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Middle-East Journal of Scientific Research 15 (8): 1140-1146, 2013 ISSN 1990-9233 © IDOSI Publications, 2013 DOI: 10.5829/idosi.mejsr.2013.15.8.11238 Corresponding Author: Ali Akbar Khansir, Bushehr University of Medical Sciences and Health Services, Iran. 1140 Applied Linguistics and English Language Teaching Ali Akbar Khansir Bushehr University of Medical Sciences and Health Services, Iran Abstract: The aim of the present investigation is to examine applied linguistics and english language teaching. Many resent researches concerned with applied linguistics have led to a phenomenon to resolve language problems in general and in particular english language. In general, language phenomenon is complex. Finegan and Besiner defined language as a finite system of elements and principles that make it possible for speakers to construct sentences to do particular communicative jobs. Brumfit, defined applied linguistics such as “the theoretical and empirical investigation of real- world problems in which language is a central issue.” Grabe used the term of applied linguistics as an emerging discipline. This paper gives special emphasis to the influence of applied linguistics on english language and discusses the relation between linguistics and language teaching. Key words: Applied linguistics Linguistics Language English Language Teaching INTRODUCTION communication that can be identified, analysed or solved The history of English Language Teaching is linked with developments in many fields and especially with linguistics, applied linguistics, the psychology of learning and education. Titone [1] emphasized that there have been two basic positions held in English language teaching : a ) Form-focused teaching which emphasizes the teaching of the rules of grammar, structures, the development of vocabulary and the sounds of language; b) Meaning–focused teaching which emphasizes language use, communication or fluency and appropriacy of expression in different situations. Language teaching came into existence as a profession in the twentieth century. Its foundation was developed during the early part of the twentieth century, as applied linguists focus on the fields of linguistics and psychology to support what was thought to be a more effective teaching methodology. Language teaching in the twentieth century was characterized by frequent changes, innovations and development of language teaching ideologies [2]. Corder [3] argued that applied linguistics was a collection of applications of linguistics at various levels to the determine precisely the constrains, or laws if you will, language teaching operation, albeit of linguistics in a broad sense. Cook and Wei [4] mentioned that applied linguistics is an interdisciplinary field of research and practice dealing with practical problems of language and by applying available theories, methods or results of Linguistics or by developing new theoretical and methodological frameworks in linguistics to work on these problems’. Varshney [5] defined applied linguistics as the collective term for the various applications of linguistic (and phonetic) scholarship to related practical fields-foreign language teaching, lexicography, translation, speech pathology and therapy, error analysis, etc. Applied linguistics in the widest sense, therefore, borders on other disciplines, for example, sociology, anthropology, psychology, biology, computational linguistics, stylistics, etc. The speech therapist, the literary critic, the translator, the communication engineer, the language teacher, the syllabus framer, the educational planner, the text book writer, the dictionary maker have found linguistics useful for their work. “Applied linguistics is a consumer, or user, not a producer of theories” [5]. As a field of study it is about more than 60 years old. Rosenbaum [6] mentioned that the object of linguistic research has two fold, first of them, is to which govern the form of the constructs employed in the linguistic descriptions which best characterize the varied instances of human linguistic ability; the second is to determine the particular instances of the descriptive

Applied Linguistics and English Language Teaching

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Page 1: Applied Linguistics and English Language Teaching

Middle-East Journal of Scientific Research 15 (8): 1140-1146, 2013ISSN 1990-9233© IDOSI Publications, 2013DOI: 10.5829/idosi.mejsr.2013.15.8.11238

Corresponding Author: Ali Akbar Khansir, Bushehr University of Medical Sciences and Health Services, Iran.

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Applied Linguistics and English Language Teaching

Ali Akbar Khansir

Bushehr University of Medical Sciences and Health Services, Iran

Abstract: The aim of the present investigation is to examine applied linguistics and english language teaching.Many resent researches concerned with applied linguistics have led to a phenomenon to resolve languageproblems in general and in particular english language. In general, language phenomenon is complex. Fineganand Besiner defined language as a finite system of elements and principles that make it possible for speakersto construct sentences to do particular communicative jobs. Brumfit, defined applied linguistics such as “thetheoretical and empirical investigation of real- world problems in which language is a central issue.” Grabe usedthe term of applied linguistics as an emerging discipline. This paper gives special emphasis to the influence ofapplied linguistics on english language and discusses the relation between linguistics and language teaching.

