average Maintaining minimum 3 days' supply of value is around 72 %. Ideal values are 94-95 % reasonably dry coal in a rain protection dome. which make an allowance of 2-3 % overall loss of Avoiding coals with high levels of fines or use of mass for the complete system (transit + internal fines transfer technologies like closed conveyor losses) and a loss of 100-150 kcal/kg for internal belts similar to those in cement plants. handling, storage and measuring errors. Handling of imported, washed and indigenous

raw coals separately and blending them On storage for long periods there is a tendency for technically. loss of heating value due to weathering, rainfall, Preferring coals with sandy background to coals etc., but since the storage time is within 10 days of with clayey background during the monsoon supply this must not be a critical issue. months.

Best Practices

Energy Efficiency of Coal Systems of Stations

32

M a n a g e m e n t o f c o a l y a r d iii. Both receipt and consumption need to be Storage pile design improvement through separately monitored and reconciled through compacting. Pyramidal shapes with drains automated and computerized system. There must on either side lead to low water absorption. not be human intervention in the primary Further the piles must not have surface measurement and recording systems. depressions or pits. Tarpaulins to cover wagons iv. The responsibility and accountability for Providing slopes for drainage of water coal quantity and GCV must be divided between Concreting of storage yards and providing Fuel management cell (sending end to receiving retaining walls end), Coal handling Plant (receiving end to Rain water channeling, dredging and bunkers), and Operations (consumption at cleaning of flow passages bunkers). Rain guards for conveyorsCompacting by special compactors instead of bull dozers. Acknowledgement: The knowledge reported Provision for ground level tippling (non-pit herein is partly of the work for the Maharashtra type) of wagons Electricity Regulatory Commission (MERC),

Mumbai which is gratefully acknowledged.

The main conclusions of the study are as follows: [1] Best practices guide for MPSGCL power

plants, submitted to MERC, Energy Efficiency & i. The energy efficiency of coal systems is Renewable Energy Division, Central Power around 70-75 % in many TPS. This implies that Research Institute, Bangalore-560080nearly 25-30 % of the energy in coal does not find [2] Siddhartha Bhatt M. & B. H. Narayana its place into the boilers or combustors. Ideal (2005), Towards bench marking of gross heat rate efficiency is around 94-95 %. in coal fired thermal power stations- a rational

approach, Journal of CPRI, 2 (1):9-18ii. A robust measuring and recording system [3] M.Siddhartha Bhatt, Rajashekar P. Mandi and backed up by software for a complete energy N. Rajkumar (2010), A Need for Innovation-Coal management package is required to be put into handling and Conveying in Thermal Power Plants, place for tracking the losses more accurately. Bulk Solids Handling (Germany), Special Issue on

Coal and Coke, Oct.2010, 30(7):1-4.

ConclusionsReference:

M. Siddhartha Bhatt is Additional Director and Divisional Head of the Energy Efficiency & Renewable Energy Division of CPRI. An energy expert he has a professional experience of 30 years at CPRI and has extensively contributed in the areas of energy analysis, energy efficiency & renewable energy. He has published over 40 international journal papers in the area of energy efficiency and one book. He has developed several energy products and holds 5 patents. In the area of industrial consultancy he has undertaken a large number of power audits, energy efficiency studies and studies on renovation, modernization & life extension of thermal and hydro power plants. He has been awarded the Young Scientists Award (1984), Mysore University Golden Jubilee Award for Science and Technology (1988), CBIP Best paper Award (1998). His contact email address::[email protected]

N. Rajkumar has a professional experience of 15 years at Central Power Research Institute (CPRI) at its Centres in Bangalore and Thiruvananthapuram in the field of energy audit and energy conservation. He is presently working in Energy Efficiency&Renewable Energy Division of CPRI as Engineering Officer. He received M.Sc in Energy Science from Madurai Kamaraj University and M.Tech in Energy Management from Devi AhilyaViswavidyalaya, Indore.He has carried out energy audit in thermal power stations, buildings and various process industries. He has designed and developed solar thermal systems. He has published more than 30 technical papers in international and national journals, conferences and seminars in energy conservation and renewable energy. He is a life member of Solar Energy Society of India (SESI) and Life Member of Society of Energy Engineers and Managers (SEEM). He is an accredited Energy

auditor by Bureau of Energy Efficiency, New Delhi. He is a trained ISO 9000:2000 series lead auditor. His contact: [email protected] 33

where the different groups can view it, is required. This analysis must be done before the coal goes to A software is to be in place for online coal energy the bunker so that the operator is well aware of the management in the plant. The software inputs data

f rom the var ious f ie ld instruments (IEDs) for coal receipt from various sources, coal consumption at various bunkers and inventory levels. This must also computes the coal consumption, heat consumption, heat rate, etc., at various points, on line.

The sharing of responsibility of coal consumption in the plant can be as follows:? Coal weight and coal GCV/UHV between the coal mine and the entrance of the CHP of the TPS: Fuel Management/Co-ordination Cell which functions outside the TPS.

combustion characteristic during the shift. This is a ? Coal weight and coal GCV drop between good aid for combustion control and boiler excess Coal Handling Plant and the bunker: Coal handling air and carbon monoxide control. Plant. It will be the responsibility of the coal

handling plant to account for coal weight and coal Ultimate analysis (CHN elemental analysis) GCV drop between receipt point and the bunkers. mapping of coal from different mines and sources Coal weight and coal GCV beyond the bunker: is essential at least once a month instead of Operations In-chargebiannually. This is useful for process optimization of boiler efficiency and is an essential requirement Some of the technical measures for coal for optimization of heat rate since it is used for management are as follows:computing the flue gas flow quantities and excess Sourcing and storage plan of coalsair flow through the boiler.

Stacking is done in as many as five places may be reduced to one/two stack yard to avoid multiple handling.

Figure 1 gives energy efficiencies of coal systems Coal compartments of different collieries, raw of some of the stations recorded during studies. It and washed must be isolated as the type of coal can be seen the energy efficiency for various compatibility is required to be established. stations is in the range of 60% to 88 %. The average Maintaining minimum 3 days' supply of value is around 72 %. Ideal values are 94-95 % reasonably dry coal in a rain protection dome. which make an allowance of 2-3 % overall loss of Avoiding coals with high levels of fines or use of mass for the complete system (transit + internal fines transfer technologies like closed conveyor losses) and a loss of 100-150 kcal/kg for internal belts similar to those in cement plants. handling, storage and measuring errors. Handling of imported, washed and indigenous

raw coals separately and blending them On storage for long periods there is a tendency for technically. loss of heating value due to weathering, rainfall, Preferring coals with sandy background to coals etc., but since the storage time is within 10 days of with clayey background during the monsoon supply this must not be a critical issue. months.

Best Practices

Energy Efficiency of Coal Systems of Stations

32

M a n a g e m e n t o f c o a l y a r d iii. Both receipt and consumption need to be Storage pile design improvement through separately monitored and reconciled through compacting. Pyramidal shapes with drains automated and computerized system. There must on either side lead to low water absorption. not be human intervention in the primary Further the piles must not have surface measurement and recording systems. depressions or pits. Tarpaulins to cover wagons iv. The responsibility and accountability for Providing slopes for drainage of water coal quantity and GCV must be divided between Concreting of storage yards and providing Fuel management cell (sending end to receiving retaining walls end), Coal handling Plant (receiving end to Rain water channeling, dredging and bunkers), and Operations (consumption at cleaning of flow passages bunkers). Rain guards for conveyorsCompacting by special compactors instead of bull dozers. Acknowledgement: The knowledge reported Provision for ground level tippling (non-pit herein is partly of the work for the Maharashtra type) of wagons Electricity Regulatory Commission (MERC),

Mumbai which is gratefully acknowledged.

The main conclusions of the study are as follows: [1] Best practices guide for MPSGCL power

plants, submitted to MERC, Energy Efficiency & i. The energy efficiency of coal systems is Renewable Energy Division, Central Power around 70-75 % in many TPS. This implies that Research Institute, Bangalore-560080nearly 25-30 % of the energy in coal does not find [2] Siddhartha Bhatt M. & B. H. Narayana its place into the boilers or combustors. Ideal (2005), Towards bench marking of gross heat rate efficiency is around 94-95 %. in coal fired thermal power stations- a rational

approach, Journal of CPRI, 2 (1):9-18ii. A robust measuring and recording system [3] M.Siddhartha Bhatt, Rajashekar P. Mandi and backed up by software for a complete energy N. Rajkumar (2010), A Need for Innovation-Coal management package is required to be put into handling and Conveying in Thermal Power Plants, place for tracking the losses more accurately. Bulk Solids Handling (Germany), Special Issue on

Coal and Coke, Oct.2010, 30(7):1-4.

ConclusionsReference:

M. Siddhartha Bhatt is Additional Director and Divisional Head of the Energy Efficiency & Renewable Energy Division of CPRI. An energy expert he has a professional experience of 30 years at CPRI and has extensively contributed in the areas of energy analysis, energy efficiency & renewable energy. He has published over 40 international journal papers in the area of energy efficiency and one book. He has developed several energy products and holds 5 patents. In the area of industrial consultancy he has undertaken a large number of power audits, energy efficiency studies and studies on renovation, modernization & life extension of thermal and hydro power plants. He has been awarded the Young Scientists Award (1984), Mysore University Golden Jubilee Award for Science and Technology (1988), CBIP Best paper Award (1998). His contact email address::[email protected]

N. Rajkumar has a professional experience of 15 years at Central Power Research Institute (CPRI) at its Centres in Bangalore and Thiruvananthapuram in the field of energy audit and energy conservation. He is presently working in Energy Efficiency&Renewable Energy Division of CPRI as Engineering Officer. He received M.Sc in Energy Science from Madurai Kamaraj University and M.Tech in Energy Management from Devi AhilyaViswavidyalaya, Indore.He has carried out energy audit in thermal power stations, buildings and various process industries. He has designed and developed solar thermal systems. He has published more than 30 technical papers in international and national journals, conferences and seminars in energy conservation and renewable energy. He is a life member of Solar Energy Society of India (SESI) and Life Member of Society of Energy Engineers and Managers (SEEM). He is an accredited Energy

auditor by Bureau of Energy Efficiency, New Delhi. He is a trained ISO 9000:2000 series lead auditor. His contact: [email protected] 33

Introduction

National Biodiesel Policy

1)

2)

Based on extensive research carried out in agricultural research centers across the country, it India, being the world's fifth largest energy was decided to use Jatropha curcas oilseed as the consumer, is in the midst of robust economic major feedstock for India's biodiesel programme. development, growing industrialization and rising

human. Every sector of Indian economy

The Government of India approved the National Policy on Biofuels in December 2009. The biofuel policy encouraged the use of renewable energy resources as alternate fuels to supplement transport fuels (petrol and diesel for vehicles) and proposed a target of 20 percent biofuel blending (both bio-diesel and bio-ethanol) by 2017. The government launched the National Biodiesel Mission (NBM) identifying Jatropha curcas as the most suitable tree-borne oilseed for bio-diesel production. The Planning Commission of India had set an ambitious target covering 11.2 to 13.4 million hectares of land under Jatropha cultivation by the end of the 11th Five-Year Plan.

agriculture, industry, transport, commercial, and The National Biodiesel Mission was to be domestic needs inputs of energy. The growing implemented in two stages: consumption of energy has led to increasing A demonstration project carried out over the dependence on fossil fuels, such as coal, oil and period 2003-2007 aimed at cultivating 400,000 gas. Currently, India uses petroleum products to hectares of Jatropha to yield about 3.75 tons oilseed meet 95 percent of its transportation energy needs per hectare annually. and is increasingly reliant on imports to meet this A commercialization period during 2007-demand. 2012 with continuing Jatropha cultivation and

installation of more trans-esterification plants to Promotion of energy conservation and increased position India to meet 20 percent of its diesel needs use of renewable energy resources are twin planks through biodiesel.of any sustainable development mechanism. The Government of India is vigorously exploring ways The first phase was taken up during 2003-2007 and to ensure energy security and is looking for included several programs on promotion of large-alternate fuels to meet the increasing energy scale Jatropha plantations in forests and wastelands, demand. The biofuel policy, adopted in 2009, procurement of seed and oil extraction, envisages 20 percent blending of both biodiesel transesterification, blending and trade and and bioethanol by year 2017. It also hopes to technological R&D. The second phase of expansion increase energy security by launching one of the targets to make the program self-sustainable by biggest non-edible oilseed-based biodiesel producing enough biodiesel to meet the 20 percent programs in the world. blending target. To ensure a fair price to the Jatropha

farmers, various state governments have offered a Biodiesel is typically made from vegetable oil minimum purchase price (MPP) for Jatropha seeds. though animal fat can also be used. Rapeseed oil The MPP is in place for biodiesel also, the present has 82 percent of the share of the world's biodiesel rate being Rs 26.50 per litre for biodiesel. feedstock, followed by sunflower oil, soybean and palm oil. The choice of feed is country specific and In addition, some subsidy programs and tax depends on availability. In India, non-edible oil is concessions are also part of the government's efforts most suitable as biodiesel feedstock since the to boost the production of feedstocks for biodiesel. demand for edible oil exceeds the domestic supply.


