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April 2012

GRAMMAR II High Beginner Overview: At this level, we develop the concept of combining clauses through basic coordination and subordination; extend the resources of the noun phrase, including pronoun, adjectives, comparative, superlative, and countability; introduce more prepositions; and expand the functions of modal verbs. The new verb forms introduced at level II are simple past tense and future tense with will and be going to, but the difference between will and be going to is not an objective.

I. DETERMINERS

A. ARTICLES

1. Forms

Singular Nouns Plural Nouns Noncount NounsGeneric a/an Ø Ø Indefinite a/an some some Definite the the the

2. Examples a. Generic

An apple is red. A banana is yellow. Apples are red. Bananas are yellow. Apples are fruit.

b. Indefinite I bought an apple and a banana. I bought some apples and some bananas. I bought some fruit.

c. Definite I bought a banana. I ate the banana. I bought some apples. I ate the apples. I bought some fruit. I ate the fruit.

Also see Indefinite Quantifiers for more about some.

B. Possessive Nouns

1. Forms

Noun + -'s Noun + -'Singular Beth's Ø Irregular Plural women's Ø Regular Plural Ø girls'

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2. Examples a. Singular

Beth's jacket is on the bed.

b. Irregular Plural The women's coats are in the closet.

c. Regular Plural The girls' gloves are on the shelf.

Also see Possessive Pronouns.

C. Indefinite Quantifiers

1. Any and Some

a. Forms

Plural Nouns Noncount NounsYes/No Questions any any Affirmative Statements some some Negative Statements any any

b. Examples Yes/No Questions

Do you have any money? Do you have any quarters?

Affirmative Statements Yes, I have some money. Yes, I have some quarters.

Negative Statements No, I don't have any money. No, I don't have any quarters.

Also see Articles for more about some.

2. Many, Much, A Lot of, A Couple of, Several, A Few, and A Little

a. Forms

Plural Nouns Noncount NounsWh- Questions many much Affirmative Statements

a couple of/a fewseveral a lot of

a little

a lot of Negative Statements many much

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b. Examples Wh- questions

How much money do you have? How many quarters do you have?

Affirmative Statements I have a little money. I have a lot of money. I have a couple of/a few/several quarters. I have a lot of quarters.

Negative Statements I do not have much money. I do not have many quarters.

3. Expressions of Measurement

a. Forms Portions

a piece of a slice of

Containers a bag of a bottle of a bowl of a box of a can of a carton of a cup of a glass of a jar of a tube of

Units or Shapes a bar of a bunch of an ear of a head of a loaf of a roll of a stick of

Specific Quantities a dozen a gallon of a pint of a pound of a quart of a spoonful of

b. Usage Notes and Examples Noncount Nouns

I bought some lettuce. I bought a head of lettuce. I bought two heads of lettuce.

Plural Nouns that are impractical to count individually I bought some grapes. I bought a bunch of grapes. I bought two bunches of grapes.

Also see Count and Noncount Nouns.

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II. ADVERBS

A. Adverbs of Manner

1. Forms Adjective + -ly carefully, slowly, quickly, etc. a. Spelling Changes

Final -y changes to -i- after a consonant. easy easily

Final -le drops after a consonant. comfortable comfortably

b. Irregularities Early, late, fast, and hard are both adjectives and adverbs.

We ate a late breakfast. We ate breakfast late. We had an early lunch. We had lunch early. We are fast eaters. We always eat fast. We are hard workers. We work hard.

Well is the adverb form of the adjective good. We are good drivers. We drive well.

Lovely, lonely, ugly, and friendly are adjectives not adverbs. Clara is a lovely girl. Ray is a lonely man. Agnes is wearing an ugly dress. Marisa is a friendly child.

2. Sentence Patterns and Examples Subject + Verb + Adverb of Manner He drives quickly. Subject + Verb + Direct Object + Adverb of Manner He drives his motorcycle quickly.

B. ADVERBS OF DEFINITE TIME

1. Forms a. Past Time

yesterday morning yesterday … minutes ago yesterday afternoon last Monday, etc. … hours ago yesterday evening last weekend … days ago last night last week … weeks ago last month … months ago

last summer, etc. last year … years ago

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b. Future Time tomorrow morning tomorrow in … minutes tomorrow afternoon next Monday, etc. in … hours tomorrow evening next weekend in … days tomorrow night next week in … weeks next month in … months next summer, etc. next year in … years

c. Present, Past, and Future this morning today this afternoon this Monday, etc. this evening this weekend tonight this week this month this summer, etc. this year

2. Examples John was home yesterday. He will be home tomorrow. He is home today. He was home today. He will be home today.