Key words: Applied linguistics Linguistics Language English Language Teaching

INTRODUCTION communication that can be identified, analysed or solved

The history of English Language Teaching islinked with developments in many fields and especiallywith linguistics, applied linguistics, the psychology oflearning and education. Titone [1] emphasized that therehave been two basic positions held in English languageteaching : a ) Form-focused teaching which emphasizesthe teaching of the rules of grammar, structures, thedevelopment of vocabulary and the sounds of language;b) Meaning–focused teaching which emphasizeslanguage use, communication or fluency and appropriacyof expression in different situations. Language teachingcame into existence as a profession in the twentiethcentury. Its foundation was developed during the earlypart of the twentieth century, as applied linguists focuson the fields of linguistics and psychology to supportwhat was thought to be a more effective teachingmethodology. Language teaching in the twentieth centurywas characterized by frequent changes, innovationsand development of language teaching ideologies [2].Corder [3] argued that applied linguistics was a collectionof applications of linguistics at various levels to the determine precisely the constrains, or laws if you will,language teaching operation, albeit of linguistics in abroad sense. Cook and Wei [4] mentioned that appliedlinguistics is an interdisciplinary field of research andpractice dealing with practical problems of language and

by applying available theories, methods or results ofLinguistics or by developing new theoretical andmethodological frameworks in linguistics to work onthese problems’. Varshney [5] defined applied linguisticsas the collective term for the various applications oflinguistic (and phonetic) scholarship to related practicalfields-foreign language teaching, lexicography,translation, speech pathology and therapy, error analysis,etc. Applied linguistics in the widest sense, therefore,borders on other disciplines, for example, sociology,anthropology, psychology, biology, computationallinguistics, stylistics, etc. The speech therapist, theliterary critic, the translator, the communication engineer,the language teacher, the syllabus framer, the educationalplanner, the text book writer, the dictionary maker havefound linguistics useful for their work. “Appliedlinguistics is a consumer, or user, not a producer oftheories” [5]. As a field of study it is about more than 60years old.

Rosenbaum [6] mentioned that the object oflinguistic research has two fold, first of them, is to

which govern the form of the constructs employed in thelinguistic descriptions which best characterize the variedinstances of human linguistic ability; the second is todetermine the particular instances of the descriptive

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constructs within an arbitrary language. Finally, the by Contrastive Analysis are not always because ofpurpose of linguistics is to deal with the problem of mother tongue interference; it is not enough to predictlanguage teaching and to describe the best way of mistakes, what is needed is their correction; applicationsinstances of human linguistic ability. of different descriptions are so superficial and incomplete

Today, English language is used as a world language and misleading that there is a multiplicity of terms andaround world; it is used as language in international approaches in linguistics; and the most of linguisticallybusiness, science and medicine. Even in countries where approved grammars are difficult to follow. Halliday,English is not first language, a number of English words McIntosh and Steevens [9] mentioned that the relevanceare used. According to this idea, Kainth and Arora [7] of linguistics to second language teaching is very useful.argued that “of all the different languages, English, as a The concepts of linguistics are always concerned with asglobal/international language or a Lingua franca, is widely major components of language teaching and useful forused in communication between people and countries. the language teacher. The concepts are such as langue,The English language has spread and developed parole, competence, performance, etc. In other words,globally, which is a fact that cannot be ignored. It has Corder [10] pointed that teacher can not teach a languagebecome a potent tool of socio- cultural and knowledge by any of current techniques without linguisticsexchange as well as an affective soft skill of enviable knowledge and that he does make constant use of whatmarket value”. In addition, explaining of English as a are bascally linguistic concepts in this teaching.”world language among the different languages around Halliday,, McIntosh and Steevens [9] argued that the roleworld, introduce it as foreign or second, even official of linguistics and phonetics in language teaching is notlanguage mainly in countries. The countries have decided to tell the teacher how to teach. The teacher of theto introduce teaching of English right from the elementary language is as much a specialist in the field as the linguistlevel (primary school) to advance level (university) and it is in his and will remain so. He is not teaching linguistics.has played a crucial role in higher education of the But he is teaching something which is the object of thecountries. The researcher believed that teaching of study of linguistics and is described by linguistic method.English language develops learners’ ability to enhance Teacher of language has received the knowledge oftheir international communication and improve their linguistic theory to teach language. Linguistics has beencultural quality so as to meet the needs of their country’s used as one of the disciplines which contribute to thesocial development and international exchanges. theory of language teaching. The knowledge of linguistic