34

limited space and highly suitable for intercropping. Several public institutions like National Oilseeds Extensive research has shown that Jatropha and Vegetable Oils Development Board, state requires low water and fertilizer for cultivation, is biofuel boards, state agricultural universities and not grazed by cattle or sheep, is pest resistant, is non-state actors like non-governmental easily propagated, has a low gestation period, and organizations, self-help groups, cooperative has a high seed yield and oil content, and produces societies, etc. are also actively supporting the high protein biofuel program in various capacities. manure.

P o n g a m i a There are three major steps in biodiesel p i n n a t a o r production: (i) plantationproduction of oil seeds, K a r a n j i s (ii) oil extractionproduction of straight vegetable a n o t h e r oil (SVO), and (iii) trans-esterification production p r o m i s i n g of biodiesel. Biodiesel in India is mostly produced non-edible oil from the oils extracted from the seeds of Jatropha, seed plant that mainly because of the fact that edible oil is scarce can be utilized and the country already depends on huge quantity f o r o i l of imported oils for edible purposes. Apart from extraction for Jatropha, Pongamia pinnata, Mahua, Neem and biofuels. The Castor are plant is a native a l s o of India and grows in dry places far in the interior considereand up to an elevation of 1000 meters. Pongamia d as good plantation is not much known as like Jatropha, but source of the cost effectiveness of this plant makes it more n o n -preferred than other feedstock. Pongamia requires edible oil-about four to five times lesser inputs and giver two b a s e d to three times more yield than Jatropha which biodiesel makes it quite suitable for small farmers in India. in India.However, Pongamia seeds have about 5-10 percent less oil content than Jatropha and the plant requires Ja t ropha longer period to grow as the gestation period is is a genus about 6-8 years for Pongamia against 3-5 years in of nearly 175 species of shrubs, low-growing Jatropha. plants, and trees. However, discussions of

Jatropha as a biodiesel are actually means a particular species of the plant, Jatropha curcas. The plant is indigenous to parts of Central America, The biodiesel industry in India is still in infancy however it has spread to other tropical and despite the fact that demand for diesel is five times subtropical regions in Africa and Asia. Jatropha higher than that for petrol. The government's curcas is a perennial shrub that, on average, grows ambitious plan of producing sufficient biodiesel by approximately three to five meters in height. It has 2011-2012 to meet its mandate of 20 percent diesel smooth grey bark with large and pale green leaves. blending is unrealized due to a lack of sufficient The plant produces flowers and fruits are produced Jatropha seeds to produce biodiesel. Currently, in winter or throughout the year depending on Jatropha occupies only around 0.5 million hectares temperature and soil moisture. The curcas fruit of low-quality wastelands across the country, of contains 37.5 percent shell and 62.5 percent seed. which 65-70 percent are new plantations of less Jatropha curcas can be grown from either seed or than three years. Several corporations, petroleum cutting. companies and private companies have entered into

a memorandum of understanding with state governments to establish and promote Jatropha By virtue of being a member of the Euphorbiaceae plantations on government-owned wastelands or family, Jatropha has a high adaptability for thriving contract farming with small and medium farmers. under a wide range of physiographic and climatic However, only a few states have been able to conditions. It is found to grow in all most all parts actively promote Jatropha plantations despite of the country up to an elevation 3000 feet. government incentives.Jatropha is suitable for all soils including degraded

and barren lands, and is a perennial occupying

Major Feedstock for Biodiesel

Biodiesel Production in India

35

Introduction

National Biodiesel Policy

1)

2)

Based on extensive research carried out in agricultural research centers across the country, it India, being the world's fifth largest energy was decided to use Jatropha curcas oilseed as the consumer, is in the midst of robust economic major feedstock for India's biodiesel programme. development, growing industrialization and rising

human. Every sector of Indian economy

The Government of India approved the National Policy on Biofuels in December 2009. The biofuel policy encouraged the use of renewable energy resources as alternate fuels to supplement transport fuels (petrol and diesel for vehicles) and proposed a target of 20 percent biofuel blending (both bio-diesel and bio-ethanol) by 2017. The government launched the National Biodiesel Mission (NBM) identifying Jatropha curcas as the most suitable tree-borne oilseed for bio-diesel production. The Planning Commission of India had set an ambitious target covering 11.2 to 13.4 million hectares of land under Jatropha cultivation by the end of the 11th Five-Year Plan.

agriculture, industry, transport, commercial, and The National Biodiesel Mission was to be domestic needs inputs of energy. The growing implemented in two stages: consumption of energy has led to increasing A demonstration project carried out over the dependence on fossil fuels, such as coal, oil and period 2003-2007 aimed at cultivating 400,000 gas. Currently, India uses petroleum products to hectares of Jatropha to yield about 3.75 tons oilseed meet 95 percent of its transportation energy needs per hectare annually. and is increasingly reliant on imports to meet this A commercialization period during 2007-demand. 2012 with continuing Jatropha cultivation and

installation of more trans-esterification plants to Promotion of energy conservation and increased position India to meet 20 percent of its diesel needs use of renewable energy resources are twin planks through biodiesel.of any sustainable development mechanism. The Government of India is vigorously exploring ways The first phase was taken up during 2003-2007 and to ensure energy security and is looking for included several programs on promotion of large-alternate fuels to meet the increasing energy scale Jatropha plantations in forests and wastelands, demand. The biofuel policy, adopted in 2009, procurement of seed and oil extraction, envisages 20 percent blending of both biodiesel transesterification, blending and trade and and bioethanol by year 2017. It also hopes to technological R&D. The second phase of expansion increase energy security by launching one of the targets to make the program self-sustainable by biggest non-edible oilseed-based biodiesel producing enough biodiesel to meet the 20 percent programs in the world. blending target. To ensure a fair price to the Jatropha

farmers, various state governments have offered a Biodiesel is typically made from vegetable oil minimum purchase price (MPP) for Jatropha seeds. though animal fat can also be used. Rapeseed oil The MPP is in place for biodiesel also, the present has 82 percent of the share of the world's biodiesel rate being Rs 26.50 per litre for biodiesel. feedstock, followed by sunflower oil, soybean and palm oil. The choice of feed is country specific and In addition, some subsidy programs and tax depends on availability. In India, non-edible oil is concessions are also part of the government's efforts most suitable as biodiesel feedstock since the to boost the production of feedstocks for biodiesel. demand for edible oil exceeds the domestic supply.


34

limited space and highly suitable for intercropping. Several public institutions like National Oilseeds Extensive research has shown that Jatropha and Vegetable Oils Development Board, state requires low water and fertilizer for cultivation, is biofuel boards, state agricultural universities and not grazed by cattle or sheep, is pest resistant, is non-state actors like non-governmental easily propagated, has a low gestation period, and organizations, self-help groups, cooperative has a high seed yield and oil content, and produces societies, etc. are also actively supporting the high protein biofuel program in various capacities. manure.

P o n g a m i a There are three major steps in biodiesel p i n n a t a o r production: (i) plantationproduction of oil seeds, K a r a n j i s (ii) oil extractionproduction of straight vegetable a n o t h e r oil (SVO), and (iii) trans-esterification production p r o m i s i n g of biodiesel. Biodiesel in India is mostly produced non-edible oil from the oils extracted from the seeds of Jatropha, seed plant that mainly because of the fact that edible oil is scarce can be utilized and the country already depends on huge quantity f o r o i l of imported oils for edible purposes. Apart from extraction for Jatropha, Pongamia pinnata, Mahua, Neem and biofuels. The Castor are plant is a native a l s o of India and grows in dry places far in the interior considereand up to an elevation of 1000 meters. Pongamia d as good plantation is not much known as like Jatropha, but source of the cost effectiveness of this plant makes it more n o n -preferred than other feedstock. Pongamia requires edible oil-about four to five times lesser inputs and giver two b a s e d to three times more yield than Jatropha which biodiesel makes it quite suitable for small farmers in India. in India.However, Pongamia seeds have about 5-10 percent less oil content than Jatropha and the plant requires Ja t ropha longer period to grow as the gestation period is is a genus about 6-8 years for Pongamia against 3-5 years in of nearly 175 species of shrubs, low-growing Jatropha. plants, and trees. However, discussions of

Jatropha as a biodiesel are actually means a particular species of the plant, Jatropha curcas. The plant is indigenous to parts of Central America, The biodiesel industry in India is still in infancy however it has spread to other tropical and despite the fact that demand for diesel is five times subtropical regions in Africa and Asia. Jatropha higher than that for petrol. The government's curcas is a perennial shrub that, on average, grows ambitious plan of producing sufficient biodiesel by approximately three to five meters in height. It has 2011-2012 to meet its mandate of 20 percent diesel smooth grey bark with large and pale green leaves. blending is unrealized due to a lack of sufficient The plant produces flowers and fruits are produced Jatropha seeds to produce biodiesel. Currently, in winter or throughout the year depending on Jatropha occupies only around 0.5 million hectares temperature and soil moisture. The curcas fruit of low-quality wastelands across the country, of contains 37.5 percent shell and 62.5 percent seed. which 65-70 percent are new plantations of less Jatropha curcas can be grown from either seed or than three years. Several corporations, petroleum cutting. companies and private companies have entered into

a memorandum of understanding with state governments to establish and promote Jatropha By virtue of being a member of the Euphorbiaceae plantations on government-owned wastelands or family, Jatropha has a high adaptability for thriving contract farming with small and medium farmers. under a wide range of physiographic and climatic However, only a few states have been able to conditions. It is found to grow in all most all parts actively promote Jatropha plantations despite of the country up to an elevation 3000 feet. government incentives.Jatropha is suitable for all soils including degraded

and barren lands, and is a perennial occupying

Major Feedstock for Biodiesel

Biodiesel Production in India

35

blending is unrealized due to a lack of sufficient target of 5 percent blending by 2011-12 while Asian Jatropha seeds to produce biodiesel. Currently, Development Bank estimates that 32 million Jatropha occupies only around 0.5 million hectares hectares of wastelands should be allocated to of low-quality wastelands across the country, of biodiesel crops, together with some yield which 65-70 percent are new plantations of less improvements, to meet the 20% blending target than three years. Several corporations, petroleum stipulated in Indian biofuel policy. companies and private companies have entered into a memorandum of understanding with state governments to establish and promote Jatropha A major obstacle in implementing the biodiesel plantations on government-owned wastelands or programme has been the difficulty in initiating contract farming with small and medium farmers. large-scale cultivation of Jatropha. The Jatropha However, only a few states have been able to production program was started without any actively promote Jatropha plantations despite planned varietal improvement program, and use of government incentives. low-yielding cultivars made things difficult for

smallholders. The higher gestation period of Large-scale blending of biodiesel with biodiesel crops (35 years for Jatropha and 68 years conventional diesel has not yet started in India. for Pongamia) results in a longer payback period Commercial production of biodiesel from Jatropha and creates additional problems for farmers where and non-edible oilseeds is small, with estimates state support is not readily available. The Jatropha varying from 140 to 300 million liters per year seed distribution channels are currently from 20-odd biodiesel plants scaterred across the underdeveloped as sufficient numbers of country. The biodiesel produced is sold to the processing industries are not operating. There are unorganized sector (irrigation pumps, agricultural no specific markets for Jatropha seed supply and usage, diesel generators etc) and to experimental hence the middlemen play a major role in taking the projects carried out by automobiles and transport seeds to the processing centres and this inflates the companies. There has been no commercial sale marketing margin. across the biodiesel purchase centers which may be attributed to low biodiesel purchase price of Rs Biodiesel distribution channels are virtually non-26.5 per liter which is much below the estimated existent as most of the biofuel produced is used biodiesel finished production cost (Rs 30 - 40 per either by the producing companies for self-use or by liter. Inefficient marketing channels and lack of certain transport companies on a trial basis. Further, feedstock supply are among some of the major the cost of biodiesel depends substantially on the factors that have contributed to higher production cost of seeds and the economy of scale at which the costs. Some of the big companies active in Indian processing plant is operating. The lack of assured biodiesel sector are British Petroleum, D1 Oils, supplies of feedstock supply has hampered efforts G e n e r a l M o t o r s , S o u t h e r n O n l i n e by the private sector to set up biodiesel plants in Biotechnologies, Emami Biotech, Naturol India. As of now, only two firms, Naturol Bioenergy Bioenergy, Nova Biofuels etc. Limited and Southern Online Biotechnologies,

have embarked on commercial-scale biodiesel According to a recent policy brief paper published projects, both in the southern state of Andhra by the National Centre for Agricultural Economics Pradesh. In the absence of seed collection and oil and Policy Research (NCAP), around 3.21 million extraction infrastructure, it becomes difficult to tons of biodiesel would be required from an persuade entrepreneurs to install trans-estimated area of 3.42 million hectares to meet a esterification plants.

