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Approaches in Approaches in Language TestingLanguage Testing
The Essay-Translation The Essay-Translation ApproachApproach
a pre-scientific stage – 1950a pre-scientific stage – 1950 Associated with Associated with grammar-grammar-
translation approachtranslation approach to to language teachinglanguage teaching
The Essay-Translation The Essay-Translation ApproachApproach
No special skills/ testing No special skills/ testing expertise requiredexpertise required
Constructed by untrained Constructed by untrained classroom teachersclassroom teachers
The Essay-Translation The Essay-Translation ApproachApproach
Test-TypesTest-Types TranslationTranslation free composition writingfree composition writing Very cultural biasVery cultural bias E.g. E.g. Write about “American Civil Write about “American Civil
War and its Impact on USA.”War and its Impact on USA.”
The Essay-Translation The Essay-Translation ApproachApproach Difficult to objectively score, Difficult to objectively score,
thus subjectively judged by thus subjectively judged by teachersteachers
No application of statistical No application of statistical analysis, not scientificanalysis, not scientific
DisadvantagesDisadvantages: : very unreliablevery unreliable lack of objectivitylack of objectivity
The Essay-Translation The Essay-Translation ApproachApproach
Reliable?Reliable? Testing language Testing language
or content knowledge??or content knowledge?? How to score?How to score?
The Psychometric-structuralist The Psychometric-structuralist Approach (1950-1960)Approach (1950-1960)
Influenced by structuralist Influenced by structuralist linguistics (Robert Lado “ linguistics (Robert Lado “ Language Testing”)Language Testing”)
Associated with audio-lingual Associated with audio-lingual method of language teaching method of language teaching and behaviorismand behaviorism
The Psychometric-structuralist The Psychometric-structuralist Approach (1950-1960)Approach (1950-1960)
based on assumption that based on assumption that language learning is concerned language learning is concerned with the systematic acquisition with the systematic acquisition of habit formingof habit forming
The Psychometric-structuralist The Psychometric-structuralist Approach (1950-1960)Approach (1950-1960)
Seeing language as consisting Seeing language as consisting of features of the language of features of the language system (vocabulary, system (vocabulary, pronunciation, grammar)pronunciation, grammar)
The Psychometric-structuralist The Psychometric-structuralist Approach (1950-1960)Approach (1950-1960)
De-contextualizing the language De-contextualizing the language knowledge to be tested and test knowledge to be tested and test language aspects in isolation language aspects in isolation (discrete point testing)(discrete point testing)
The Psychometric-structuralist The Psychometric-structuralist Approach (1950-1960)Approach (1950-1960) Measuring students’ mastery of Measuring students’ mastery of
separate elements of language separate elements of language macro language skills (reading, macro language skills (reading,
writing, etc.) are tested in writing, etc.) are tested in isolationisolation
Testing discrete structural points Testing discrete structural points taught in audio-lingual methodstaught in audio-lingual methods
The Psychometric-structuralist The Psychometric-structuralist Approach (1950-1960)Approach (1950-1960)
Main concerns:Main concerns: objectivity, reliability, validityobjectivity, reliability, validity Tests were carefully constructed Tests were carefully constructed
by specialists and trained by specialists and trained teachersteachers
Tests become more Tests become more scientificscientific, , more more reliablereliable, use of statistics, use of statistics
The Psychometric-structuralist The Psychometric-structuralist Approach (1950-1960)Approach (1950-1960)
Test TypesTest Types: : testing discrete language points testing discrete language points
through multiple choice, T-F. through multiple choice, T-F. matchingmatching
The Psychometric-structuralist The Psychometric-structuralist Approach (1950-1960)Approach (1950-1960)
Advantages:Advantages: Very objectiveVery objective easy to scoreeasy to score reliablereliable covering a wide range of covering a wide range of
language pointslanguage points
Test ExamplesTest Examples
1. Is Mary still in Bangkok?1. Is Mary still in Bangkok? No, _____ in Chiangmai No, _____ in Chiangmai
since 2004.since 2004. 1. she lives1. she lives
2. she’s living2. she’s living 3. she’d lived3. she’d lived 4. she’s lived 4. she’s lived
The old woman was too _____ The old woman was too _____ to push open the heavy door.to push open the heavy door.