Language Teaching and Linguistics: The researcher has teacher. Wilkins [11] pointed out that linguistics can beto investigate the relation between linguistics and more directly applied in language teaching, such as in thelanguage teaching in this paper, because they are two teaching programme and in the preparation of themajor important subjects are related to the study of teaching material of all kinds that can be used in theApplied Linguistics. The history of linguistics has been classroom. McIntyre [12] considered the Chomsky’s viewas a subject is related to language teaching came to the of the scope of linguistic theory: Chomsky regards theend of the Second World War, the relation of linguistics grammar of a language not only as something which willhas been generated as a subject to second language enable us to specify those rules a grasp of whichteaching. They have been seen as two different constitutes competence in a native speaker. He alsodisciplines. According Varshney [5] Linguistics is science believes that a linguistic theory which can specify anwhereas language teaching is called as an art. The objects adequate grammar will furnish us with an explanation ofof the linguist and the language teacher are at great how the child acquires its large ability to use languagevariance. What is elixir to the linguist may be poison to from the materials with which it is presented. An adequatethe language teacher. Many linguists had many different linguistic theory will tell us what those principles areideas about the relevance of linguistics to the teaching native to the human being and presumably embodied inlanguage such as Mackey [8] argued that the relevance the structure of the brain which make languageof linguistics to the teaching of English language as a acquisition possible and give to the language theforeign language is not worthwhile. Meanwhile, he character it has. Today, teaching of language is not easybelieved that linguistic descriptions are not identical and and it is needed to provide materials and make methodssimilar; the methods of the linguistic scientist as a teacher that the English teacher uses them to teach his/ herare not necessarily the most effective; the errors predicted students. The materials and methods are needed to be

theory has been used as a device to help the language

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have done by researchers in many fields, especially In addition, when a dog sees a piece of meat (stimulus),linguistics, psychology computational linguistics and it salivates (response). According to psychologists ofstylistics, etc. According to Boey [13] the language the behaviourist school, the process of languageteaching profession today has become more and more teaching can be explained in terms of conditions.complex and it has three main strands: 1) Theoretical In addition, Conditioning is a process of shaping andcontributions from linguistics, psychology and social moulding of behaviour: desired behaviour istheory. 2) Methodology and teaching techniques. 3) Aids induced and undesirable behaviour is extinguished.and equipment. In addition, Bloomfield [14] undertook to Eapen [17] mentioned that the implications of theuse the knowledge of linguistics to analyze the language behaviourist model of language learning as follows:to be taught and the result proved to be satisfactory.He added that the only effective teacher should be the Language is learnt only through use, practice.trained linguist working alongside the students, because The more the learner is exposed to the use oflanguage teachers often have an insufficient command of language the better the chances of learning it.the language, only the trained linguists know how to The production of language depends on theguide the students learning from native speakers and how situation which makes its use necessary.to teach the forms of the language. Meng [15] argued that Language cannot be taught divorced from the“language is an inherently complex system. It presents situation; the teacher has to introduce each newsome contradictions and oppositions. Both linguistics pattern of language in a meaningful situation.and language teaching must consider these Producing the correct linguistic response to acontradictions; otherwise they cannot provide a stimulus requires effort. If the learner is not calledsatisfactory solution to the problems of language”. upon to make this effort there is no learning.This paper can conclude that linguistics gives Producing the correct response also requirescontribution to the theory of language teaching and attention. Attention is bound to slacken after a time,the language teacher should get knowledge of them. so prolonged practice is less useful than spacedThe language teacher should be master of linguistics practice.knowledge is that he/she uses of the knowledge to teach The spoken language comes earlier than the writtenhis /her learners well. form. The receptive (passive) experience of language