Major Roadblocks

Salman Zafar is a Cleantech Entrepreneur, Advisor, Consultant and Writer. He is involved in creating mass awareness on renewable energy technologies and waste management systems. He has successfully accomplished a wide range of cleantech projects, mainly in the areas of biogas technology, biomass utilization, waste-to-energy and solid waste management. Salman has participated in numerous national and international conferences as a keynote speaker, session chair, invited speaker, panelist, roundtable moderator etc. Salman is a prolific writer and has authored more than 55 articles in reputed journals, magazines, newsletters and blogs on renewable energy and environmental issues. He can be reached at [email protected]

generation leaving a meager quantity of 35% of India has an installed capacity of 1,76,500 MWs of the total estimated quantity for the next power as on 31.10.2011, and still facing a peak generations. It is pertinent to say that unless the load power shortage of 15% and a regular power fossil fuels are carefully used and saved or it is shortage of 9%. Even to day 40% of Indian difficult for survival for the next generations.population is far reaching to receive the

It is also equally important that scientists are to find out ways and means to develop under R&D programmes some more alternative fuels either for full replacement or partial replacement of existing fuels.In the above context, the entire world is looking forward for the generation of Electricity through Non-Conventional primary Energies like wind, solar, geothermal and to run the world vehicular population by using, biomass, bio fuels etc., for running all types of transport

conventional energy to light their homes and 30% vehicle either by the solar energy or through of world population lives in India without batteries stored by the solar energy towards their electricity. The per capita consumption is commitment to mitigate carbon emissions as per contemplated to be enhanced from present level of protocol agreement by UNFCC. The western world 450 units to 1000 Units as per the Indian National has already succeeded in establishing such non Electricity Policy envisaged in IE Act 2003 by the conventional energies, and India is now advancing year 2012. its involvement in generating power through non-

conventional energies and presently wants to The Unreliable power supply is the reason for install a solar energy to 20,000MWs by the year wastages of Diesel oils due large scale usage of DG 2020 which will generate 25-30 TWHs annually Set and inverters during power interruptions, apart helping to reduce the gap between demand and from the above, regular Power interruptions supply. The Government has to take more efforts to causing huge loss of manpower and production , pursue the Scientists for inventions to go effecting 400 millions at any moment of time alternative energies in petroleum and other causing severe production loss industrial, and products.Agricultural front.

The present contribution of Electrical energy With existing resources of fossil fuels like coal, gas through non-conventional sources is only 10.1% and oil, it would be very difficult to meet this against 64% from Thermal energy sources. The demand in future. The Indian coal is very poor carbon emissions from these generating stations quality and with 40% ash content, resulting high are causing alarming effect on the environment, carbon emission and producing a high amount of resulting enhanced global warming.fly ash which would be very difficult to handle the fly ash which is a by product of coal burning Presently in most of the DG Set the HSD in all besides highest carbon emission from burning of farms are used for Electricity generation as a coal. With the present rate of consumption the substitute of Electricity especially during frequent existing oil and gas resources are going to be power failures. Unmindful usage of HSD and exhausted within 40 to 50 years which is going to ignorant usage without minding the performance be a major threat for the entire globe. It is also to levels of DG Set a lot of diesel oil is wasted note that about 65% of our natural resources of resulting highest generation cost of Electrical fossil fuels had already been spent by the present Energy from DG Sets.


37

blending is unrealized due to a lack of sufficient target of 5 percent blending by 2011-12 while Asian Jatropha seeds to produce biodiesel. Currently, Development Bank estimates that 32 million Jatropha occupies only around 0.5 million hectares hectares of wastelands should be allocated to of low-quality wastelands across the country, of biodiesel crops, together with some yield which 65-70 percent are new plantations of less improvements, to meet the 20% blending target than three years. Several corporations, petroleum stipulated in Indian biofuel policy. companies and private companies have entered into a memorandum of understanding with state governments to establish and promote Jatropha A major obstacle in implementing the biodiesel plantations on government-owned wastelands or programme has been the difficulty in initiating contract farming with small and medium farmers. large-scale cultivation of Jatropha. The Jatropha However, only a few states have been able to production program was started without any actively promote Jatropha plantations despite planned varietal improvement program, and use of government incentives. low-yielding cultivars made things difficult for

smallholders. The higher gestation period of Large-scale blending of biodiesel with biodiesel crops (35 years for Jatropha and 68 years conventional diesel has not yet started in India. for Pongamia) results in a longer payback period Commercial production of biodiesel from Jatropha and creates additional problems for farmers where and non-edible oilseeds is small, with estimates state support is not readily available. The Jatropha varying from 140 to 300 million liters per year seed distribution channels are currently from 20-odd biodiesel plants scaterred across the underdeveloped as sufficient numbers of country. The biodiesel produced is sold to the processing industries are not operating. There are unorganized sector (irrigation pumps, agricultural no specific markets for Jatropha seed supply and usage, diesel generators etc) and to experimental hence the middlemen play a major role in taking the projects carried out by automobiles and transport seeds to the processing centres and this inflates the companies. There has been no commercial sale marketing margin. across the biodiesel purchase centers which may be attributed to low biodiesel purchase price of Rs Biodiesel distribution channels are virtually non-26.5 per liter which is much below the estimated existent as most of the biofuel produced is used biodiesel finished production cost (Rs 30 - 40 per either by the producing companies for self-use or by liter. Inefficient marketing channels and lack of certain transport companies on a trial basis. Further, feedstock supply are among some of the major the cost of biodiesel depends substantially on the factors that have contributed to higher production cost of seeds and the economy of scale at which the costs. Some of the big companies active in Indian processing plant is operating. The lack of assured biodiesel sector are British Petroleum, D1 Oils, supplies of feedstock supply has hampered efforts G e n e r a l M o t o r s , S o u t h e r n O n l i n e by the private sector to set up biodiesel plants in Biotechnologies, Emami Biotech, Naturol India. As of now, only two firms, Naturol Bioenergy Bioenergy, Nova Biofuels etc. Limited and Southern Online Biotechnologies,

have embarked on commercial-scale biodiesel According to a recent policy brief paper published projects, both in the southern state of Andhra by the National Centre for Agricultural Economics Pradesh. In the absence of seed collection and oil and Policy Research (NCAP), around 3.21 million extraction infrastructure, it becomes difficult to tons of biodiesel would be required from an persuade entrepreneurs to install trans-estimated area of 3.42 million hectares to meet a esterification plants.

Major Roadblocks

Salman Zafar is a Cleantech Entrepreneur, Advisor, Consultant and Writer. He is involved in creating mass awareness on renewable energy technologies and waste management systems. He has successfully accomplished a wide range of cleantech projects, mainly in the areas of biogas technology, biomass utilization, waste-to-energy and solid waste management. Salman has participated in numerous national and international conferences as a keynote speaker, session chair, invited speaker, panelist, roundtable moderator etc. Salman is a prolific writer and has authored more than 55 articles in reputed journals, magazines, newsletters and blogs on renewable energy and environmental issues. He can be reached at [email protected]

generation leaving a meager quantity of 35% of India has an installed capacity of 1,76,500 MWs of the total estimated quantity for the next power as on 31.10.2011, and still facing a peak generations. It is pertinent to say that unless the load power shortage of 15% and a regular power fossil fuels are carefully used and saved or it is shortage of 9%. Even to day 40% of Indian difficult for survival for the next generations.population is far reaching to receive the

It is also equally important that scientists are to find out ways and means to develop under R&D programmes some more alternative fuels either for full replacement or partial replacement of existing fuels.In the above context, the entire world is looking forward for the generation of Electricity through Non-Conventional primary Energies like wind, solar, geothermal and to run the world vehicular population by using, biomass, bio fuels etc., for running all types of transport

conventional energy to light their homes and 30% vehicle either by the solar energy or through of world population lives in India without batteries stored by the solar energy towards their electricity. The per capita consumption is commitment to mitigate carbon emissions as per contemplated to be enhanced from present level of protocol agreement by UNFCC. The western world 450 units to 1000 Units as per the Indian National has already succeeded in establishing such non Electricity Policy envisaged in IE Act 2003 by the conventional energies, and India is now advancing year 2012. its involvement in generating power through non-

conventional energies and presently wants to The Unreliable power supply is the reason for install a solar energy to 20,000MWs by the year wastages of Diesel oils due large scale usage of DG 2020 which will generate 25-30 TWHs annually Set and inverters during power interruptions, apart helping to reduce the gap between demand and from the above, regular Power interruptions supply. The Government has to take more efforts to causing huge loss of manpower and production , pursue the Scientists for inventions to go effecting 400 millions at any moment of time alternative energies in petroleum and other causing severe production loss industrial, and products.Agricultural front.

The present contribution of Electrical energy With existing resources of fossil fuels like coal, gas through non-conventional sources is only 10.1% and oil, it would be very difficult to meet this against 64% from Thermal energy sources. The demand in future. The Indian coal is very poor carbon emissions from these generating stations quality and with 40% ash content, resulting high are causing alarming effect on the environment, carbon emission and producing a high amount of resulting enhanced global warming.fly ash which would be very difficult to handle the fly ash which is a by product of coal burning Presently in most of the DG Set the HSD in all besides highest carbon emission from burning of farms are used for Electricity generation as a coal. With the present rate of consumption the substitute of Electricity especially during frequent existing oil and gas resources are going to be power failures. Unmindful usage of HSD and exhausted within 40 to 50 years which is going to ignorant usage without minding the performance be a major threat for the entire globe. It is also to levels of DG Set a lot of diesel oil is wasted note that about 65% of our natural resources of resulting highest generation cost of Electrical fossil fuels had already been spent by the present Energy from DG Sets.


37

Now it has become very important, to use the bio fuels either using directly or to mix with conventional oils,and gains utmost important to Most advance research results indicates that save fossil fuels thus to save investment on the cost efficient algal-oil production is being done in the of generation. private sector, but predictions from small scale

production experiments says using algae to Algae fuel might be an alternative to fossil fuel and produce biodiesel is the only viable method by uses algae as its source of natural deposits. Most of the private entrepreneurs and also government agencies are funding to reduce capital and operating costs and make algae fuel production commercially viable to reach the common investor. The ALGAE consumes the carbon dioxide available in the atmosphere for its natural growth like other plants but more quantity. We can make use the excess carbon dioxide released from the generating stations by adopting carbon capturing technology. This process saves the earth from environmental effects besides more energy generation from thermal power stations.

High oil prices, the world oil crisis, have increased which to produce enough automotive fuel to the interest in farming the algae (algae culture ) replace current world diesel usage. If algae-derived with all natural resources for extracting bio diesel, biodiesel were to replace the annual global bio ethanol, bio gasoline, bio methanol, bio butanol production of 1.1bn tons of conventional diesel, a and other bio fuels, using land that is not suitable land of 57.3 million hectares would be required and for agriculture.hence highly favorable production of oil than the production of other bio fuels. For all commercial levels production of oil from Algae, normally do not require any fresh water for The Micro algae grows much faster and its yield its growth. And hence fresh resources need not be per unit area is estimated between 5000 to 20,000 disturbed or investment on the freshwater can US gallons/acre/year or 4,500 to 18,000 Cu.mt/ Sq easily be avoided. The Algae can also be produced KM. Microalgae have much faster growth rates using ocean and waste water, recycled water.than terrestrial crops. The per unit area yield of oil from algae is estimated to be from between 5,000 to The production of Algae is costlier per unit mass as 20,000 US gallons per acre per year (4,700 to the high input capital costs and also maintenance 18,000 m3/km2·a).cost of the plant at least in the initial stages. But its

e f f e c t i v e n e s s c a n b e n o t i c e d a s t h e Microalgae are capable of producing large http:/ /en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algae_oil - amounts of biomass and usable oil in either high cite_note-5efficient energy out put is around 50-rate algal ponds or photo-bio-reactors. This oil can 70 times that of energy per unit from that of then be turned into biodiesel which could be sold second- generation bio fuels crops and algae fuel for use in automobiles. Regional production of can reach price parity with oil in 2020 if granted microalgae and processing into bio fuels will production tax credits and other tax holidays that provide economic benefits to rural communities. Government announcing from time

The ALGAE fuel contains Bio diesel, Bio butanol, Bio gasoline, methane, ethanol, The oil content in

Butanol can be made from algae. This fuel has an the Algae is the percentage of oil in relation to the energy density 10% less than gasoline, and greater dry biomass needed to get it, i.e. if the algae lipid than that of either ethanol or methanol. In most content is 40%, one would need 2.5 kg of dry algae gasoline engines, butanol can be used in place of to get 1 kg of oil.