III. COMPARISONS (Listening/Speaking)

A. COMPARATIVES

1. Forms a. One-Syllable Adjectives

Adjective + -er + Than bigger than, older than, taller than, etc.

b. Two-Syllable Adjectives Ending in –y Adjective + -ier + Than friendlier than, happier than, prettier than, etc.

c. Other Multi-Syllable Adjectives More + Adjective + Than more boring than, more famous than, more nervous than, etc. more beautiful than, more expensive than, more important than, etc.

2. Irregularities a. Spelling Changes

Final -e drops. cute cuter

Final consonants double, other than -w, -x, and -y, after a single stressed vowel. big bigger

Final -y changes to –i. happy happier

b. Irregular Forms Adjective Comparative good better bad worse

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far farther

3. Sentence Patterns and Examples Noun Phrase + Be + Comparative Form +Than + Noun Phrase A Jaguar is faster than a Honda. A Jaguar is more expensive than a Honda.

B. SUPERLATIVES

1. Forms a. One-Syllable Adjectives

The + Adjective + -est the biggest, the oldest, the tallest, etc.

b. Two-Syllable Adjectives Ending in -y The + Adjective + -est the friendliest, the happiest, the prettiest, etc.

c. Other Multi-Syllable Adjectives The + Most + Adjective the most boring, the most famous, the most nervous, etc. the most beautiful, the most expensive, the most important, etc.

2. Irregularities a. Spelling Changes

Final -e drops. cute cutest

Final consonants double, other than -w, -x, and -y, after a single stressed vowel. big biggest

Final -y changes to -i. happy happiest

b. Irregular Forms Adjective Comparative Superlative good better best bad worse worst far farther farthest

3. Sentence Patterns and Examples Noun Phrase + Be + The + Superlative Form Louise has a Civic. Carolyn has an Accord. Sheila has a Jaguar. Sheila's Jaguar is the fastest. The Jaguar is the most expensive.

IV. CONJUNCTIONS AND AND BUT

A. AND PHRASES

1. Parallel Structure a. Subjects

Bobby and Susie went to the pet shop. b. Direct Objects

They wanted to buy a puppy or a kitten.

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c. Verbs The puppies barked and ran around the shop.

d. Adjective Complements They bought a kitten because it was beautiful and playful.

e. Adverbs When they took their new kitten home, they walked slowly and carefully.

2. Punctuation a. With three or more words or phrases, a comma follows each word preceding

and. Dogs, cats, and rabbits are good pets. Elephants, giraffes, tigers, and crocodiles are terrible pets.

b. With two words or phrases, no comma is added. Dogs and cats are good pets.

B. AND SENTENCES

1. Parallel Structure a. Sentences with parallel elements in the predicate are joined together by and.

Bobby’s cat likes tuna. Bobby’s dog likes tuna. Bobby’s cat likes tuna, and his dog likes tuna too.

b. The predicates may be identical, partially identical, or simply parallel in form. Complete Predicate

Bobby’s cat likes tuna, and his dog likes tuna too.

Verb Phrases Bobby’s pets are very talented. His cat can swim, and his dog fetches.

Direct Objects Bobby’s pets love fish. His cat likes tuna, and his dog loves salmon.

Adverbs Bobby’s pets are noisy at night. His cat always meows, and his dog always barks.

Adjective Complements Bobby’s cat is friendly, and his dog is friendly too.

Noun Complements Bobby’s cat is a good pet, and his dog is a good pet too.

2. UsageNotesandExamplesa. Pronouns replace repeated nouns.

Bobby’s cat likes tuna, and his dog likes it too. b. A comma is used to separate the two sentences from each other.

Bobby’s cat is friendly, and his dog is friendly too. c. Too or either are added to the end when the predicates are identical.

Affirmative predicates Bobby’s cat sleeps all day, and his dog sleeps all day too.

Negative Predicates Bobby’s cat doesn’t sleep at night, and his dog doesn’t sleep at night either.