The School of Language Teaching: In this paper, the begin.basic schools of language teaching such as Learning takes place faster if the correct responseBehaviourism, Cognitivism and Constructivism are to a stimulus is immediately confirmed. The learnerrelated to psychology of learning will be explained. In must know at once if the effort made is right oraddition, linguistics and psychology are closely wrong.intertwined, so both of them are necessary to discuss Learning is faster if the learner is placed in a situationwith each other. Linguistics and psychology has where s/he can produce only the correct response.affected on Language teaching that is why, language Each incorrect response builds up a faulty behaviourlearning involves the individual learner, motivations pattern which interferes with the process offor learning, memory etc. Meanwhile, language learning conditioning.focuses on actual learning processes that take Every new item learnt must be reinforced by furtherplace in the minds of individuals. One of the school practice before further learning begins.language teachings is Behaviourism. The basic theoriesof the behaviourist school are on empirical evidence He added that most of the methods for teachingobtained from experiments with living organisms and languages are based on these assumptions fromlaboratory animals. Richards, et al [16] mentioned behaviourism and emphasize repeated, but spaced,that “Behaviourism was an important influence on practice of language material in meaningful situations,psychology, education and language teaching, in imitation of a given model, first orally and thenespecially in the United States and was used by writing. Wilkins [11] argued that “most developments inpsychologists like Skinner, Osgood and Staats to foreign language teaching since the second world warexplain first language learning. The term behaviour is have been based on the assumption that language is ato be interpreted in terms of stimulus and response. form of behaviour.”

is necessary before any productive (active) use can

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The second school of language teaching is available linguistic input and the importance of“cognitivism”. Brown [18] argued that in the decade of social interaction in creating a new linguistic system”.the 1960s, generative transformational linguistics emerged The constructivism theory can be mentioned that wasthrough the influence of Noam Chomsky and a number of coined by Piaget. Taber [21] examined the constructivismhis followers. Chomsky tried to show that human theory as follows:language cannot be scrutinized simply in terms ofobservable stimuli and responses or the volumes of raw Knowledge is actively constructed by the learner,data gathered by filed linguists. The generative linguist not passively received from the outside. Learning iswas interested not only in describing language something done by the learner, not something that is(achieving the level of descriptive adequacy ) but also in imposed on the learner.arriving at an explanatory level of adequacy in the study Learners come to the learning situation (in scienceof language, that is, “principled basis, independent of etc.) with existing ideas about many phenomena.any particular language, for selection of the descriptively Some of these ideas are ad hoc and unstable; othersadequate grammar of each language ” [19]. According to are more deeply rooted and well developed.this idea, he added that cognitive psychologists asserted Learner has their own individual ideas about thethat meaning, understanding and knowing were world, but there are also many similarities andsignificant data for psychological study. They tried to common patterns in their ideas. Some of these ideasdiscover psychological principles of organization and are socially and culturally accepted and shared andfunctioning instead of focusing rather mechanistically they are often part of the language, supported byon stimulus–response connections. In addition, metaphors etc. They also often function well as tools“cognitive psychologists, like generative linguists, tried to understand many phenomena.to discover underlying motivations and deeper structures These ideas are often at odds with accepted scientificof human behavior by using a rational approach” [18]. ideas and some of them may be persistent and hardEapen [17] examined the stages in learning process based to change.on the cognitivists as follows: Knowledge is represented in the brain as conceptual

The learner encountering a new situation recognises these in some detail.it as a “problem” to be solved. Teaching has to take the learner's existing ideasThis problem is analysed and the learner tries to seriously if they want to change or challenge these.identify the elements or components of the new Although knowledge in one sense is personal andsituation. individual, the learners construct their knowledgeThe new situation is compared with those previously through their interaction with the physical world,encountered, with the use of a mental “filing index” collaboratively in social settings and in a cultural andsystem, in an attempt to find out if it is similar or linguistic environment. (The relative stress on suchdifferent. factors account for the different 'versions' ofThe comparison suggests a plan, or strategy, for constructivism earlier alluded to.)dealing with the new situation. But the plan has tobe tested. Applied Linguistics: The history of applied linguisticsThe plan is tried out; if it doesn’t work, it is has rooted in the United States in 1940 after theabandoned and an alternative plan is evolved and establishment of the English Language Institute at thetried. If the plan works, it is stored away in the filing University of Michigan. Among others, the term wassystem for future use. used to label a course applying a so-called “scientific