Biodiesel

Bio butanol

PetroDiesel BioDiesel

38

gasoline without any modifications. In several deployment of algal fuels members to be using tests, butanol consumption is similar to that of 10% alternative fuels by 2017.And many trials gasoline, and when blended with gasoline, have been conducted to use aviation bio fuel in provides better performance and corrosion many air lines for its suitability and sustainability. resistance than that of ethanol. Development in this sector:- In February 2010, the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency

announced that the U.S. military was about to begin large-scale production oil from algal ponds

Bio-gasoline is gasoline produced from biomass into jet fuel. A larger-scale refining operation, such as algae. Like traditionally produced gasoline, producing 50 million gallons a year, is expected to it contains between 6 (hexane) and 12 (dodecane) go into production in 2013, with the possibility of carbon atoms per molecule and can be used in lower per gallon costs so that algae-based fuel internal-combustion engines. would be competitive with fossil fuels. The projects, run by the companies SAIC and General

Atomics, are expected to produce 1,000 gallons of oil per acre per year from algal ponds.

Methane a form of natural gas can be produced from algae in various methods, namely Other major oils produced from Algae is Ethanol, Gasification, Pyrolysis and Anaerobic Digestion. Vegetable oils, Hydro cracking transport fuels,In Gasification and Pyrolysis methods methane is Algae cultivationextracted under high temperature and pressure. Anaerobic Algae can produce up to 300 times more oil per Digestionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algae_oil - acre than conventional crops, such as rapeseed, cite_note-21 is a straight forward method involved palms, soybeans, or jatropha. As algae have a in decomposition of algae into simple components harvesting cycle of 110 days, it permits several then transforming it into fatty acids using microbes harvests in a very short time frame, a differing like acidific bacteria followed by removing any strategy to yearly crops .Algae can be cultivated solid particles and finally adding methanogenic faster than the other food crops substantially.bacteria to release a gas mixture containing methane. Algae can also be grown on land that is not suitable

for other established crops even with moderately hot temperatures or semiarid tropics, for instance,

In Indian Petroleum Sector all Public Sector arid land, land with excessively saline soil, and Petroleum companies are enhancing the prices of drought-stricken land. This minimizes the issue of petroleum products which are linked with taking away pieces of land from the cultivation of international prices and causing major financial food crops . Algae can also grow on marginal lands, hardship for the vehicle owners. The major such as in desert areas where the groundwater is expenditure to the individual earnings are going saline, rather than utilize fresh water. Because toward Petrol or HSD to keep running their algae strains with lower lipid content may grow as vehicles. much as 30 times faster than those with high lipid

content, the difficulties in efficient biodiesel Rising jet fuel prices are putting severe pressure on production from algae lie in finding an algal strain, airline companies and further passing the burden to with a combination of high lipid content and fast the airline travelers. This increased fuel prices, growth rate, that isn't too difficult to harvest; and a forcing the Governments to more concentrate on cost-effective cultivation system (i.e., type of the Bio fuel research, to see the aviation fuel to be photo bioreactor) that is best suited to that strain. kept at lower possible prices. This has become an There is also a need to provide concentrated CO2 to incentive for the Algae oil production and more increase the rate of production.concentration on bio fuel production though not a complete substitution of hydrocarbons.

In this direction the International Air Transport Research into algae for the mass-production of oil Association supports research, development and is mainly focused on microalgae such as seaweed.

Biogasoline

Methane

Jet fuel /Aviation bio fuels

Algae types

39

Now it has become very important, to use the bio fuels either using directly or to mix with conventional oils,and gains utmost important to Most advance research results indicates that save fossil fuels thus to save investment on the cost efficient algal-oil production is being done in the of generation. private sector, but predictions from small scale

production experiments says using algae to Algae fuel might be an alternative to fossil fuel and produce biodiesel is the only viable method by uses algae as its source of natural deposits. Most of the private entrepreneurs and also government agencies are funding to reduce capital and operating costs and make algae fuel production commercially viable to reach the common investor. The ALGAE consumes the carbon dioxide available in the atmosphere for its natural growth like other plants but more quantity. We can make use the excess carbon dioxide released from the generating stations by adopting carbon capturing technology. This process saves the earth from environmental effects besides more energy generation from thermal power stations.

High oil prices, the world oil crisis, have increased which to produce enough automotive fuel to the interest in farming the algae (algae culture ) replace current world diesel usage. If algae-derived with all natural resources for extracting bio diesel, biodiesel were to replace the annual global bio ethanol, bio gasoline, bio methanol, bio butanol production of 1.1bn tons of conventional diesel, a and other bio fuels, using land that is not suitable land of 57.3 million hectares would be required and for agriculture.hence highly favorable production of oil than the production of other bio fuels. For all commercial levels production of oil from Algae, normally do not require any fresh water for The Micro algae grows much faster and its yield its growth. And hence fresh resources need not be per unit area is estimated between 5000 to 20,000 disturbed or investment on the freshwater can US gallons/acre/year or 4,500 to 18,000 Cu.mt/ Sq easily be avoided. The Algae can also be produced KM. Microalgae have much faster growth rates using ocean and waste water, recycled water.than terrestrial crops. The per unit area yield of oil from algae is estimated to be from between 5,000 to The production of Algae is costlier per unit mass as 20,000 US gallons per acre per year (4,700 to the high input capital costs and also maintenance 18,000 m3/km2·a).cost of the plant at least in the initial stages. But its

e f f e c t i v e n e s s c a n b e n o t i c e d a s t h e Microalgae are capable of producing large http:/ /en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algae_oil - amounts of biomass and usable oil in either high cite_note-5efficient energy out put is around 50-rate algal ponds or photo-bio-reactors. This oil can 70 times that of energy per unit from that of then be turned into biodiesel which could be sold second- generation bio fuels crops and algae fuel for use in automobiles. Regional production of can reach price parity with oil in 2020 if granted microalgae and processing into bio fuels will production tax credits and other tax holidays that provide economic benefits to rural communities. Government announcing from time

The ALGAE fuel contains Bio diesel, Bio butanol, Bio gasoline, methane, ethanol, The oil content in

Butanol can be made from algae. This fuel has an the Algae is the percentage of oil in relation to the energy density 10% less than gasoline, and greater dry biomass needed to get it, i.e. if the algae lipid than that of either ethanol or methanol. In most content is 40%, one would need 2.5 kg of dry algae gasoline engines, butanol can be used in place of to get 1 kg of oil.

Biodiesel

Bio butanol

PetroDiesel BioDiesel

38

gasoline without any modifications. In several deployment of algal fuels members to be using tests, butanol consumption is similar to that of 10% alternative fuels by 2017.And many trials gasoline, and when blended with gasoline, have been conducted to use aviation bio fuel in provides better performance and corrosion many air lines for its suitability and sustainability. resistance than that of ethanol. Development in this sector:- In February 2010, the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency

announced that the U.S. military was about to begin large-scale production oil from algal ponds

Bio-gasoline is gasoline produced from biomass into jet fuel. A larger-scale refining operation, such as algae. Like traditionally produced gasoline, producing 50 million gallons a year, is expected to it contains between 6 (hexane) and 12 (dodecane) go into production in 2013, with the possibility of carbon atoms per molecule and can be used in lower per gallon costs so that algae-based fuel internal-combustion engines. would be competitive with fossil fuels. The projects, run by the companies SAIC and General

Atomics, are expected to produce 1,000 gallons of oil per acre per year from algal ponds.

Methane a form of natural gas can be produced from algae in various methods, namely Other major oils produced from Algae is Ethanol, Gasification, Pyrolysis and Anaerobic Digestion. Vegetable oils, Hydro cracking transport fuels,In Gasification and Pyrolysis methods methane is Algae cultivationextracted under high temperature and pressure. Anaerobic Algae can produce up to 300 times more oil per Digestionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algae_oil - acre than conventional crops, such as rapeseed, cite_note-21 is a straight forward method involved palms, soybeans, or jatropha. As algae have a in decomposition of algae into simple components harvesting cycle of 110 days, it permits several then transforming it into fatty acids using microbes harvests in a very short time frame, a differing like acidific bacteria followed by removing any strategy to yearly crops .Algae can be cultivated solid particles and finally adding methanogenic faster than the other food crops substantially.bacteria to release a gas mixture containing methane. Algae can also be grown on land that is not suitable

for other established crops even with moderately hot temperatures or semiarid tropics, for instance,

In Indian Petroleum Sector all Public Sector arid land, land with excessively saline soil, and Petroleum companies are enhancing the prices of drought-stricken land. This minimizes the issue of petroleum products which are linked with taking away pieces of land from the cultivation of international prices and causing major financial food crops . Algae can also grow on marginal lands, hardship for the vehicle owners. The major such as in desert areas where the groundwater is expenditure to the individual earnings are going saline, rather than utilize fresh water. Because toward Petrol or HSD to keep running their algae strains with lower lipid content may grow as vehicles. much as 30 times faster than those with high lipid

content, the difficulties in efficient biodiesel Rising jet fuel prices are putting severe pressure on production from algae lie in finding an algal strain, airline companies and further passing the burden to with a combination of high lipid content and fast the airline travelers. This increased fuel prices, growth rate, that isn't too difficult to harvest; and a forcing the Governments to more concentrate on cost-effective cultivation system (i.e., type of the Bio fuel research, to see the aviation fuel to be photo bioreactor) that is best suited to that strain. kept at lower possible prices. This has become an There is also a need to provide concentrated CO2 to incentive for the Algae oil production and more increase the rate of production.concentration on bio fuel production though not a complete substitution of hydrocarbons.

In this direction the International Air Transport Research into algae for the mass-production of oil Association supports research, development and is mainly focused on microalgae such as seaweed.

Biogasoline

Methane

Jet fuel /Aviation bio fuels

Algae types

39

The preference towards microalgae is due to its less digestion. If waste water is not processed before it complex structure, fast growth rate, and high oil reaches the algae, it will contaminate the algae and content (for some species). However, some kill much of the desired algae strain. research is being done into using seaweeds for biofuels, probably due to the high availability of The utilization of wastewater and ocean water this resource. instead of freshwater is strongly advocated due to

the continuing depletion of freshwater resources in The following species listed are currently being the main lands. However, heavy metals, trace studied for their suitability as a mass-oil producing metals, and other contaminants in wastewater shall crop, across various locations worldwide: decrease the ability of cells to produce lipids ? Botryococcus braunii biosynthetically and also impact various other ? Chlorella workings in the machinery of cells? Dunaliella tertiolecta ? Gracilaria? Pleurochrysis carterae (also called

CCMP647). There is always uncertainty about the success of ? Sargassum, with 10 times the output n ew products and investors have to consider

volume of Gracilaria. carefully the proper energy sources in which to invest. A drop in fossil fuel oil prices might make

consumers and therefore investors lose interest in renewable energy.

