Approaches, Methods and Techniques

8/3/2019 Approaches, Methods and Techniques

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APPROACHES,

METHODS AND

TECHNIQUES.


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APPROACHES, METHODS, PROCEDURES, AND

TECHNIQUES

Approach: this refers to theories about the natureof language and language learning that serve as thesource of practices and principles in languageteaching. It offers a model of languagecompetence. An approach describes how peopleacquire their knowledge of the language and makesstatements about conditions which will promotesuccessful language learning.

Method: a method is the practical realization of an

approach. Methods include various procedures andtechniques as part of their standard fare.

Procedure: a procedure is an ordered sequence oftechniques. A procedure is a sequence which can

be described in terms such as first you do this,then ou do that Smaller than a method and


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APPROACHES, METHODS, PROCEDURES, AND

TECHNIQUES

Technique: a common technique when usingvideo material is called silent viewing. This iswhere the teacher plays the video with no sound.Silent viewing is a single activity rather than a

sequence, and as such is a technique rather thana whole procedure.

A term that is also used in discussions about

teaching is model used to describe typicalprocedures, usually for teachers in training. Suchmodels offer abstractions of these procedures,designed to guide teaching practice.


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CRITERIA FOR SELECTION OF

METHODOLOGY:

Teacher needs to understand student

wants and expectations just as much as

they are determined to push their own

methodological beliefs.

Some accommodation has to be reached

between what the two parties want andexpect. It means, initiating gradual

rather than immediate change.


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MAKING CHOICES

Exposure to language: Students need constantexposure to language since this is a keycomponent of language acquisition.

Input: Students need comprehensible input butthis is not enough in itself, unless there is somelanguage study or some opportunity for noticingor consciousness raising to help studentsremember language facts.

CLT: communicative activities and task basedteaching offer real learning benefits, thoughneither tasks nor communicative activities ontheir own are sufficient for a whole languageprogramme.


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MAKING CHOICES

The affective variable: anxiety needs to be lowered for learningto take place.

Discovery:where culturally appropriate, students should beencouraged to discover things for themselves, as this is likely

to lead to better retention in the long run.

Grammar and lexis: lexis is as important as grammar.Showing how words combine together and behave both

semantically and grammatically is an important part of any

language learning programme.

Methodology and culture: teaching methodology is rooted inpopular culture. Assumptions that methodologists and

teachers make are not necessarily shared by students from

different traditions. Compromise may be necessary.


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THE GRAMMAR TRANSLATION METHOD

This is a method that has been used bylanguage teachers for many years.

At one time it was called Classical

Method,since it was first used in theteaching of the classical languages,Latinand Greek.

Earlier in this century,it was used for thepurpose of helping students read andappreciate foreign language literature.

Classes are taught in the students mother

tongue,with little active use of the target


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THE GRAMMAR TRANSLATION METHOD

Vocabulary is taught in the form ofisolated word lists;

Elaborate explanations of grammar are

always provided;

Reading of difficult text is begun early inthe course of study;

Little attention is paid to the content oftext,which are treated as exercises ingrammatical analysis.


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THE ORAL APPROACH AND SITUATIONAL

LANGUAGE TEACHING

1920s and 1930s.

Leaders: Harold Palmer and A.S. Hornby.

Language teaching begins with the spoken

language. Material is taught orally before it ispresented in written form.

The target language is the language of theclassroom.

New language points are introduced andpracticed situationally.

Vocabulary selection procedures are followed toensure that an essential general service

vocabulary is covered. Items of rammar are raded followin the


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LANGUAGE TEACHING

Reading and writing are introduced once asufficient lexical and grammatical basis isestablished.

Situational approach to presenting newsentence patterns and a drill basedmanner of practicing them.

Situational = use of concrete objects,

pictures and realia, which together withactions and gestures can be used todemonstrate the meanings of new languageitems.