In addition, Chomsky [20] demonstrated that this scholars who were associated with the applied linguistics,brand of behaviourism at least is quite incapable of when this field was established were Charles Fries andexplaining our ability to learn and use our mother tongue. Robert Lado. Charles Fries initiated the study of

The last school of language teaching is discussed in contrastive linguistic in 1945. Contrastive analysis hasthis paper, is Constructivism. Brown [18] defined that been commonly recognized as a branch of Applied“constructivism is a school of thought that emphasizes Linguistic Science. Widdowson [22] argued that there isboth the learner’s role in constructing meaning out of no doubt that early applied linguistics was largely

structures and it is possible to model and describe

approach” to teaching foreign languages. The first

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associated with language teaching and learning, seeking he or she is aware that no one has a monopoly on theto bridge the gap between the theoretical achievements of definitions and conduct of science, theory, languagelinguistics and the reality of classroom pedagogical research and truth.”practice. “The pedagogical preoccupation of applied Finally, it is important to note that a list of majorlinguistics gradually gave way to a more extensive focus language-based problems that applied linguisticsby including more aspects of the academic study of addresses along with the details mentioned by Kaplanlanguage. Since the 1980s, the term has begun to be used [28] as follows:to refer to any area of study that is language-related andthe growing diversity of the field may be noted. The trend Language learning problems (emergence, awareness,is well illustrated by Brumfit’s definition [23]: “In addition rules, use, context, automaticity, attitudes, expertise)to what has been traditionally regarded as applied Language teaching problems (resources, training,linguistic territory-language education (first, second and practice, interaction, understanding, use, contexts,foreign language teaching and learning) this definition inequalities, motivations, outcomes)extends coverage to areas such as clinical and forensic Literacy problems (linguistic and learning issues)linguistics, lexicography, critical linguistics and Language contact problems (language and culture)translation theory and practice [24]. Language inequality problems (ethnicity, class,

The role of applied linguistics in language has been region, gender and age)concerned with solving or at least ameliorating social Language policy and planning problems (statusproblems involving language. The problems applied planning and corpus planning; ecology of language)linguistics concerns itself with are likely to be: How can Language assessment problems (validity, reliability,we teach languages better? How can we diagnose speech usability, responsibility)pathologies better? How can we improve the training of Language use problems (dialects, registers, discoursetranslators and interpreters? How can we write a valid communities, gate keeping situations, limited accesslanguage examination? How can we evaluate a school to services)bilingual problem? How can we determine the literacy Language and technology problems (learning,levels of a whole population? How can we helpfully assessment, access and use) discuss the language of a text? What advice can we offer Translation and interpretation problems (on-line,a Ministry of Education on a proposal to introduce a new off-line, technology assisted)medium of instruction? How can we compare the Language pathology problems (aphasias, dyslexia,acquisition of a European and an Asia language? What physical disabilities).advice should we give a defense lawyer on theauthenticity of a police transcript of an interview with a Applied Linguistics and English Language Teaching:suspect? [25]. Howatt [26] mentioned that the role ofapplied linguistics in language teaching is an honorablerole. He added that if there is one single source whichhas been responsible for stimulating innovation andactivity in language teaching, it is applied linguistics. Ithas not performed miracles, but as a focus of enquiry,critical self-examination and new ideas, it has enriched theprofession at least as much as it has irritated it. Over theyears, applied linguistics has tried to investigate the realworld problems of language teaching and learning. Fromthis point of view, Van Lier [27] argued “I think that it isthe applied linguist, who works with language in the realworld, who is most likely to have a realistic picture ofwhat language is and not the theoretical linguist whosifts through several layers of idealization. Furthermore,it may well be the applied linguist who will most advancehuman kind’s understanding of language, provided that