Each tonne of microalgae absorbs two tons of CO2. In the future, they will use the algae residues to As this technology is newly introducing in India, produce renewable energy through anaerobic though it is familiar in other western countries the digestion. The large quantities of carbon dioxide pay back periods can be calculated when once it can be made available through Carbon Capturing gets familiarity. The people should understand the Technology, adopted and make use of emissions usability of bio fuels from Algae along with the of Carbon Dioxide thermal power projects. In India other petroleum products and an awareness is to be 64% of power is from thermal power stations, l brought among the people for its sustainability in there are more proposals for installation of thermal its development.power plants to bridge the supply demand Energy gap. With this more carbon emissions are expected The National Algae Association (NAA) is a non-which is detrimental to Environmental balances. profit organization of algae researchers, algae

production companies and the investment community who share the goal of commercializing algae oil as an alternative feedstock for the biofuels

A possible nutrient source for Algae to grow up is markets. The NAA gives its members a forum to waste water from the treatment of sewage, efficiently evaluate various algae technologies for agricultural, or flood plain run-off, all currently potential early stage company opportunities.

major pollutants and health risks. The waste water cannot feed algae directly and must first be processed by bacteria, through anaerobic

Investment and Pay back periods

Carbon Dioxide

Wastewater

The (EABA) is the European association representing both research and industry in the field of algae technologies, currently with 79 members. The association is headquartered in Florence, Italy. The

European Algae Biomass Association

40

The author is a BE (Electl), BL.,FIE. Graduated from Andhra University in 1973in Engineering and 1987 in Law. He is a Certified Energy Auditor approved by Bureau of Energy Efficiency and a Lead Auditor and Certified Energy Manager- cum -Auditor. He has 33 years of experience as Electrical Engineer in power sector APEPDCL (Formerly APSEB) and retired as Executive Engineer. Worked as Energy Manager / Consultant in JBS Consultancy Service and as Consultant Electrical Engineer & Energy Auditor in Indian Register of Shipping. Had worked as Principal in Aviation Academy, an Institute of Engineering & Technology for 6 months.

general objective of the European Algae Biomass oils is a relatively simple process that has been proven Association (EABA) is to promote mutual interchange and over many years. The growing of Algae Oils is a well cooperation in the field of biomass production and use, known process and the production of more or less oil is a including biofuels uses and all other utilisations. function of the selection and feeding of the specific

strain of algae.

Algae Oil is primarily used in the process of producing BioFuel produced from Algae. Often called Algae Oil, biodiesel fuel. Transesterification, the chemical process of Algae Fuel or Oilgae is a 3rd generation bio-fule making biodiesel, is also a relatively simple and well produced from Algae. Vegetable oil, biogasoline, understood process. The process is stable and not nearly as biomethanol, biodiesel, bioethanol, biobutanol and other hazardous as the production of petro diesel. The production biofuels can be made from Algae. process also produces little or no noxious gasses to pollute

the air around the refinery.

The Finished product, Biodiesel, is an environmentally friendly, renewable fuel with little or no noxious gas The drawbacks of algae fuel are release during the process of combustion. The production

? Fuel from algae is quite expensive of biodiesel requires one eighth of the energy required to produce ethanol and is usable in its undiluted state. The ? Harvesting of algae is difficultdemand for biodiesel for use in all sectors now serviced by

? Since algae biofuel production is a relatively petro diesel is projected to grow at an exponential rate.

new technology, more research is required to develop Algae Oil is a potential answer to the success of renewable standardized protocols for cultivation and biofuel energy. The production of Algae Oil is almost nonexistent production. in the US at this point in time, making this an extremely

sound venture.

The process of producing a fuel from plant and animal

The Form of Algae

Algae Oil Production system

Summary

41

The preference towards microalgae is due to its less digestion. If waste water is not processed before it complex structure, fast growth rate, and high oil reaches the algae, it will contaminate the algae and content (for some species). However, some kill much of the desired algae strain. research is being done into using seaweeds for biofuels, probably due to the high availability of The utilization of wastewater and ocean water this resource. instead of freshwater is strongly advocated due to

the continuing depletion of freshwater resources in The following species listed are currently being the main lands. However, heavy metals, trace studied for their suitability as a mass-oil producing metals, and other contaminants in wastewater shall crop, across various locations worldwide: decrease the ability of cells to produce lipids ? Botryococcus braunii biosynthetically and also impact various other ? Chlorella workings in the machinery of cells? Dunaliella tertiolecta ? Gracilaria? Pleurochrysis carterae (also called

CCMP647). There is always uncertainty about the success of ? Sargassum, with 10 times the output n ew products and investors have to consider

volume of Gracilaria. carefully the proper energy sources in which to invest. A drop in fossil fuel oil prices might make

consumers and therefore investors lose interest in renewable energy.

Each tonne of microalgae absorbs two tons of CO2. In the future, they will use the algae residues to As this technology is newly introducing in India, produce renewable energy through anaerobic though it is familiar in other western countries the digestion. The large quantities of carbon dioxide pay back periods can be calculated when once it can be made available through Carbon Capturing gets familiarity. The people should understand the Technology, adopted and make use of emissions usability of bio fuels from Algae along with the of Carbon Dioxide thermal power projects. In India other petroleum products and an awareness is to be 64% of power is from thermal power stations, l brought among the people for its sustainability in there are more proposals for installation of thermal its development.power plants to bridge the supply demand Energy gap. With this more carbon emissions are expected The National Algae Association (NAA) is a non-which is detrimental to Environmental balances. profit organization of algae researchers, algae

production companies and the investment community who share the goal of commercializing algae oil as an alternative feedstock for the biofuels

A possible nutrient source for Algae to grow up is markets. The NAA gives its members a forum to waste water from the treatment of sewage, efficiently evaluate various algae technologies for agricultural, or flood plain run-off, all currently potential early stage company opportunities.

major pollutants and health risks. The waste water cannot feed algae directly and must first be processed by bacteria, through anaerobic

Investment and Pay back periods

Carbon Dioxide

Wastewater

The (EABA) is the European association representing both research and industry in the field of algae technologies, currently with 79 members. The association is headquartered in Florence, Italy. The

European Algae Biomass Association

40

The author is a BE (Electl), BL.,FIE. Graduated from Andhra University in 1973in Engineering and 1987 in Law. He is a Certified Energy Auditor approved by Bureau of Energy Efficiency and a Lead Auditor and Certified Energy Manager- cum -Auditor. He has 33 years of experience as Electrical Engineer in power sector APEPDCL (Formerly APSEB) and retired as Executive Engineer. Worked as Energy Manager / Consultant in JBS Consultancy Service and as Consultant Electrical Engineer & Energy Auditor in Indian Register of Shipping. Had worked as Principal in Aviation Academy, an Institute of Engineering & Technology for 6 months.

general objective of the European Algae Biomass oils is a relatively simple process that has been proven Association (EABA) is to promote mutual interchange and over many years. The growing of Algae Oils is a well cooperation in the field of biomass production and use, known process and the production of more or less oil is a including biofuels uses and all other utilisations. function of the selection and feeding of the specific

strain of algae.

Algae Oil is primarily used in the process of producing BioFuel produced from Algae. Often called Algae Oil, biodiesel fuel. Transesterification, the chemical process of Algae Fuel or Oilgae is a 3rd generation bio-fule making biodiesel, is also a relatively simple and well produced from Algae. Vegetable oil, biogasoline, understood process. The process is stable and not nearly as biomethanol, biodiesel, bioethanol, biobutanol and other hazardous as the production of petro diesel. The production biofuels can be made from Algae. process also produces little or no noxious gasses to pollute

the air around the refinery.

The Finished product, Biodiesel, is an environmentally friendly, renewable fuel with little or no noxious gas The drawbacks of algae fuel are release during the process of combustion. The production

? Fuel from algae is quite expensive of biodiesel requires one eighth of the energy required to produce ethanol and is usable in its undiluted state. The ? Harvesting of algae is difficultdemand for biodiesel for use in all sectors now serviced by

? Since algae biofuel production is a relatively petro diesel is projected to grow at an exponential rate.

new technology, more research is required to develop Algae Oil is a potential answer to the success of renewable standardized protocols for cultivation and biofuel energy. The production of Algae Oil is almost nonexistent production. in the US at this point in time, making this an extremely

sound venture.

The process of producing a fuel from plant and animal

The Form of Algae

Algae Oil Production system

Summary

41

Uniflow Steam Engine

Marine Fuel Tender:

electric power in Argentina, Spain, Holland, the UK, the USA and Finland. Siemens and several While commercial marine transport companies competitors offer a range of commercially proven replaced steam-powered ships with diesel-water-tube boilers, wood-chip-gasifiers plus steam powered variants, many of the world's navies still turbine engines and related electrical generation operate small fleets of steam-powered vessels.

equipment that can be fitted into a steam-electric Over the long-term future, prevailing world oil ship. prices could encourage alternative fuel

development in commercial ship propulsion. One option would convert cost-competitive renewable

The available volume aboard commercial vessels energy into steam and use it as the basis for trans-may carry sufficient wood fuel for shorter voyages. Atlantic marine propulsion. The electrically driven Large ocean-going vessels that undertake trans-propellers that are used on azipod-equipped oceanic voyages would need to carry an additional vessels provide opportunity to retrofit a steam-supply of wood chip fuel. The equivalent of a electric power generation system into a modern towed marine fuel tender may carry the additional vessel. fuel. It may be an oceanic barge designed with small-water area multiple hull technology to The power output of many of the world's wood-reduce water drag. The towing cable may carry a fired power stations matches the power power cable from the main ship to the fuel tender, requirements of many ships. There are numerous as well as support a hollow telescopic tube. wood-chip fired, steam-based power stations of Power from the main ship would operate a 2MW (2,000kW or 2865-Hp) to over 100MW propeller, thrusters, rudders and auger mechanisms (100,000kW or 134,225-Hp) output that generate


42

aboard the fuel tender. The telescopic tube would of piston engine is water vapor, is an indication that function as a conduit carrying wood chips from the it may be possible to remove the carbon dioxide tender unit to the fuel bunker aboard the main ship. from the gas and operate the cylinder on 100% The tender unit would be disconnected from the water vapor. main ship upon approach to a port, where a tug would tow the tender to a servicing and refueling facility. Upon departure, the fully serviced tender The precedent of converting existing 2-stroke would be reconnected to the main ship. diesel engines from diesel power to single-acting

steam power provides a basis by which for a possible conversion of a 2-stroke marine diesel

The power train of many modern container ships engine to steam power. The research and design to comprises an air-started, bi-directional rotation convert a locomotive engine (10” bore x 12” stroke) diesel engine that rotates at 75-RPM to 80-RPM from diesel to steam can serve as a template upon directly driving a propeller. Prior developments in which to convert a much larger displacement the steam power industry indicate possible scope marine engine (38” bore x 98” stroke). A water-tube to convert an existing 2-stroke marine boiler of 900-psia was to supply steam to a reciprocation engine to operate on steam. The prior converted locomotive engine that was to be rated at developments occurred in rural, outback Australia 3300-Hp.to generate electric power using available local biomass resources. In a diesel engine, maximum cylinder pressure

occurs near top-dead-center (TDC) and cylinder pressure drops as piston moves toward bottom-dead-center (BDC). Variable inlet valve timing is Entrepreneurs with technical expertise converted essential in reciprocating steam engines. It is the 2-stroke diesel engines built by General Motors means by which to regulate engine output. With (Detroit Diesel) and by Lister to operate as single-variable valve timing, it is possible for maximum acting, uniflow steam engines. Steam entered the cylinder pressure to remain constant for up to 80% engine via valves built into the cylinder head and of the cylinder volume, before the inlet valve closes. exhausted via the ports. The engines achieved a The inlet valve can also close after admitting steam remarkable peak thermal efficiency of some 25%. at maximum pressure for 10% of maximum A German company called Enginion later built a 3-cylinder volume (10% cut-off ratio).cylinder version of the same engine that used

powdered carbon graphite suspended in water as engine lubricant. The engine was tested in a car The research into converting a 16-cylinder built by Skoda. locomotive engine of 3600-Hp diesel output

suggested that the steam-powered version could deliver some 3300-Hp, perhaps higher power with a In an effort to reduce exhaust emissions during the higher-pressure boiler. A large marine diesel engine early 1970's, South California Rapid Transit converted to steam power may be expected to District tested several steam-powered buses, produce over 90% of its rated diesel output. Such an including one powered by a piston engine engine may require more than one water-tube boiler converted to operating on steam. During a period that would be controlled by a computer. of high fuel prices during the early 1980's, several

US Railway companies entertained discussions about coal-fired modern steam railway propulsion. Some steam-powered vessels of an earlier era were One of the proposals involved converting a 16- powered by 3-stage expansion reciprocating steam cylinder 2-stroke diesel engine from GM's Edison engines. Such operation is possible in a modern 2-Electro-motive division to compound steam stroke engine converted from diesel to steam power. operation, with 5-cylinders operating on high- A large-displacement 7-cylinder of 18,200-pressure steam and 11-cylinders operating on low- litres/cylinder may operate 1-cylinder on high-pressure steam. pressure steam, 2-cylinders on intermediate

pressure steam and the remaining 4-cylinders on low-pressure steam. The 14-cylinder version of the The combustion of hydrocarbon fuels (diesel, engine may operate 2-cylinders at high pressure, 4-gasoline, natural gas, propane) produces a cylinders at intermediate pressure and 8-cylinders combination of carbon dioxide and steam (water on low-pressure steam.vapor) inside the cylinders of piston engines.

