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NASA CONTRACTOR
REPORT
co
NASA CR-2581
APPLICATIONS OF MICROWAVES
TO REMOTE SENSING OF TERRAIN
Ronald A. Porter
Prepared by
RADIOMETRIC TECHNOLOGY, INC.
Wakefield, Mass. 01880
for Langley Research Center
0UTtO
\Jj NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION • WASHINGTON, 0. C. • NOVEMBER 1975
https://ntrs.nasa.gov/search.jsp?R=19760004317 2020-05-15T22:11:23+00:00Z
1. Report No. 2. Government Accession No. 3. Recipient's Catalog No.
NASA CR-2581 4. Title and Subtitle
Applications of Microwaves to Remote Sensing
5. Report Date
NOVEMBER 1975 6. Performing Organization Code
of Terrain
7. Author(s) 8. Performing Organization Report No.
Ronald A. Porter 10. Work Unit No.
9. Performing Organization Name and Address
RADIOMETRIC TECHNOLOGY, INC. 11. Contractor Grant No.
28C Vernon Street Wakefield, MA 01880
NAS 1-13126 13. Type of Report and Period Covered
r Contractor May-Oc tober 1
Repo 97
____________________________________________ 12. Sponsoring Agency Name and Address
National Aeronautics & Space Administration Washington, DC 20546
14, Sponsoring Agency Code
15. Supplementary Notes Technical Monitor: Mr. Bruce M. Kendall, NASA Langley .Research Center, Hampton, VA 23365
TOPICAL REPORT
16. Abstract
A survey and study has been conducted to define the role that microwaves may play in the measurement of a variety of terrain-related parameters. The survey consisted of discussions with many users and
researchers in the field of remote sensing. In'addition, a Survey Questionnaire was prepared and replies were solicited from these and other users and researchers.
The results of the survey, and associated bibliography, were studied and conclusions were drawn as to the usefulness of radiometric systems for remote sensing of terrain.
11. Key Words (Suggested by Authorls)l IS. Distribution Statement
Microwaves Remote Sensing Unclassified - Unlimited Terrain Radiometers Imaging Radar Subject Category 35
19. Security Oassif. (of this report) 20. Security Classif. (of this page) 21. No. of Pages 22. Price
Unclassified Unclassified 57 $4.25
For sale by the National Technical Information Service, Springfield, Virginia 22161
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
SECTION 1 - INTRODUCTION -
SECTION 2 - TERRAIN SURVEY APPROACH
2-1
2.1 Introduction
2-1
2.2 Survey Approach Details
2-1
2.2.1 Comments on the Symposium
2-2
2.2.2 Meetings With Researchers and Users in Remote Sensing Field
2-3
2.2.3 Remote Sensing Questionnaire
2-4
SECTION 3 - TERRAIN SURVEY RESULTS
3-1
SECTION 4 - ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF MICROWAVES
4-I
4.1 Airborne Microwave Systems
4-2
4.2 Satellite Microwave Systems
4.3 Sophistication of Microwave Sensors Over Other Techniques
4-5
SECTION 5 - DATA ANALYSIS PROBLEMS WITH MICROWAVES COMPARED WITH OTHER
TECHNIQUES
5-I
5.1 Radiometer Calibration
5-3
5.2 Non-Uniform Apparent Temperatures Across Scan
5-k
5.3 Compensation for Radiations Received Via the Antenna
Sidelobes
5-5
5.4 Effects of Solar Radiation
5-6
5.5 Automated Data Analysis Techniques
5-6
SECTION 6 - REFERENCES
M.