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LANGUAGE TEACHING

Teachers responsabilities: timing; oralpractice to support the textbook structures;revision; adjustment to special needs ofindividuals; testing; developing languageactivities other than those arising from the

textbook (Pittman) The textbook should be used only as a guide

to the learning process. In the initial stages, the learner is required

simply to listen and repeat what the teachersays and to respond to questions andcommands. Later, more active participationis encouraged.

Procedures move from controlled to freer


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THE AUDIOLINGUAL METHOD

Audio-lingual methodology owes its existenceto the Behaviourist models of learning usingthe Stimulus-Response-Reinforcement model,it attempted, through a continuous process ofsuch positive reinforcement, to engender good

habits in language learners.

Audio-lingualism relied heavily on drills likesubstitution to form these habits.

Habit-forming drills have remained popularamong teachers and students, and teacherswho feel confident with the linguisticrestriction of such procedures


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Stimulus OrganismResponseBehavior

Noreinforcement

or negativereinforcement(behavior notlikely to occur

again)

Reinforcement

(behaviorlikely to occuragain andbecome a

habit)


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Use of drills and pattern practice:

Repetition. Ss repeat a brief utterance aloudwithout looking at a printed text.

Inflection. One word in an utterance appears inanother form when repeated. (Example: I bought

the ticket

I bought the tickets) Replacement. One word in an utterance isreplaced by another. (example: Annaleft earlySheleft early)

Restatement. The student rephrases an utterance

and addresses it to someone else, according toinstructions. (example: Tell him to wait for youwait for me)

Completion. The student hears an utterance thatis complete except for one word, then repeats theutterance in completed form. (example: we all


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Transposition. A change in word order isnecessary when a word is added.(example: Im hungry. (so) So amI)

Expansion. When a word is added ittakes a certain place in the sequence.(example: I know him. (hardly) I hardlyknow him)

Contraction. A single word stands for aphrase or clause. (example: put your handon the table Put your hand there)


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Transformation. A sentence istransformed by being made negative orinterrogative or through changes in tense,mood, voice, aspecto or modality.

(example: he knows my address. Hedoesnt know my address. Does he knowmy address?)

Integration. Two separate utterances areintegrated into one. (example: they mustbe honest. This is important It is

important that they be honest)


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Rejoinder. The student makes an

appropriate rejoinder to a given utterance.He is told in advance to respond in one ofthe following ways: be polite. Answer thequestion. Agree. Agree emphatically.Express surprise. Express regret. Disagree.Disagree emphatically. Question that issaid. Fail to understand.

Restoration. The student is given asequence of words that have been calledfrom a sentence but still bear its basicmeaning. (example: students/waiting/bus

The students are waiting for the bus)


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COMMUNICATIVE LANGUAGE TEACHING

The communicative approach or Communicative

Language Teaching (CLT) is the name which was given toa set of beliefs which included not only a re-examinationof what aspects of language to teach but also a shift inemphasis on how to teach.

Language is a system for the expression of meaning. The primary function of language is for interaction an

communication.

The structure of language reflects its functional andcommunicative users.

The primary units of language are not merely itsgrammatical and structural features, but categories offunctional and communicative meaning as exemplifiedin discourse.


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COMMUNICATIVE LANGUAGE TEACHING

Non-communicative activities Communicative activities

The communication continuum

No communicative desire

No communicative purpose

Form not content

One language item only

Teacher intervention

Materials control

A desire to communicate

A communicativepurpose

Content not form

Variety of language

No teacher intervention

No materials control


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TOTAL PHYSICAL RESPONSE

The originator of TPR, James Asher, worked from the

premise that adult second language learning could havesimilar developmental patterns to that of child acquisition.

Children learn language from their speech through theforms of commands, then adults will learn best in that waytoo.

In responding to commands students get a lot ofcomprehensible input, and in performing physical actionsthey seem to echo the claims of Neuro-linguisticprogramming that certain people benefit greatly from

kinaesthetic activity. This method is developed to reduce stress people feel while

studying foreign languages. Learners are allowed to speakwhen they are ready:

1. Using commands to direct behaviour2. Role reversal


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THE SILENT WAY (CALEB GATTEGNO)

Characterized by a problem-solvingapproach.