Given that a portion of the gas inside the cylinders

Converting a Marine Engine:

Direct-Drive Propellers:

Diesel to Steam Conversion:

43

Uniflow Steam Engine

Marine Fuel Tender:

electric power in Argentina, Spain, Holland, the UK, the USA and Finland. Siemens and several While commercial marine transport companies competitors offer a range of commercially proven replaced steam-powered ships with diesel-water-tube boilers, wood-chip-gasifiers plus steam powered variants, many of the world's navies still turbine engines and related electrical generation operate small fleets of steam-powered vessels.

equipment that can be fitted into a steam-electric Over the long-term future, prevailing world oil ship. prices could encourage alternative fuel

development in commercial ship propulsion. One option would convert cost-competitive renewable

The available volume aboard commercial vessels energy into steam and use it as the basis for trans-may carry sufficient wood fuel for shorter voyages. Atlantic marine propulsion. The electrically driven Large ocean-going vessels that undertake trans-propellers that are used on azipod-equipped oceanic voyages would need to carry an additional vessels provide opportunity to retrofit a steam-supply of wood chip fuel. The equivalent of a electric power generation system into a modern towed marine fuel tender may carry the additional vessel. fuel. It may be an oceanic barge designed with small-water area multiple hull technology to The power output of many of the world's wood-reduce water drag. The towing cable may carry a fired power stations matches the power power cable from the main ship to the fuel tender, requirements of many ships. There are numerous as well as support a hollow telescopic tube. wood-chip fired, steam-based power stations of Power from the main ship would operate a 2MW (2,000kW or 2865-Hp) to over 100MW propeller, thrusters, rudders and auger mechanisms (100,000kW or 134,225-Hp) output that generate


42

aboard the fuel tender. The telescopic tube would of piston engine is water vapor, is an indication that function as a conduit carrying wood chips from the it may be possible to remove the carbon dioxide tender unit to the fuel bunker aboard the main ship. from the gas and operate the cylinder on 100% The tender unit would be disconnected from the water vapor. main ship upon approach to a port, where a tug would tow the tender to a servicing and refueling facility. Upon departure, the fully serviced tender The precedent of converting existing 2-stroke would be reconnected to the main ship. diesel engines from diesel power to single-acting

steam power provides a basis by which for a possible conversion of a 2-stroke marine diesel

The power train of many modern container ships engine to steam power. The research and design to comprises an air-started, bi-directional rotation convert a locomotive engine (10” bore x 12” stroke) diesel engine that rotates at 75-RPM to 80-RPM from diesel to steam can serve as a template upon directly driving a propeller. Prior developments in which to convert a much larger displacement the steam power industry indicate possible scope marine engine (38” bore x 98” stroke). A water-tube to convert an existing 2-stroke marine boiler of 900-psia was to supply steam to a reciprocation engine to operate on steam. The prior converted locomotive engine that was to be rated at developments occurred in rural, outback Australia 3300-Hp.to generate electric power using available local biomass resources. In a diesel engine, maximum cylinder pressure

occurs near top-dead-center (TDC) and cylinder pressure drops as piston moves toward bottom-dead-center (BDC). Variable inlet valve timing is Entrepreneurs with technical expertise converted essential in reciprocating steam engines. It is the 2-stroke diesel engines built by General Motors means by which to regulate engine output. With (Detroit Diesel) and by Lister to operate as single-variable valve timing, it is possible for maximum acting, uniflow steam engines. Steam entered the cylinder pressure to remain constant for up to 80% engine via valves built into the cylinder head and of the cylinder volume, before the inlet valve closes. exhausted via the ports. The engines achieved a The inlet valve can also close after admitting steam remarkable peak thermal efficiency of some 25%. at maximum pressure for 10% of maximum A German company called Enginion later built a 3-cylinder volume (10% cut-off ratio).cylinder version of the same engine that used

powdered carbon graphite suspended in water as engine lubricant. The engine was tested in a car The research into converting a 16-cylinder built by Skoda. locomotive engine of 3600-Hp diesel output

suggested that the steam-powered version could deliver some 3300-Hp, perhaps higher power with a In an effort to reduce exhaust emissions during the higher-pressure boiler. A large marine diesel engine early 1970's, South California Rapid Transit converted to steam power may be expected to District tested several steam-powered buses, produce over 90% of its rated diesel output. Such an including one powered by a piston engine engine may require more than one water-tube boiler converted to operating on steam. During a period that would be controlled by a computer. of high fuel prices during the early 1980's, several

US Railway companies entertained discussions about coal-fired modern steam railway propulsion. Some steam-powered vessels of an earlier era were One of the proposals involved converting a 16- powered by 3-stage expansion reciprocating steam cylinder 2-stroke diesel engine from GM's Edison engines. Such operation is possible in a modern 2-Electro-motive division to compound steam stroke engine converted from diesel to steam power. operation, with 5-cylinders operating on high- A large-displacement 7-cylinder of 18,200-pressure steam and 11-cylinders operating on low- litres/cylinder may operate 1-cylinder on high-pressure steam. pressure steam, 2-cylinders on intermediate

pressure steam and the remaining 4-cylinders on low-pressure steam. The 14-cylinder version of the The combustion of hydrocarbon fuels (diesel, engine may operate 2-cylinders at high pressure, 4-gasoline, natural gas, propane) produces a cylinders at intermediate pressure and 8-cylinders combination of carbon dioxide and steam (water on low-pressure steam.vapor) inside the cylinders of piston engines.

Given that a portion of the gas inside the cylinders

Converting a Marine Engine:

Direct-Drive Propellers:

Diesel to Steam Conversion:

43

engine may operate 2-cylinders at high pressure, 4-cylinders at intermediate pressure and 8-cylinders There would be potential to operate wood-chip-on low-pressure steam. fueled modern steam-powered ships on several

routes where wood fuel is available. There are There may be need to reheat exhaust steam leaving tropical rainforests across Indonesia, Malaysia and the high-pressure cylinders and prior to entering Thailand as well as across parts of Central and the intermediate and low-pressure cylinders. The South America. There are mixed forests in parts of reheat phase may boost both engine output and China, parts of North America as well as parts of thermal efficiency. While there may be scope to Western Europe plus coniferous forests across lubricate the engine bearings with oil, there may be much of Western North American. benefit to lubricating the piston rings using powdered graphite suspended in water. There are Modern wood-fueled, steam powered ships may be several methods by which to pump a mixture of suited for operation on routes where wood fuel graphite and water up the piston rod into the piston may be easily available. Major ports along such rings, and then recover the graphite from the routes would be in close proximity to forests where condensing system and piston ring “blow-by”. lumbering is practiced. Such routes may include:

A 2-stroke marine diesel engine converted to steam - Chennai (Madras) Singaporeoperation will require a vacuum pump to create a - Chennai (Madras) Kuala Lumpurlow-pressure zone at the exhaust ports, to help - Singapore - Jakartaevacuate exhaust steam from the lower-pressure - Singapore Hong Kongcylinders. A combination vacuum pump and steam - Seoul Hong Kongre-compressor could pull exhaust steam from the - Jakarta Hong Konghigher-pressure cylinders, and then push the steam - Manila Hong Kongthrough the reheat pipes and into the intermediate - Manila Singaporepressure and low-pressure cylinders. The residual - Hong Kong - Vancouverultra-low-pressure steam that remains in the cylinders will be compression heated as each Conclusions:piston approaches TDC, preheating the cylinder The power industry operates much proven thermal walls and cylinder head prior to the admission of a equipment that may be adapted for operation in a fresh charge of steam. modern steam-powered ship. Precedents already

exist in the steam power sector that pave the way for the conversion of a diesel-powered ship to

A gasifier system will extract the combustible steam propulsion, including the conversion of a gases from the wood chips. The gases will then be reciprocating marine diesel engine to steam ignited in close proximity to the water tubes that operation. During a period of high oil prices, a new convert water into steam, as well as the reheat tubes generation of wood-fired, steam-powered marine that carry steam from the high and intermediate propulsion systems may incur lower energy costs pressure cylinders. The combustion system would and possibly lower overall operating costs on also require the operation of one or more fans to select routes, when compared to oil-powered draft the combustion system and sustain its ships.operation. Gasifier technology is well proven in wood-chip power stations and in modernized steam locomotives.

Steam Ship Routes:

Combustion System:

Harry Valentine holds a degree in engineering and has a background in free-market economics. He has undertaken extensive research into the field of transportation energy over a period of 20-years and has published numerous technical articles on the subject. His economics commentaries have included several articles on issues that pertain to electric power generation. He lives in Canada and can be reached by e-mail at [email protected] 44

“Water is the liquid of life for human survival as the body can not perform in its absence. Water is indeed an integral part of the human body and nearly two litres of water is lost throughout the day. Water accounts for 66% of Human body and requires at least one and half litres of water a day. Despite several options, thirst can be satisfactorily quenched by water and water alone. Unimaginably, just 2% dehydration reduces performance by 20%”

“We have been using water without any type of control since the beginnings of the industrial era. Since then, very few measures have been taken that guarantee an efficient use of water. It is urgent to change this way of acting. Water is scarce, is wrong distributed and badly used. But it is present in

all aspects of our life”Water usage:

The rapid increase in global population and simultaneous decrease of fresh

water resource combined with mismanagement, wastage and pollution have

threatened the very survival of human race on earth. United Nation estimates that 75% of the world population won't have

reliable clean water by 2025. It is therefore just not a mere scientific pursuit but deserves a nobler perspective at this juncture.

Water Composition on Earth:Earth is often referred to as “blue planet” as this is caused by reflection from oceans, covering 71% of earth's area. Salt water of

the oceans and freshwater make up the water composition on

earth and their distribution is as follows:

Nearly 20% - 1.1 billion people in the world still do not have access to safe water. Teeth cleaning requires just a quarter litre of water. While, average bath requires 80 litres, average shower uses just 35 litres. Agriculture accounts for highest usage of 70% followed by i n d u s t r y ( 2 2 % ) a n d d o m e s t i c ( 8 % ) r e s p e c t i v e l y .

The most popular 'Financial Audit' principle seems to have caught up with almost everything in the modern context energy audit, professional audit, etc. It is therefore appropriate that we look at 'Water Audit' as well in view of the crisis that we are likely to end up with sooner or later IF, our lifestyles continue the way it has been until today, particularly in the urban centers. 45


engine may operate 2-cylinders at high pressure, 4-cylinders at intermediate pressure and 8-cylinders There would be potential to operate wood-chip-on low-pressure steam. fueled modern steam-powered ships on several

routes where wood fuel is available. There are There may be need to reheat exhaust steam leaving tropical rainforests across Indonesia, Malaysia and the high-pressure cylinders and prior to entering Thailand as well as across parts of Central and the intermediate and low-pressure cylinders. The South America. There are mixed forests in parts of reheat phase may boost both engine output and China, parts of North America as well as parts of thermal efficiency. While there may be scope to Western Europe plus coniferous forests across lubricate the engine bearings with oil, there may be much of Western North American. benefit to lubricating the piston rings using powdered graphite suspended in water. There are Modern wood-fueled, steam powered ships may be several methods by which to pump a mixture of suited for operation on routes where wood fuel graphite and water up the piston rod into the piston may be easily available. Major ports along such rings, and then recover the graphite from the routes would be in close proximity to forests where condensing system and piston ring “blow-by”. lumbering is practiced. Such routes may include:

A 2-stroke marine diesel engine converted to steam - Chennai (Madras) Singaporeoperation will require a vacuum pump to create a - Chennai (Madras) Kuala Lumpurlow-pressure zone at the exhaust ports, to help - Singapore - Jakartaevacuate exhaust steam from the lower-pressure - Singapore Hong Kongcylinders. A combination vacuum pump and steam - Seoul Hong Kongre-compressor could pull exhaust steam from the - Jakarta Hong Konghigher-pressure cylinders, and then push the steam - Manila Hong Kongthrough the reheat pipes and into the intermediate - Manila Singaporepressure and low-pressure cylinders. The residual - Hong Kong - Vancouverultra-low-pressure steam that remains in the cylinders will be compression heated as each Conclusions:piston approaches TDC, preheating the cylinder The power industry operates much proven thermal walls and cylinder head prior to the admission of a equipment that may be adapted for operation in a fresh charge of steam. modern steam-powered ship. Precedents already

exist in the steam power sector that pave the way for the conversion of a diesel-powered ship to

A gasifier system will extract the combustible steam propulsion, including the conversion of a gases from the wood chips. The gases will then be reciprocating marine diesel engine to steam ignited in close proximity to the water tubes that operation. During a period of high oil prices, a new convert water into steam, as well as the reheat tubes generation of wood-fired, steam-powered marine that carry steam from the high and intermediate propulsion systems may incur lower energy costs pressure cylinders. The combustion system would and possibly lower overall operating costs on also require the operation of one or more fans to select routes, when compared to oil-powered draft the combustion system and sustain its ships.operation. Gasifier technology is well proven in wood-chip power stations and in modernized steam locomotives.