SECTION 7 -,BIBLIOGRAPHY ---------------------------------------------7-1
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Figure No. Page
Brightness Temperatures of Rough, Foam-Covered Ocean
Surfaces (2.5 GHz, T = 2840K, S = 33 0/oo, W = 1 and 20 m/s, Clear Sky and Heavy Rain) ----------------------- 4-7
LIST OF TABLES
Table No. Paqe
3-1 Summary of Terrain Survey -------------------------------3-2
iv
Section 1
INTRODUCTION
The purpose of the work described in this report was to conduct a survey
and perform a study, to define the role that microwaves may play in the measure-
ment of terrain-related parameters such as soil moisture, crop and vegetation
identification, determination of crop growth stage and similar items of interest
to users of remotely sensed data. In addition, a study was required on the
advantages and disadvantages of microwaves over other remote sensing techniques,
both airborne and spaceborne.
The survey consisted of in-depth discussions with many users of remotely
sensed data and researchers in this field; attendance at the Ninth International
Symposium on Remote Sensing of Environment; a visit to the Laboratory for
Applications of Remote Sensing at Purdue University; and solicitation of replies
to a variety of questions listed in a detailed Survey Questionnaire.
The information accumulated, as a result of the survey, was summarized and
analyzed. In addition, technical material furnished by many of the users and
researchers was studied. This information is listed in the References and
Bibliography. The results of the survey are presented in Section 3; analyses of the
results appear in Sections k and 5. Section 6 furnishes a list of references and
Section 7 furnishes a bibliography of technical material provided or referenced
by users and researchers.
It is clear that, in a survey and study of such broad scope, it would have
been relatively easy to assign a man-year of effort to the entire effort.
However, constraints imposed by the project, of which the survey is a minor part,
restricted this work to less than 1.5 man-months. Despite the brevity of the
effort, it is felt that the results are representative and the analyses, conducted
thereon, are valid.
The results of the survey and study show that microwaves can play an important
role in remote sensing, partly due to their relative immunity to the effects of
weather, partly to their unique detection capabilities (water salinity and soil
moisture) and partly to their ability to "see" through foliage and limited thick-
nesses of soil. Although it may be difficult to achieve adequate spatial resolu-
tion with low frequency microwave radiometric sensors, from earth satellites,
focused side-looking radar (SLR) can furnish a resolution of, at least, 15 meters
from such vehicles. Of course, SLR cannot measure water salinity nor water
temperature. -
Based on the results of this work, it is clear that microwaves can play an
important role in remote sensing of terrain, from aircraft and spacecraft.
Accordingly, it is recommended that plans be initiated at an early date for air-
borne and spaceborne microwave systems. At the same time, development of the
related data processing and automated data analysis techniques should be accelerated.
It is felt that proper implementation of this work will be of considerable value to
the remote sensing field.
1-2
Section 2
TERRAIN SURVEY APPROACH
2.1 INTRODUCTION
In certain respects, this survey has been viewed as an extension of the
survey conducted in connection with the study performed by Porter and Florance
[1]. In that work, a representative variety of microwave radiometric data were
generated and collected for use in computing brightness temperatures radiated
by various terrestrial materials and phenomena, under a range of atmospheric
conditions. The detectability of the materials and phenomena was, then, computed
at seven (7) microwave and millimeter-wave frequencies, with state-of-the-art
radiometric systems operating with specified antenna apertures.
Time has not permitted a similarly ambitious study in connection with this
survey; the above work occupied a period of ten (10) months, whereas the time
devoted to this survey has been just two (2) months. Of course, the objectives
of this study are somewhat different from the referenced work, in that extensive
data manipulations and analyses were not required. In addition, an exhaustive
evaluation of the state-of-the-art of microwave radiometric systems and space-type
antennas was not essential. However, a considerable amount of useful information
has been accumulated to permit a valid assessment . of the role that microwaves may
play in the measurement of various terrain-related parameters. This has included
results from ground-based, airborne and space-borne radiometric observations of
such items as soils, vegetation, fresh water, snow, ice and oil spills in ocean
water. Some of the equipments and analytical techniques, employed i.n these
observations, have been quite sophisticated. Accordingly, the results obtained
have provided a firm basis for this study.
2.2 SURVEY APPROACH DETAILS
Due to the short period of time available for the survey, it was decided to
obtain the requisite information in the following manner:
2-1
1. Attendance at the Ninth International Symposium on Remote
Sensing of Environment, held April 15-19th, 197 4 at the
University of Michigan.