a. feeblea. feeble b. deafb. deaf c. sincerec. sincere d. generousd. generous
listeninglistening
cot- caughtcot- caught samesamedifferentdifferent
pin binpin bin samesamedifferentdifferent
law – law law – law samesame differentdifferent
The Psychometric-structuralist The Psychometric-structuralist Approach (1950-1960)Approach (1950-1960)
Opponents:Opponents: OllerOller SpolskySpolsky MorrowMorrow
CriticismCriticism
Testing linguistic knowledge is Testing linguistic knowledge is important but not sufficientimportant but not sufficient
John OllerJohn Oller
““Discrete point analysis Discrete point analysis necessarily breaks the elements necessarily breaks the elements of language apart and tries to of language apart and tries to teach them or test them teach them or test them separately with little or no separately with little or no attention to the way those attention to the way those elements interact in a larger elements interact in a larger context of communication”context of communication”
OllerOller
““The whole is greater than the The whole is greater than the sum of parts”sum of parts”
MorrowMorrow
Knowledge of the elements of a Knowledge of the elements of a language is useless if the user is language is useless if the user is not able to combine them in new not able to combine them in new and appropriate ways to use and appropriate ways to use the languagethe language
Still in use supplemented by Still in use supplemented by integrative testsintegrative tests
The Integrative-pragmatic The Integrative-pragmatic Approach (1960-1970)Approach (1960-1970)
Main concerns:Main concerns: creative, more than a sum of creative, more than a sum of
discrete language knowledgediscrete language knowledge Global testing, integrating Global testing, integrating
knowledge of pronunciation, knowledge of pronunciation, grammar, vocabulary, with grammar, vocabulary, with appropriate contextappropriate context
The Integrative-pragmatic The Integrative-pragmatic Approach (1960-1970)Approach (1960-1970) Believing in Believing in Unitary Unitary
Competence HypothesisCompetence Hypothesis Performance on a whole range Performance on a whole range
of tests depends on the same of tests depends on the same underlying capacity in the underlying capacity in the learners – learners – the ability to integrate the ability to integrate grammatical, lexical, contextual grammatical, lexical, contextual and pragmatic knowledge in and pragmatic knowledge in test performancetest performance
Test TypesTest Types:: cloze cloze dictationdictation composition composition Functional testFunctional test
Advantages:Advantages:
More economical and More economical and efficient to construct and efficient to construct and scorescore
ObjectiveObjective ReliableReliable contextualizedcontextualized
The Integrative-pragmatic The Integrative-pragmatic Approach (1960-1970)Approach (1960-1970)
AdvocateAdvocate: : John OllerJohn Oller General Language Proficiency General Language Proficiency
(GLP)(GLP)
is a is a single language factor single language factor underlying all language skillsunderlying all language skills..
55thth/7/7thth/9/9thth/11/11thth
exact word/ acceptable exact word/ acceptable wordword Employment StudiesEmployment Studies Society offers many jobs and it is Society offers many jobs and it is
wise to consider carefully many wise to consider carefully many aspects before applying for a aspects before applying for a position. When applying for position. When applying for a_job you must always be a_job you must always be realistic _____ the one you apply realistic _____ the one you apply for. You might be good yet ___ for. You might be good yet ___ no interest in that no interest in that particular work.particular work.
Example: Functional TestExample: Functional Test
Situation: Situation: Chai wants to Chai wants to introduce his friend to his introduce his friend to his mother.mother.
1. Samarn, I’d like you to meet 1. Samarn, I’d like you to meet
my mother.my mother. 2. How do you do?2. How do you do? 3. I’m pleased to introduce my 3. I’m pleased to introduce my
mother to you.mother to you. 4. How are you?4. How are you?