Steam Ship Routes:

Combustion System:

Harry Valentine holds a degree in engineering and has a background in free-market economics. He has undertaken extensive research into the field of transportation energy over a period of 20-years and has published numerous technical articles on the subject. His economics commentaries have included several articles on issues that pertain to electric power generation. He lives in Canada and can be reached by e-mail at [email protected] 44

“Water is the liquid of life for human survival as the body can not perform in its absence. Water is indeed an integral part of the human body and nearly two litres of water is lost throughout the day. Water accounts for 66% of Human body and requires at least one and half litres of water a day. Despite several options, thirst can be satisfactorily quenched by water and water alone. Unimaginably, just 2% dehydration reduces performance by 20%”

“We have been using water without any type of control since the beginnings of the industrial era. Since then, very few measures have been taken that guarantee an efficient use of water. It is urgent to change this way of acting. Water is scarce, is wrong distributed and badly used. But it is present in

all aspects of our life”Water usage:

The rapid increase in global population and simultaneous decrease of fresh

water resource combined with mismanagement, wastage and pollution have

threatened the very survival of human race on earth. United Nation estimates that 75% of the world population won't have

reliable clean water by 2025. It is therefore just not a mere scientific pursuit but deserves a nobler perspective at this juncture.

Water Composition on Earth:Earth is often referred to as “blue planet” as this is caused by reflection from oceans, covering 71% of earth's area. Salt water of

the oceans and freshwater make up the water composition on

earth and their distribution is as follows:

Nearly 20% - 1.1 billion people in the world still do not have access to safe water. Teeth cleaning requires just a quarter litre of water. While, average bath requires 80 litres, average shower uses just 35 litres. Agriculture accounts for highest usage of 70% followed by i n d u s t r y ( 2 2 % ) a n d d o m e s t i c ( 8 % ) r e s p e c t i v e l y .

The most popular 'Financial Audit' principle seems to have caught up with almost everything in the modern context energy audit, professional audit, etc. It is therefore appropriate that we look at 'Water Audit' as well in view of the crisis that we are likely to end up with sooner or later IF, our lifestyles continue the way it has been until today, particularly in the urban centers. 45


Global fresh water availability percentage though small, holds not only the humans but the industrial sector by its cuff when

short of desired demand. Nature had its own way of cleansing and providing water in the cleanest form unthinkable in the

modern advanced technological propositions. For example, water flowing through variety of plant species in the thick

forests used to pick precious nutrients to render it most ideal for drinking directly without treatment.

Human interference has today forced us to explore ways to treat even the dirtiest water to reduce the growing burden on water.

Compulsions both at the domestic and industrial level have led us to introspect into the consumptive patterns for optimizing

them and conserving.

3 3.India's annual per capita of 1850 m is just about one fourth of the world average of 7690 m . Water use in sanitation,

maintenance, mechanical systems, building processes and irrigation are understandably different. Preliminary inventory of

these facilities would throw light on the potential of reducing the water quantity without affecting the process drastically.

Large industries/agricultural and municipalities/metros consuming 15 MLD fall into large water consumer category while,

Industrial clusters, CETPs, Medium Industries/Townships consuming between 3 & 15 MLD are categorized under Medium

Water Users and Large hotels, IT parks, Theme Parks, Industrial and Private Township consuming 500 cum/day to 3000

cum/day are categorized as Small Water Users with commercial complexes/Government Offices/building, builders, colonies

using less than 500 cum/day are considered as Tiny Water Users.

Municipality / Corporations supplying water to the urban households charge them based on their monthly consumption

recorded through the meters. Flow rate is time taken to fill a bucket of known quantity expressed as litres / minute. This would

vary in different outlets and average flow rate can be calculated measuring the flow rate for each outlet and then averaging them.

A typical urban household consumes water for kitchen, shower, utensil wash, laundry, toilet plus leakages. The consumption

for a family of five could be summarized as under:

Shower 10 litres of water per minute; 8 minutes a day 400 litres / day

Kitchen 2.83 litres per minute; 15 minutes running 212 litres / day

Laundry 140 litres of water per load; 5 times a week 140 litres / load

Toilet Single flush uses 9 litres of water; 15 times per day 135 litres / day

Leakage One pipe leak of 0.0225 litre/minute flow 32 litres per day

Converting the above figures into weekly consumption would lead us to a total of 6157 litres of water or about 920 litres per day.

Shower 400 litres / day - Shower duration reduction, low flow showers or sensors would save 50%

Kitchen 212 litres / day - Careful washing with appropriate flow, smart fixtures save 50%

Laundry 140 litres / load - Water efficient, front loaders machines use less than 120 litres per load

Toilet 135 litres / day - Modern dual flush, smaller tanks would require 3 to 6 litres per flush

Leakage 32 litres per day - Timely Fixing of leakages would save this wastage

The above options combined with the following practices could bring in better awareness of water consumption in the

household.

Green building principles followed by periodic water audit

would reduce the household consumption of precious water.

Such savings for either a residential locality or even group

housing societies would indeed be quite substantial. Savings of

this magnitude indirectly reduces the electricity which otherwise

would have been required to pump it to the overhead tanks.

One pump of 375 watt run for half an hour consumes 188 watts of

power Or 1.66 watt is required to pump one litre of water (lifting

15000 litres per day) or 0.311 watt (lifting 75000 litres per day).

1000 watt hr is equal to one kWh. It is further interesting that one of the major cities in India required about 6000 mld but received just 3850 mld out of which 46

about 700 mld is lost t h r o u g h t h e f t a n d leakages. About 80% ( 2 5 2 0 m l d ) o f t h e remaining 3150 mld that is distributed is converted to sewage water. The actual water for drinking and

cooking is not more than 50 mld.

Water harvesting:

Municipalities / corporations may have no other option but to reduce the water supply in future considering the rate at which urban growth has been increasing. It is therefore necessary that citizens realize this situation and prepare for the worst to follow over the next couple of years through options available at this juncture. The benefits of rainwater harvesting is being realized as it would meet non-drinking water needs and facilitates recharge of the ground water for better capacity of the bore-wells.

Outline of rainwater harvesting:

Facilitating natural rainwater filtration in to underground by some artificial method has been recognized as an efficient measure of water conservation. Such storages meet the domestic requirement. Rainwater in the form of surface runoff or roof top would be ideal for storage.

Rooftop harvesting allows storage in a tank or could be diverted to recharge. This method is less expensive and effective. Rooftop being the catchment, transportation, first flush and filter would follow in sequence. The rooftop rainwater is carried through preferably UV resistant water pipes with a mesh at the mouth of each drain to restrict floating material.

Since the first shower is likely to carry undesirable contaminants, it is ideal to flush this water avoiding contamination of subsequent rain water ideal for storage.

Having ensured that water is now ready for storage, it is important to filter this water to remove turbidity, color and microorganisms through filter, the basic function of which is to purify water. Filters could be varying type:

1. Sand Gravel Filter: A brick masonry filled with pebbles, gravel and sand with each layer separated by wire mesh

2. Charcoal Filter: Could be similar to number 1 or in a drum with an additional layer of thin charcoal to absorb odor.

3. PVC Pipe filter: About 1 to 1.2 m and a dia of six inches for 1500 sq.ft roof and 8 inches dia for roofs more than 1500 sq.ft. Wire mesh divides the pipe

into three compartments with each compartment filled with gravel and sand alternately. Charcoal could be inserted in between. This could be positioned either horizontally or vertically.

4. Sponge Filter: As the name indicates, this is just a PVC drum with a layer of sponge in the middle.

Rainwater so directed to the storage tank deserves designing according

to the catchment and with an overflow system. Water from such tanks could be used for washing and gardening etc..

There are indeed many ways of recharging ground water Recharging bore wells/dug wells/pits/trenches/shafts/percolation tanks.

Although the efforts on groundwater recharge in some parts of India have been appreciated, the available technical evaluation seems to reach any conclusion on its impact. Systematic and scientific evaluation on these efforts of recharge would throw a better understanding for others to emulate for greater benefits of the community.Current industrial use of water: It is amply clear to even common man that the culprit imposing serious threat to the natural 47

Global fresh water availability percentage though small, holds not only the humans but the industrial sector by its cuff when

short of desired demand. Nature had its own way of cleansing and providing water in the cleanest form unthinkable in the

modern advanced technological propositions. For example, water flowing through variety of plant species in the thick

forests used to pick precious nutrients to render it most ideal for drinking directly without treatment.

Human interference has today forced us to explore ways to treat even the dirtiest water to reduce the growing burden on water.

Compulsions both at the domestic and industrial level have led us to introspect into the consumptive patterns for optimizing

them and conserving.

3 3.India's annual per capita of 1850 m is just about one fourth of the world average of 7690 m . Water use in sanitation,

maintenance, mechanical systems, building processes and irrigation are understandably different. Preliminary inventory of

these facilities would throw light on the potential of reducing the water quantity without affecting the process drastically.

Large industries/agricultural and municipalities/metros consuming 15 MLD fall into large water consumer category while,

Industrial clusters, CETPs, Medium Industries/Townships consuming between 3 & 15 MLD are categorized under Medium

Water Users and Large hotels, IT parks, Theme Parks, Industrial and Private Township consuming 500 cum/day to 3000

cum/day are categorized as Small Water Users with commercial complexes/Government Offices/building, builders, colonies

using less than 500 cum/day are considered as Tiny Water Users.

Municipality / Corporations supplying water to the urban households charge them based on their monthly consumption

recorded through the meters. Flow rate is time taken to fill a bucket of known quantity expressed as litres / minute. This would

vary in different outlets and average flow rate can be calculated measuring the flow rate for each outlet and then averaging them.

A typical urban household consumes water for kitchen, shower, utensil wash, laundry, toilet plus leakages. The consumption

for a family of five could be summarized as under:

Shower 10 litres of water per minute; 8 minutes a day 400 litres / day

Kitchen 2.83 litres per minute; 15 minutes running 212 litres / day

Laundry 140 litres of water per load; 5 times a week 140 litres / load

Toilet Single flush uses 9 litres of water; 15 times per day 135 litres / day

Leakage One pipe leak of 0.0225 litre/minute flow 32 litres per day

Converting the above figures into weekly consumption would lead us to a total of 6157 litres of water or about 920 litres per day.

Shower 400 litres / day - Shower duration reduction, low flow showers or sensors would save 50%

Kitchen 212 litres / day - Careful washing with appropriate flow, smart fixtures save 50%

Laundry 140 litres / load - Water efficient, front loaders machines use less than 120 litres per load

Toilet 135 litres / day - Modern dual flush, smaller tanks would require 3 to 6 litres per flush

Leakage 32 litres per day - Timely Fixing of leakages would save this wastage

The above options combined with the following practices could bring in better awareness of water consumption in the

household.

Green building principles followed by periodic water audit

would reduce the household consumption of precious water.

Such savings for either a residential locality or even group

housing societies would indeed be quite substantial. Savings of

this magnitude indirectly reduces the electricity which otherwise

would have been required to pump it to the overhead tanks.

One pump of 375 watt run for half an hour consumes 188 watts of

power Or 1.66 watt is required to pump one litre of water (lifting

15000 litres per day) or 0.311 watt (lifting 75000 litres per day).

1000 watt hr is equal to one kWh. It is further interesting that one of the major cities in India required about 6000 mld but received just 3850 mld out of which 46

about 700 mld is lost t h r o u g h t h e f t a n d leakages. About 80% ( 2 5 2 0 m l d ) o f t h e remaining 3150 mld that is distributed is converted to sewage water. The actual water for drinking and

cooking is not more than 50 mld.