2. Meetings with researchers in the remote sensing field and
with users of remotely sensed data.
and 3. Solicitation of replies to a comprehensive questionnaire
from individuals engaged in remote. sensing activities and
from users of remotely sensed data.
2.2.1 COMMENTS ON THE SYMPOSIUM
A total of thirteen (13) papers dealt with microwave radiometry. One
other, to be written by a Russian author, was not presented. Eleven (11) papers,
dealing with radar, were presented. Most of these involved side-looking radar.
An additional paper, to be written by a Russian author, was not presented.
Reference [21 provides summaries of papers given at the Symposium.
Two interesting papers 13, 41 dealing with microwave radiometry, have been
obtained in preprint form The first-mentioned paper describes ground-based
radiometric observations at 1)4 and 10.7 GHz. The L-band radiometer data shows a
satisfactory response to soil moisture through low density vegetation, for
vertical polarization. In addition, surface roughness appears to have little
effect on soil moisture response for this polarization.
The second-mentioned paper presents airborne imagery of agricultural areas,
obtained with a 35 GHz scanning radiometer, during winter, spring and summer
conditions. The data show that field patterns, ponds, lakes, roads, forested
areas and buildings are detectable through approximately 0.5-meter snow depths.
In addition, these features and buildings were imaged through a cloud layer 1,500
feet thick. This is rather significant, at this frequency, and indicates the
superiority of microwave sensors over those in the visible and infrared regions,
where atmospheric effects are concerned.
2-2
Most of the non-microwave papers, presented at the Symposium, dealt with
data obtained by the ERTS-1 Multi-Spectral Scanner (MSS). It was clear from
these that ERTS is performing a valuable function in the measurement of terrain-
related parameters, notwithstanding the sensors' inability to penetrate cloud
cover and collect information on the dark side of the earth, and the satellite's
infrequent scan repetition (once every 18 days). Although the MSS sensors are
limited to operation over the daylight side of the earth, the Data Collection
Platforms permit reception of telemetered data under, both, daylight and night-
time conditions. These devices tend to mitigate the shortcomings of the MSS
sensors, where cloudy and nighttime conditions are concerned.
2.2.2 MEETINGS WITH RESEARCHERS AND USERS IN REMOTE SENSING FIELD
Several important meetings were held with researchers in the remote sensing
field and with users of remotely sensed data, to obtain information for the
survey. These are listed below:
1. L.F. Silva, D.A. Landgrebe, R.M. Hoffer, F. Schultz, B. Robinson
and V. 'Vanderbilt, Laboratory for Applications of Remote Sensing,
Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana,
2. R.H. Miller, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Washington, DC.
3. W. Fischer, D. Carter and C. Robinove, EROS Program, U.S.
Geological Survey, Reston, Virginia.
4 G.B. Torbert and J.M. Linne, Bureau of Land Management, Dept.
of the Interior, Washington, DC.
5. J.D. KOutsandreas, Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC.
6. E.P. McLain, A.E. Strong, D.R. Wiesnet and J.W. Sherman, III,
National Environmental Satellite Service, , National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration, Hillcrest Heights, Maryland.
7. T.J. Schmugge, NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt,
Maryland.
The results of the above personal contacts are given in Section 3.
2-3
2.2.3 REMOTE SENSING QUESTIONNAIRE
To facilitate collection of information for the terrain survey, a
comprehensive questionnaire was prepared, reproduced and forwarded to twenty-
four (24) researchers and users in the field of remote sensing. The question-
naire consists of three (3) pages and cites the purpose of the survey, followed
by fifteen (15) individual questions to be answered by the addressee. The
questionnaire is reproduced on the following pages. A total of fifteen (15)
replies were received from this solicitation. These are considered to be
representative of the remote sensing field. Many replies include extensive
bibliographies; a few respondents furnished copies of fecent papers.