Applied linguistics is important for the English languageteaching and the relationship between English languageteaching and applied linguistics is not only interesting butdecisive. English language is taught as a second orforeign language around the world to school children andlearner’s adults. English language has a special place inthe educational system of foreign countries and no doubt,learning and teaching English requires English teachershould be master the English language skills, from thispoint of view, a knowledge of applied linguistics isessential for English language teaching in general andEnglish teacher, in particular. Because, the most majorimportant role of applied linguistics in language is thathas been concerned with solving or at least amelioratingsocial problems involving language. In other words, “inthe modern educational setting, the English teacher issupposed to know linguistics or applied Englishlinguistics in order to prove himself as an effective

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English language teacher ” [29]. Throughout the history REFERENCESof english language teaching there has always been anhonorable picture of applied linguistics, as it is used to 1. Titone, R., 1968. Teaching Foreign Languages.the study of English second and foreign language Georgetown University Press.teaching and learning. The formats of the English 2. Richards, J. and T. Rodgers, 2003. Approaches andlanguage curriculums, english language materials, Methods in Language Teaching. Cambridge:English courses, are influenced by applied linguistics. Cambridge University Press.The cooperation between english language teachings 3. Corder, S.P., 1973. Introducing applied linguistics.with applied linguistics gives students a good Harmondsworth: Penguin Press.opportunity to easy access the following areas of 4. Cook, V. and L. Wei, 2009. Contemporary Appliedsubjects are used in the field of applied linguistics: Linguistics. Continuum International Publishingphonology, phonetics, syntax, semantics, morphology, Group.discourse and text, contrastive and error analysis, etc. 5. Varshney, R.L., 1998. An Introductory Text Book ofIn addition, the most linguistic researches are used in Linguistics and Phonetics. Student Store: RampurEnglish language are influenced by applied linguistics. Bagh, BAREILLY-243001.

CONCLUSION the Teaching of English” in Language Learning

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6. Rosenbaum, P., 1966. “ On the Role of Linguistics in

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16. Richards, C. Jack, Platt, John and Platt, Heidi, 1992. 26. Howatt, A.P.R., 1984. A history of English LanguageLongman Dictionary of Language Teaching and Teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Applied Linguistics.London: Longman. 27. Van Lier, L., 1997. Apply within, apply without?

17. Eapen, R., 1995. Methods of Teaching English, Block International Journal of Applied Linguistics,II the Context of Language Teaching. Department of 7: 95-105.Distance Education, Central Institute of English and 28. Kaplan, R., 2000. The Oxford Handbook of AppliedForeign Languages: Hyderabad-500 007, India. Lingustics. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

18. Brown, H.D., 2007. Principles of Language Learning 29. AlamKhan, I., 2011. Role of Applied Linguistics in theand Teaching. Fifth Edition, Pearson Education, Inc: Teaching of English in Saudi Arabia. InternationalThe United States of America. Journal of English Linguistics, 1: 105-114.

19. Chomsky, N., 1964. Current issues in linguistic 30. Khansir, A.A., 2012b. Aspects of Languagetheory. In J. Fodor and J. Katz (Eds), The structure of Communication: Discourse and Text. Internationallanguage : Readings in the philosophy of language. Journal of Communication, 22: 167-181.Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. 31. Schmitt, N. and M. Celce-Murcia, 2002. An Overview

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23. Brumfit, C.J., 1991. ‘Applied Linguistics in Higher Teaching and Their Implications for the Education ofEducation: Riding the Storm’, BAAL Newsletter, Language teachers. Nigerian Journal of Curriculum38: 45-49. Studies, 1: 9-19.

24. Hrehovþík, T., 2005. What Do We Teach: Applied 34. Halliday, M.A.K., 1967.Lingustics Theories and TheirLinguistics or Language Teaching Methodology?. Application. Council for Cultural Cooperation of theTheory and Practice in English Studies, 3: 213-219. Council of Europe: London.

25. Davies, A. and C. Elder, 2004. The Hand book ofApplied Linguistics. Oxford/Malden, MA: Blackwell.