Develops independence and autonomyand encourages students to cooperate

with each other.Learning is facilitated if the learner discovers

or creates rather than remembers andrepeats what is to be learned.

Learning is facilitated by accompanying(mediating) physical objects).

Learning is facilitated by problem solving thematerial to be learned.


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THE NATURAL APPROACH

As much comprehensible input as possible must be

presented

Whatever helps comprehension is important. Visualaids are useful, as is exposure to a wide range ofvocabulary rather than study of syntactic structure.

The focus in the classroom should be on listeningand reading; speaking should be allowed toemerge

In order to lower the affective filter, student workshould center on meaningful communication ratherthatn on form; input should be interesting and socontribute to a relaxed classroom atmosphere.

Techniques are borrowed from other methods andadapted to meet the requirements of NaturalApproach Theory.


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Learners have four responsibilities:

1. Provide information about their specific goals sothat acquisition activities can focus on thetopics and situations most relevant to theirneeds.

2. Take an active role in ensuring comprehensibleinput. They should learn and use conversationalmanagement techniques to regulate input.

3. Decide when to start producing speech and

when to upgrade it.4. Where learning exercises are to be a part of the

program, decide with the teacher the relativeamount of time to be devoted to them and

perhaps even complete and correcto them


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The teacher has three central roles:1. The teacher is the primary source of

comprehensible input in the target

language.2. The teacher creates a classroom

atmosphere that is interesting, friendly,and in which there is a low affective filterfor learning.

3. The teacher must choose andorchestrate a rich mix of classroomactivities involvin a variet of rou


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SUGGESTOPEDIA (GEORGI LOZANOV)

Physical surroundings and atmosphere ofthe classroom are of a vital importance;

The reason for our inefficiency is that weset up psychological barriers to learning:we fear that we will be unable to perform,that we will be limited in our ability tolearn, that we will fail;

One result is that we do not use the fullmental powers that we have andaccording to Lozanov, we may be using

only 5 10% of our mental capacity


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SUGGESTOPEDIA (GEORGI LOZANOV)

In order to make better use of ourreserved capacity, the limitations we thinkwe have, need to be desuggested

Parent-children (teacher-student)relationship

Three main parts: oral review,presentation and discussion, concertsession (listening to classic music)


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PRESENTATION, PRACTICE, PRODUCTION

A variation on Audio-lingualism in British-based teaching and elsewhere is theprocedure most often referred to as PPP,which stands for Presentation, Practice,

and Production. In this procedure the teacher introduces a

situation which contextualises thelanguage to be taught.

The students now practise the languageusing accurate reproduction techniquessuch as choral repetition, individual

repetition, and cue-response drills.


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ALTERNATIVES TO PPP

The PPP procedure came under a sustained attack in

the 1990s.

Michael Lewis suggested that PPP was inadequate

because it reflected neither the nature of language nor

the nature of learning.

Jim Scrivener advanced what is perhaps the most

worrying aspect of PPP,the fact that it only describes

one kind of lesson;it is inadequate as a general

proposal concerning approaches to language in the

classroom.

In response to these criticism many people have offered

variations on PPP and alternative to it: ARC, OHE/III,


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ARC

Put forward by Jim Scrivener

Stands for Authentic use, Restricted use andClarification and focus

Communicative activity will demonstrateauthentic use; elicted dialogue or guided

writing will provoke restricted use oflanguage by students; finally clarificationlanguage is that which the teacher andstudents use to explain grammar,give

examples,analyse errors,elict or repeat


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OHE/III

Michael Lewis claims that studentsshould be allowed to Observe (read orlisten to language) which will then

provoke them to Hypothesise about howthe language works before going on tothe Experiment on the basis of that

hypothesis.


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ESA

In the ESA model three components will usually bepresent in any teaching sequence,whether of five,fiftyor a hundred minutes

Estands for Engage- students have to be engagedemotionally

Sstands for Study

A stands for Activate - any stage at which studentsare encouraged to use all and/or any of the languagethey know

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Approaches, Methods and Techniques