C. BUT SENTENCES

1. PARALLELSTRUCTURE

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a. Sentences with one or more parts of the predicate in direct opposition are joined together by but. Bobby’s cat likes tuna. Bobby’s hamster doesn’t like tuna.

Bobby’s cat likes tuna, but his hamster doesn’t like it.

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b. Any part of a predicate may be in direct opposition. Verb phrases

Bobby’s cat likes tuna, but his hamster doesn’t like tuna.

Direct objects Bobby’s cat likes tuna, but his hamster likes broccoli.

Adverbs Bobby’s cat never bites, but his hamster often bites.

Adjective Complements Bobby’s cat is friendly, but his hamster is unfriendly.

Noun Complements Bobby’s cat is a good pet, but his hamster is a terrible pet.

2. USAGENOTESANDEXAMPLESa. Pronouns replace repeated nouns.

Bobby’s cat likes tuna, but his hamster doesn’t like it. b. A comma is used to separate the two sentences from each other.

Bobby’s cat likes tuna, but his hamster doesn’t like it.

V. NOUNS

A. COMMON AND PROPER NOUNS

1. Forms a. Common

girl, day, city, language, etc. b. Proper

Names and Titles of People Elizabeth, Michael Jones, Miss Smith, etc.

Days of the Week, Months, and Holidays Monday, June, Christmas, etc.

Languages and Nationalities Arabic, English, Spanish, etc. Arab, American, Mexican, etc.

Religions Buddhist, Christian, Moslem, etc. Buddhism, Christianity, Islam, etc.

Cities, States, Countries, and Continents Newark, Delaware, the United States, North America, etc.

Oceans, Deserts, Mountains, and Other Geographical Features Atlantic Ocean, Sahara Desert, Mount Everest, etc.

Schools, Buildings, Parks, and Other Place Names University of Delaware, Smith Hall, Hershey Park, Philadelphia Zoo, etc.

Streets, Roads, and Highways South College Avenue, Possum Park Road, Baltimore Pike, etc.

Titles of Books and Movies Basic English Grammar, Harry Potter and the Sorcerer’s Stone, Titanic, etc.

2. Usage Notes and Examples

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a. Capitalize proper nouns but not common nouns, unless the common noun is the first word of a sentence. I went to Paris. I visited many cities. Cities are exciting.

b. Determiners are not usually used with proper nouns. I visited the city. I visited the Paris.

B. COUNT AND NONCOUNT NOUNS

1. Forms a. Singular Count

an apple, a man, a fish, etc. b. Plural Count

apples, men, fish, etc. c. Noncount

Categories clothing, furniture, jewelry, etc.

Groups of Many Small Pieces pepper, sand, rice, etc.

Liquids blood, honey, shampoo, etc.

Solids and Semi-solids bread, chalk , silver, etc.

Gases air, oxygen, smoke, etc.

Natural Phenomena darkness, thunder, weather, etc.

Abstractions fun, health, luck , etc.

2. Usage Notes and Examples a. Indefinite Articles, A or An, may precede singular count nouns but can never

precede noncount nouns. Singular Count Noncount an apple an air a house a honey

b. The Plural Suffix -s should not be used with noncount nouns. Plural Count Noncount apples fruits

c. A Determiner MUST always be used with singular count nouns but is optional with plural count nouns and noncount nouns. Singular Count Plural Count Noncount apple apples fruit an apple some apples some fruit the apple the apples the fruit this apple these apples this fruit my apple my apples my fruit Jo’s apple Jo’s apples Jo’s fruit

d. Cardinal Numbers can be used with count nouns but not with noncount nouns.

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Count Noncount one apple one fruit two apples two fruits

e. Expressions of Measurement can be used to “count” noncount nouns as well as count nouns. Count Noncount two bags of apples two bags of fruit

Also see Articles and Indefinite Quantifiers for more about count and noncount nouns.

VI. PLACE MARKERS (LISTENING/SPEAKING)

A. INTRODUCTORY THERE

1. UsageNotesandExamplesa. Introductory there is used with the verb be and a prepositional phrase to

express the existence of a subject. The verb be agrees with the subject, which follows the verb, not with the word there. There is a cup on the table. There are two cups on the table.