Water harvesting:

Municipalities / corporations may have no other option but to reduce the water supply in future considering the rate at which urban growth has been increasing. It is therefore necessary that citizens realize this situation and prepare for the worst to follow over the next couple of years through options available at this juncture. The benefits of rainwater harvesting is being realized as it would meet non-drinking water needs and facilitates recharge of the ground water for better capacity of the bore-wells.

Outline of rainwater harvesting:

Facilitating natural rainwater filtration in to underground by some artificial method has been recognized as an efficient measure of water conservation. Such storages meet the domestic requirement. Rainwater in the form of surface runoff or roof top would be ideal for storage.

Rooftop harvesting allows storage in a tank or could be diverted to recharge. This method is less expensive and effective. Rooftop being the catchment, transportation, first flush and filter would follow in sequence. The rooftop rainwater is carried through preferably UV resistant water pipes with a mesh at the mouth of each drain to restrict floating material.

Since the first shower is likely to carry undesirable contaminants, it is ideal to flush this water avoiding contamination of subsequent rain water ideal for storage.

Having ensured that water is now ready for storage, it is important to filter this water to remove turbidity, color and microorganisms through filter, the basic function of which is to purify water. Filters could be varying type:

1. Sand Gravel Filter: A brick masonry filled with pebbles, gravel and sand with each layer separated by wire mesh

2. Charcoal Filter: Could be similar to number 1 or in a drum with an additional layer of thin charcoal to absorb odor.

3. PVC Pipe filter: About 1 to 1.2 m and a dia of six inches for 1500 sq.ft roof and 8 inches dia for roofs more than 1500 sq.ft. Wire mesh divides the pipe

into three compartments with each compartment filled with gravel and sand alternately. Charcoal could be inserted in between. This could be positioned either horizontally or vertically.

4. Sponge Filter: As the name indicates, this is just a PVC drum with a layer of sponge in the middle.

Rainwater so directed to the storage tank deserves designing according

to the catchment and with an overflow system. Water from such tanks could be used for washing and gardening etc..

There are indeed many ways of recharging ground water Recharging bore wells/dug wells/pits/trenches/shafts/percolation tanks.

Although the efforts on groundwater recharge in some parts of India have been appreciated, the available technical evaluation seems to reach any conclusion on its impact. Systematic and scientific evaluation on these efforts of recharge would throw a better understanding for others to emulate for greater benefits of the community.Current industrial use of water: It is amply clear to even common man that the culprit imposing serious threat to the natural 47

resources land, air and water is the unstoppable population. Increasing water use may touch 90% of freshwater by 2025. Although agriculture sector accounts heavily 70% of all water withdrawals, industrial usage deserves a serious consideration towards conservation. Climate change seems to further complicate the issue through risks and global uncertainties.

Growing population and shrinking freshwater send crying need of monitoring and reevaluation leading into an insight of adoption and adoptive water management in the industrial sector.

Conservative options for industries:

Wastewater, like any other by product (ash) of power generation need be treated as resource rather than a waste. Waste water is sometimes recycled and reused onsite - A common type of recycled water is water that has been reclaimed from municipal wastewater, or sewage.

Although there are a few regulations on water reuse, it is the implementation and monitoring which have hampered the progress

to reap the best. More importantly, dissemination of good practices of one utility to others would benefit larger base.

Industries could evaluate some of the following options in addition to meeting the regulatory obligations:

Aquifer Storage and Recovery (ASR)

Artificial aquifer recharge (AR) is the enhancement of natural ground water supplies through infiltration basins or injection wells. Aquifer storage and recovery (ASR) is a specific type meeting both augmenting ground water resources and recovering the water in the future for various uses. Treated drinking water, surface water, storm water or treated wastewater effluent could be diverted to a storage tank and allowed to recharge ground water after proper filtration medium..

Storm water Management: This may need retention ponds as direct piped system is not advisable. The water of the retention ponds needs to be filtered through appropriate meshes to prevent undesired elements to contaminate ground

water.

Desalination: While average s e a w a t e r contains 34.7 p p t s a l t s , brackish water upto 30 ppt and i n a w o r s t s i t u a t i o n , saline water with a range of

30-50 ppt could be considered for desalination. However, the large amounts of waste residuals generated through desalination need careful and proper disposal.

In addition, Efforts to provide water resource managers and decision makers to meet future demands of climate change

and demographic and economic development deserves a separate attention.

Biological treatment varies greatly:

i. Ability to control and minimize impact of toxic constituents in wastewater on indicative organisms when treated water is released falls under Bio-assay / toxicity control;

ii. Ability to remove biodegradable organic compounds - BOD removal efficiency

iii. Similarly, removal of chemically oxidizable substances that may or may not be degradable COD removal

iv. Residue of the biological solids Sludge. Collect, dewater and dispose

v. Converting ammonia contaminated in wastewater to nitrates- Nitrification efficiency

Natural water cycle is driven by solar energy sun heats up sea / surface water; water rises in the form of water vapor; water vapor of higher layers is cooled down which falls as rain, hail or snow. Letting the water flow through turbines, kinetic energy of water is converted to electricity.

Volume and head of water determine the potential energy of a waterfall. The energy production (P) is measured in kWh and is calculated with the help of the formula

P=(V Hn)/Kp

Where,3V=total average inflow to the turbine(s) during a year (m ) Hn=average net head of water[m] Kp=3600/(n

2 29,81 p) [m s /h kg]n=average efficiency for turbine, generator and transformer during a year.48

p= water density

We see that the decisive factors are

volume and head of water. The other

factors are the efficiency of the turbine

and generator and the water density.

However, the principle could be

adopted at the domestic level for

e l e c t r i c i t y g e n e r a t i o n e i t h e r

connecting the taps or allow the water

of the overhead tank to micro turbine.

Inadvertently, humans tend to leave the

taps open for longer time than desired

There has been an effort to understand

the science of water consumption in

terms of their percentage in a product /

crop / material produced. This

assessment has been accordingly

categorized into the following: (

Source: Hoekstra, A.Y., Chapagain,

A.K., Aldaya, M.M. and Mekonnen,

M.M. (2011) The water footprint

assessment manual: Setting the global

standard, Earthscan, London, UK.: :.

G r e e n w a t e r

footprint Volume

o f r a i n w a t e r

consumed during

t h e p r o d u c t i o n

process. This is

particularly relevant

for agricultural and

forestry products

(products based on crops or wood

Blue water footprint Volume of surface and groundwater consumed as a result of the production of a good

or service. Consumption refers to the volume of freshwater used and then evaporated or incorporated into a

product.

Grey water footprint The grey water footprint of a product is an indicator of freshwater pollution that can be

associated with the production of a product over its full supply chain. It is defined as the volume of freshwater

that is required to assimilate the load of pollutants based on natural background concentrations and existing

ambient water quality standards. It is calculated as the volume of water that is required to dilute pollutants to

such an extent that the quality of the water remains above agreed water quality standards.

Water therefore, is one of the most vitally important resources on this planet for survival. Since water sustains all life on this planet, we must ensure that our water remains pure and plentiful for future generations.

A.K. Shyam is an Environmental Specialist and had authored few publications on energy efficiency. He had

headed the department of environment, health and safety with Reliance Energy Ltd. His major achievement

was getting the Environmental Clearance for the 7,480 MW Gas Based Combined Cycle Project. He is a

B.Sc.(Hons.) Botany Major, Zoology & Chemistry Minor, M.Sc. Botany (Plant morphology specialization)

and Ph.D. in Plant Taxonomy. His contact email address: [email protected])

49

resources land, air and water is the unstoppable population. Increasing water use may touch 90% of freshwater by 2025. Although agriculture sector accounts heavily 70% of all water withdrawals, industrial usage deserves a serious consideration towards conservation. Climate change seems to further complicate the issue through risks and global uncertainties.

Growing population and shrinking freshwater send crying need of monitoring and reevaluation leading into an insight of adoption and adoptive water management in the industrial sector.

Conservative options for industries:

Wastewater, like any other by product (ash) of power generation need be treated as resource rather than a waste. Waste water is sometimes recycled and reused onsite - A common type of recycled water is water that has been reclaimed from municipal wastewater, or sewage.

Although there are a few regulations on water reuse, it is the implementation and monitoring which have hampered the progress

to reap the best. More importantly, dissemination of good practices of one utility to others would benefit larger base.

Industries could evaluate some of the following options in addition to meeting the regulatory obligations:

Aquifer Storage and Recovery (ASR)

Artificial aquifer recharge (AR) is the enhancement of natural ground water supplies through infiltration basins or injection wells. Aquifer storage and recovery (ASR) is a specific type meeting both augmenting ground water resources and recovering the water in the future for various uses. Treated drinking water, surface water, storm water or treated wastewater effluent could be diverted to a storage tank and allowed to recharge ground water after proper filtration medium..

Storm water Management: This may need retention ponds as direct piped system is not advisable. The water of the retention ponds needs to be filtered through appropriate meshes to prevent undesired elements to contaminate ground

water.

Desalination: While average s e a w a t e r contains 34.7 p p t s a l t s , brackish water upto 30 ppt and i n a w o r s t s i t u a t i o n , saline water with a range of

30-50 ppt could be considered for desalination. However, the large amounts of waste residuals generated through desalination need careful and proper disposal.

In addition, Efforts to provide water resource managers and decision makers to meet future demands of climate change

and demographic and economic development deserves a separate attention.

Biological treatment varies greatly:

i. Ability to control and minimize impact of toxic constituents in wastewater on indicative organisms when treated water is released falls under Bio-assay / toxicity control;

ii. Ability to remove biodegradable organic compounds - BOD removal efficiency

iii. Similarly, removal of chemically oxidizable substances that may or may not be degradable COD removal

iv. Residue of the biological solids Sludge. Collect, dewater and dispose

v. Converting ammonia contaminated in wastewater to nitrates- Nitrification efficiency

Natural water cycle is driven by solar energy sun heats up sea / surface water; water rises in the form of water vapor; water vapor of higher layers is cooled down which falls as rain, hail or snow. Letting the water flow through turbines, kinetic energy of water is converted to electricity.

Volume and head of water determine the potential energy of a waterfall. The energy production (P) is measured in kWh and is calculated with the help of the formula

P=(V Hn)/Kp

Where,3V=total average inflow to the turbine(s) during a year (m ) Hn=average net head of water[m] Kp=3600/(n

2 29,81 p) [m s /h kg]n=average efficiency for turbine, generator and transformer during a year.48

p= water density

We see that the decisive factors are

volume and head of water. The other

factors are the efficiency of the turbine

and generator and the water density.

However, the principle could be

adopted at the domestic level for

e l e c t r i c i t y g e n e r a t i o n e i t h e r

connecting the taps or allow the water

of the overhead tank to micro turbine.

Inadvertently, humans tend to leave the

taps open for longer time than desired

There has been an effort to understand

the science of water consumption in

terms of their percentage in a product /

crop / material produced. This

assessment has been accordingly

categorized into the following: (

Source: Hoekstra, A.Y., Chapagain,

A.K., Aldaya, M.M. and Mekonnen,

M.M. (2011) The water footprint

assessment manual: Setting the global

standard, Earthscan, London, UK.: :.

G r e e n w a t e r

footprint Volume

o f r a i n w a t e r

consumed during

t h e p r o d u c t i o n

process. This is

particularly relevant

for agricultural and

forestry products

(products based on crops or wood

Blue water footprint Volume of surface and groundwater consumed as a result of the production of a good

or service. Consumption refers to the volume of freshwater used and then evaporated or incorporated into a

product.

Grey water footprint The grey water footprint of a product is an indicator of freshwater pollution that can be

associated with the production of a product over its full supply chain. It is defined as the volume of freshwater

that is required to assimilate the load of pollutants based on natural background concentrations and existing

ambient water quality standards. It is calculated as the volume of water that is required to dilute pollutants to

such an extent that the quality of the water remains above agreed water quality standards.

Water therefore, is one of the most vitally important resources on this planet for survival. Since water sustains all life on this planet, we must ensure that our water remains pure and plentiful for future generations.

A.K. Shyam is an Environmental Specialist and had authored few publications on energy efficiency. He had

headed the department of environment, health and safety with Reliance Energy Ltd. His major achievement

was getting the Environmental Clearance for the 7,480 MW Gas Based Combined Cycle Project. He is a

B.Sc.(Hons.) Botany Major, Zoology & Chemistry Minor, M.Sc. Botany (Plant morphology specialization)

and Ph.D. in Plant Taxonomy. His contact email address: [email protected])

49

Documents

April-May 2012 issue