2-k
RADIOMETRIC TECHNOLOGY, INC. 28C Vernon Street,
Wakefield, MA 01880
Tel: (617) 245-8070
TECHNICAL SURVEY
NASA - Langley Contract NAS 1-13126
MICROWAVE RADIOMETRIC SENSING OF TERRAIN
PURPOSE OF SURVEY
• To define the role that airborne and spaceborne microwave radiometry may play in the measurement of terrain-related parameters.
2. To determine the advantages and disadvantages of microwave radiometry over other remote sensing techniques (space and airborne).
The prime terrain-related parameters, to be covered in the survey, are as follows:
1. Soil identification
2. Soil temperature
3. Soil and snow moisture, with distribution
14 • Soil moisture for landslide potential
5. Snow depth and density
6. Discrimination between crops, forests and other vegetation
7. Discrimination between crops
8. Discrimination between different types of trees
9. Crop and forest growth stage
10. Crop diseases
11. Forest diseases - for example, defoliation due to gypsy moth infestation
12. Crop and forest acreage
13. Crop and forest moisture
lL . Detection of forest fires
15. Assessment of burned and clear cut areas
16. Flood boundaries
17. Water pollution - thermal and chemical
18. Fresh water ice
19. Beach erosion
20. Geological features - fault lines, volcanic activity, lava flows, and
extent of strip mining
21. Hydrogeological - glacial, snow and ice
22. Land use - crop and truck farming
- housing
- transportation
2-5
RADIOMETRIC TECHNOLOGY, INC.
28C Vernon Street, Wakefield, MA 01880
Tel: (617) 245-8070Date: 1974
MICROWAVE RADIOMETRIC. SENSING OF TERRAIN
SURVEY QUESTIONNAIRE
1. User name and address
. Mteria1s and phenomena of interest
3. Why is remotely sensed data important to you?
14 • How important is remote sensing-to you? Please explai
5. What is the required data accuracy? (%, °K, Position in appropr;iate units)
6. What order of spatial resolution is required for your purposes? (Sq. meters, sq.
ft., acres, sq. miles, etc.)_______________________________________________
7. What types of correlative data are considered important for your purposes?_____
8. In what form should the remotely sensed data be presented? (Computer tabulations,
imagery, graphical plots, computer maps etc.)_________________________________
9. What types of equipment are currently employed, by your organization, for remote
sensing? Give operating frequencies, wavelengths, accuracies, resolution______
2-6
10. Are samples of data, obtained with your equipment, available for inclusion in
our report? Please describe and attach to this Questionnaire___________
11. Have there been any significant data interpretation problems associated with
your current remote sensing techniques? Please describe______________
12. Please give names of other users, or potential users, for remotely sensed data
in your area of interest__________________________________________________________
13. Please provide list of technical reports or papers, published in connection
with your current remote sensing program (attach to this Questionnaire).
i'+. In your opinion, what are the advantages and disadvantages of microwave radio-
metric remote sensing, from aircraft and spacecraft, over other techniques?_
15. Other comments
(Signature)
(Name, please print)
(Title)
(Tel. No.)
2-7
Preceding Page BlankSection 3
TERRAIN SURVEY RESULTS
As stated in the preceding Section, a total of fifteen (15) replies were
received from twenty-four (2 1+) Survey Questionnaire solicitations. For ease
of review, replies to the key items have been summarized in Table 3-I.
These are considered to be representative OF the remote sensing community since
they furnish a rather wide variety of useful information.
It is worth reviewing some the key requirements listed by the respondents.
Referring to Table 3-1 the following materials and phenomena are of interest to
users:
Soil classification, moisture; depth and particle size.
Soil cover and plant type.
Estimates of soil evapotranspiration.
Land use patterns.
Percentage stone in land areas.
Sand and mud flat areas.
Beach erosion.
Drainage patterns.
Snow, glacier ice, lake ice and sea ice.
Fresh water quality and temperature.
Lake wave height.
Flood boundaries.
Sediments and suspended materials.