2. SentencePatternsandExamplesa. Affirmative statements

There + Be + Subject + Prepositional Phrase There is a cup on the table.

b. Negative statements There + Be + Not + Any + Plural Subject + Prepositional Phrase There aren’t any glasses on the table.

c. Yes/no questions Be + There + Any + Plural Subject + Prepositional Phrase Are there any cups on the table?

d. Affirmative short answers Yes + Comma + There + Be Yes, there are.

e. Negative short answers No + Comma + There + Be + Not No, there are not.

f. Information questions and responses How Many + Plural Subject + Be + There + Prepositional Phrase How many cups are there on the table? There is one cup on the table. One. How much coffee is there in the cup? There is a lot of coffee in the cup. A lot.

VII. PREPOSITIONS

A. PREPOSITIONS OF LOCATION (Listening/Speaking)

1. Forms above *close to near on (the) top of *across from far (away) from next to *opposite

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*against in on outside (of) behind in back of *on the bottom of *over below in front of *on the corner of under beside inside (of) *on the left of between in the middle of *on the right of

*Only these forms are new at Level II.

2. Examples Where was John? John was in front of his computer.

B. PREPOSITIONS OF DIRECTION (Listening/Speaking)

1. Forms across away from into past to along down onto through toward around from out of over up

2. Examples How do I get to the post office from here? Walk down Main Street. Go past the library.

C. PREPOSITIONS OF SEQUENCE

1. Forms after and before

2. Examples First, we watched a movie. Second, we had dinner. Third, we went to bed. We watched a movie before dinner. We went to bed after dinner.

VIII. PRONOUNS

A. INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS

1. Forms

Pronouns Adjective/Pronouns Adverbswho how many how *how much when what where *whose why

*How much and whose are new at Level II.

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2. Examples and Sentence Patterns a. Interrogatives as subjects in contrast to objects or adverbs

Interrogative + Verb + (Predicate) Who went to the zoo?

b. Interrogatives as objects or adverbs Interrogative + Auxiliary + Subject + (Verb) + (Predicate) Where did John go? What did he see at the zoo?

Also see Verbs for information questions and responses for each tense.

B. POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS

1. Forms

Singular PluralFirst Person mine ours Second Person yours yours Third Person his/hers theirs

2. Usage Notes and Examples a. Sentence Position

Subject John’s book is on the shelf. Mine is on the table.

Object I have my book. Do you have yours?

b. Agreement Person

I have my book. It’s mine. You have your book. It’s yours. He has his book. It’s his.

Number John's book isn't on the shelf. His is on the table. John and Mary's books aren't on the table. Theirs are on the shelf.

Gender John's book isn't on the shelf. His is on the table. Jill's book isn't on the table. Hers is on the shelf.

Also see Possessive Nouns.

C. REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS

1. Forms

Singular Plural First Person myself ourselvesSecond Person yourself yourselves

Third Person

himselfherselfitself themselves

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2. Functions a. Indicating that the object has the same identity as the subject

Jennifer saw herself in the mirror. b. With by, indicating that an action is done alone or without assistance

Jennifer cut her hair by herself.

3. Usage Notes and Examples a. Sentence Position

Direct Objects Jennifer saw herself in the mirror.

Objects of Prepositions Jennifer looked at herself in the mirror.

b. Agreement Person

I saw myself in the mirror. You saw yourself in the mirror. She saw herself in the mirror.

Number Joshua saw himself in the mirror.

Joshua and Claire saw themselves in the mirror.

Gender John saw himself in the mirror. Jill saw herself in the mirror.

IX. ADVERB CLAUSES

A. PAST TENSE TIME CLAUSES

1. Conjunctions after, before, and when

2. Functions

a. Before is used to show that the main clause action or event happened first (before another past action or event). First, Sara ate breakfast. Second, she went to school. Sara ate breakfast before she went to school.

b. After is used to show that the main clause action or event happened second (after another past action or event). First, Sara ate breakfast. Second, she went to school. Sara went to school after she ate breakfast.

c. When is used to show that the main clause action or event happened at the same time or moments before another past action or event. First, Sara got on the bus. At the moment she stepped on the bus, she saw her friends. Sara saw her friends when she got on the bus.

3. Usages Notes and Examples a. Verb Tenses: Simple past tense is used in both the main clause and the

subordinate clause. Sara saw her friends when she got on the bus.