The Integrative-pragmatic The Integrative-pragmatic Approach (1960-1970)Approach (1960-1970)
Disadvantages:Disadvantages: Indirect testingIndirect testing Problems with cloze testsProblems with cloze tests
Problems with Cloze TestProblems with Cloze Test
not realistic, measuring not realistic, measuring linguistic knowledge rather linguistic knowledge rather than actual performancethan actual performance
moderately correlated with moderately correlated with other language skillsother language skills
Changes of word order = Changes of word order = changes in test scoreschanges in test scores
Cloze: systematic deletionCloze: systematic deletion Gap filling: Gap filling: Text completionText completion
The Communicative The Communicative Approaches (1970 --)Approaches (1970 --)
Influenced by Hymes’s notion of Influenced by Hymes’s notion of communicative competencecommunicative competence
Knowing a language is more Knowing a language is more than knowing its rules of than knowing its rules of grammargrammar
An ability to use language An ability to use language appropriately for different appropriately for different situationssituations
The Communicative The Communicative Approaches (1970 --)Approaches (1970 --)
Believing in Believing in “Divisibility “Divisibility Language Ability”Language Ability”
The Communicative The Communicative Approaches (1970 --)Approaches (1970 --)
Assessing learners’ ability Assessing learners’ ability when he is engaged in an when he is engaged in an extended act of extended act of communication and communication and considering the social roles considering the social roles he is likely to assume in real he is likely to assume in real word settings.word settings.
The Communicative The Communicative Approaches (1970 --)Approaches (1970 --)
Communicative Communicative CompetenceCompetence
Canale and Swain, 1980Canale and Swain, 1980 Models of Communicative Models of Communicative
CompetenceCompetence
1. 1. Grammatical Grammatical Competence:Competence:
Knowledge of lexical Knowledge of lexical items and of rules of items and of rules of morphology, syntax, morphology, syntax, sentence-grammar sentence-grammar semantics, and semantics, and phonologyphonology
2. 2. Discourse competenceDiscourse competence
ability to connect ability to connect sentences in stretches of sentences in stretches of discourse and to form a discourse and to form a meaning series of meaning series of utterances in extended utterances in extended use of language in use of language in context.context.
3. 3. Strategic competenceStrategic competence
verbal and non-verbal verbal and non-verbal communicative strategies communicative strategies used to compensate for used to compensate for breakdowns in breakdowns in communication due to communication due to imperfect or insufficient imperfect or insufficient linguistic competence in the linguistic competence in the second language.second language.
4. 4. Sociolinguistic Sociolinguistic competencecompetence
Knowledge of the socio-Knowledge of the socio-cultural rules of language cultural rules of language and of discourseand of discourse
The Communicative The Communicative Approaches (1970 --)Approaches (1970 --)
Thus, constructing a test Thus, constructing a test requires a careful study of requires a careful study of communicative roles and communicative roles and tasks facing the learnerstasks facing the learners
The Communicative The Communicative Approaches (1970 --)Approaches (1970 --)
Job analysisJob analysis: : when, where, with whom, how when, where, with whom, how
and why language is to be used, and why language is to be used, on what topics, with what effect on what topics, with what effect and the prior knowledge/ and the prior knowledge/ experience/ ability, and extra-experience/ ability, and extra-linguistic factorslinguistic factors
The Communicative The Communicative Approaches (1970 --)Approaches (1970 --)
Test-typesTest-types: : task-based tests, role-task-based tests, role-
play, composition, play, composition, interview, problem solving interview, problem solving taskstasks
ProblemsProblems
1. Which communicative 1. Which communicative task to be included in the task to be included in the test?test?
e.g. a group of students in e.g. a group of students in ““English for Secretaries”English for Secretaries”
ProblemsProblems
22. the more specific the task, . the more specific the task, the less we can generalize the less we can generalize about the students’ abilityabout the students’ ability
3. Conditions for actual real-3. Conditions for actual real-life communication are not life communication are not replicable in a test situation.replicable in a test situation.
ProblemsProblems
4. How much to be included 4. How much to be included in the test:in the test:
The larger the sample of The larger the sample of tasks, the more realistic the tasks, the more realistic the test, but the longer the testtest, but the longer the test
5. How to score: reliability ?5. How to score: reliability ?