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b. Clause position: The subordinate clause is usually in sentence final position, but it may also be used in initial position. Sara saw her friends when she got on the bus. When Sara got on the bus, she saw her friends.

c. Punctuation: When the subordinate clause is in initial position, it is followed by a comma. When the subordinate clause is in final position, no comma is used. When Sara got on the bus, she saw her friends. Sara saw her friends when she got on the bus.

d. Pronoun precedence: When the subjects of both clauses are the same, a noun should be used in the first clause and a pronoun should be used in the second clause. Sara saw her friends when she got on the bus. When Sara got on the bus, she saw her friends.

X. VERBS: MODALS AND PHRASAL MODALS

A. FUTURE CERTAINTY

See Verbs: Tenses and Aspects for will and be going to

B. FUTURE UNCERTAINTY

1. Forms

Singular Plural First Person may/might + Verb may/might + VerbSecond Person may/might + Verb may/might + VerbThird Person may/might + Verb may/might + Verb

2. Functions a. Suggesting that a future action is possible but not certain

Where are you going to go on your vacation? I don’t know. I may go to New York again or I might stay home.

3. Sentence Patterns and Examples a. Affirmative Statements

Subject + May/Might + Verb + (Predicate) I may/might stay home.

b. Negative Statements Subject + May/might + Not + Verb + (Predicate) I may/might not go anywhere.

C. PERMISSION (Listening/Speaking)

1. Sentence Patterns

May Could

I

(please)

Verb Phrase?

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Can

2. Functions a. Asking if a present or future action is allowable

May I please use your dictionary? I left mine at home. Could I please borrow your eraser? I don’t have one. Can I please sit here? All of the other tables are full.

D. REQUESTS (Listening/Speaking)

1. Sentence Patterns

WouldCould Can Will

you

(please)

Verb Phrase?

2. Functions a. Asking for assistance in the present or future

Would you please open the door for me? My hands are full. Could you please lend me your eraser? I don’t have one. Can you please let me share your book today? I forgot mine. Will you please repeat that? I couldn’t hear you.

E. SUGGESTIONS (Listening/Speaking)

1. Sentence Patterns

Let’s Why don’t we

Verb Phrase

2. Functions a. Expressing a course of action for the present or future

Let’s order a pizza. Why don’t we make spaghetti instead?

XI. VERBS: TENSES AND ASPECTS

A. SIMPLE PAST OF BE

1. Forms

Singular PluralFirst Person was were Second Person were were Third Person was were

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2. Contractions

Full Form ContractionWas was not wasn’t Were were not weren’t

3. Sentence patterns and examples.

a. Affirmative statements Subject + Be + Predicate Sue was a student.

b. Negative statements Subject + Be + Not + Predicate Sue was not a nurse.

c. Yes/no questions Be + Subject + Predicate Was Sue a student?

d. Affirmative short answers Yes + Comma + Subject + Be Yes, she was.

e. Negative short answers No + Comma + Subject + Be + Not No, she was not.

f. Information questions and responses with an interrogative pronoun as a subject

Question Word + Be + Predicate Who was in class? Sue was in class. Sue was. Sue.

g. Information questions with an interrogative pronoun as a noun complement or with an interrogative adverb Question Word + Be + Predicate

Who was that girl? What time was her class? That girl was Sue. Sue. Her class was at eight o'clock. At eight o'clock

B. SIMPLE PAST OF OTHER VERBS

1. Forms

Singular Plural First Person Verb + -ed Verb + -edSecond Person Verb + -ed Verb + -edThird Person Verb + -ed Verb + -ed

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2. Contractions

Full Form ContractionDid did not didn’t

3. Functionsa. Indicating an action which began and ended at a specific time in the past

Sue walked to the cafeteria yesterday.

4. Irregularities

a. Spelling changes when -ed is added Final -e is dropped.

smile smiled

A final consonant, other than -w, -x, and -y, is doubled when preceded by a single stressed vowel. stop stopped

Final -Y is changed to -I when preceded by a consonant cry cried

b. Irregular forms See the Appendix for a list of irregular past tense forms.

5. Sentencepatternsandexamples

a. Affirmative statements Subject + Verb + (Predicate) Sue walked to the cafeteria.

b. Negative statements Subject + Did + Not + Verb + (Predicate) Sue did not walk to the cafeteria.

c. Yes/no questions Did + Subject + Verb + (Predicate) Did she walk to the library?

d. Affirmative short answers Yes + Comma + Subject + Did Yes, she did.

e. Negative short answers No + Comma + Subject + Did + Not No, she did not.

f. Information questions and responses with an interrogative pronoun as a subject

Question Word + Verb + (Predicate) Who walked? Sue walked. Sue did. Sue.

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g. Information questions and responses with an interrogative pronoun as an object or with an interrogative adverb

Question Word + Did + Subject + Verb + (Predicate) What did Sue eat? Sue ate a sandwich.

A sandwich. Where did she eat? She ate in the cafeteria.

In the cafeteria.

C. FUTURE WITH WILL

1. Forms

Singular Plural First Person will + Verb will + VerbSecond Person will + Verb will + VerbThird Person will + Verb will + Verb

2. Contractions

a. Subject Pronouns

Singular Plural First Person will + Verb will + VerbSecond Person will + Verb will + VerbThird Person will + Verb will + Verb

b. With not

Full Form ContractionWill will not won’t

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3. Functions

a. Indicating an action which takes place in the future Our team will win the baseball game tomorrow.

4. Sentencepatternsandexamples

a. Affirmative statements Subject + Will + Verb + (Predicate) Sue will buy tickets for the baseball game .

b. Negative statements Subject + Will + Not + Verb + (Predicate) The boys will not buy any tickets.

c. Yes/no questions Will + Subject + Verb + (Predicate) Will Sue buy the tickets?

d. Affirmative short answers Yes + Comma + Subject + Will Yes, she will.

e. Negative short answers No + Comma + Subject + Will + Not No, she will not.

f. Information questions and responses with an interrogative pronoun as a subject Question Word + Will + Verb + (Predicate) Who will buy the tickets? Sue will buy the tickets. Sue will. Sue.

g. Information questions and responses with an interrogative pronoun as an object or with an interrogative adverb Question Word + Will + Subject + Verb + (Predicate) What will Sue buy? Sue will buy the tickets. The tickets. When will she buy them? She will buy them tomorrow. Tomorrow.

D. FUTURE WITH BE GOING TO

1. Forms

Singular Plural First Person am + going to + Verb are + going to + VerbSecond Person are + going to + Verb are + going to + VerbThird Person is + going to + Verb are + going to + Verb

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2. Functions

a. Indicating an action which takes place in the future Our team is going to win the baseball game tomorrow.

3. Sentencepatternsandexamples

a. Affirmative statements Subject + Be + Going To + Verb + (Predicate) The boys are going to go to the baseball game

b. Negative statements Subject + Be + Not + Going To + Verb + (Predicate) The boys are not going to go to a football game .

c. Yes/no questions Be + Subject + Going To + Verb + (Predicate) Are the boys going to go to the baseball game?

d. Affirmative short answers Yes + Comma + Subject + Be Yes, they are.

e. Negative short answers No + Comma + Subject + Be + Not No, they are not.

f. Information questions and responses with an interrogative pronoun as a subject

Question Word + Be + Going To + Verb + (Predicate) Who is going to go? The boys are going to go. The boys are.

The boys.

g. Information questions and responses with an interrogative pronoun as an object or with an interrogative adverb

Question Word + Be + Subject + Going To + Verb + (Predicate) What are they going to see? They are going to see the game.

The game. Where are they going to go? They are going to go to the game.

To the game.

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APPENDIX IRREGULAR PAST TENSE VERBS AT LEVEL II

Base Form Simple Past Base Form Simple Past

be was/were keep kept become became know knew begin began leave left bite bit lose lost

blow blew make made break broke meet met bring brought pay paid build built put put buy bought read read

catch caught ride rode choose chose run ran come came say said cost cost see saw cut cut sell sold do did send sent

draw drew set set drink drank shake shook drive drove shut shut eat ate sing sang fall fell sit sat feed fed sleep slept feel felt speak spoke fight fought spend spent find found stand stood fly flew steal stole

forget forgot swim swam forgive forgave take took

get got teach taught give gave tell told go went think thought

grow grew throw threw have had understand understood hear heard wake up woke up hide hid wear wore hit hit win won

hold held write wrote hurt hurt