Environmental pollutants on land and in water.
Forest fires.
Crops, forests, forest burned and clear cut areas.
Vegetation cover types.
Geological features - fault lines, volcanic activity, lava
flows, and extent of strip mining.
3-1
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3-9
Most of the users need temperature data. The required absolute accuracy
lies in the range 0.1 to 10°K; however, accuracies in the range 0.1 to 20K
are the most popular. Other accuracy requirements are: Salinity - <1 part per
thousand; Oil spills - < 0.1 mm; Soil moisture - ± 1%.
Spatial resolution requirements fall in the range .4 m 2 to 2.6 x 106 m2,
with the median value lying at approximately 4047 sq. meters. One respondent
(U.S. Army CRREL) needs a profile resolution of 5 to 10 m.
A wide variety of correlative data appear necessary for remote sensing data
interpretations. The following requirements were listed in response to Item 7
in the Ouestionriaire:
Surface temperatures (IR or other)
Solar radiation flux
Multispectral data
Visible and reflective IR data
Spectral emissivity and reflectance
Photographic data (black-and-white and color)
Soil type, moisture, salinity and density
Vegetation type and height
Surficial geological maps
Topographic maps
Bedrock geological data
Water quality and depth
Water pollution concentration
St reamf low
Suspended material concentration
Water salinity
Water pH
Snow depth, wetness, density and grain size.
Time overlays of snow cover and sea ice
Sky brightness temperatures'H
Atmospheric attenuationMicrowave
3-10
Clearly, collection of the above data would require a formidable array
of instruments and equipment. Furthermore, if more than one site were involved
in a given sensing application, which is very likely, certain portions of this
group of instruments would have to be multiplied by the number of sites. This
problem would, of course, be somewhat mitigated by the existence of portions of
the needed instrumentation in the user's inventory.
With reference to the required form of data presentation, most users
specified a need for imagery. Most of them require computer compatible magnetic
tapes from which computer tabulations, maps and plots can be generated for
further analysis of imaged data.
Many of the users have employed microwave radiometric sensors in their work;
some have used radar. Many are also exploiting the ERTS-1 Multi-Spectral Scanner
system. This includes, of course, the USGS and NOAA. The latter Agency is also
using its visible and infrared radiometers in the NOAA-2 Satellite. Black-and-
White and color photography are widely used by the Department of the Interior and
the Environmental Protection Agency. It is assumed that false color infrared
photography is employed by some users; however, there was no mention of this
technique in the responses.
It was noted, during the survey, that some users were not very familiar with
the utility of microwave radiometric sensing. During the course of several inter-
views, it was necessary to give lengthy tutorials on this technique. It would
appear that an extensive educational process may be required before widespread use
of microwave radiometry can be anticipated. The impression gained during the
survey was that, unless there is broader dissemination of information on the
capabilities of microwave radiometry, widespread application of this remote sensing
technique is unlikely to occur for some time.
An excellent beginning in this direction would be an annotated and tutorial
bibliography on microwave radiometry, similar to that prepared by M.1. Bryan [6]
on radar. Dr. Bryan's work is quite impressive and his approach warrants some
attention.
During the course of the survey, a considerable quantity of technical
material was furnished by users and research scientists on various remote sensing
techniques. A particularly interesting collection was provided on microwave radio-
metry by Dr. T.J. Schmugge of NASA Goddard Space Flight Center. Another, even more
comprehensive, collection of reports on remote sensing in the visible spectrum was
furnished by Professor L.F. Silva of the Laboratory for Applications of Remote
Sensing, Purdue University. All of this material is listed in the Bibliography.
3-12
Section k
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF MICROWAVES
Survey Questionnaire Item 14, concerning the advantages and disadvantages
of microwave radiometry, evoked some interesting replies. The advantages cited
were as follows:
1. All-weather, day or night, sensing capability.
2. Useful for detection of soil moisture, water salinity and oil spills.
3. Capable of providing surface temperature data.
k. Capable of detecting lake ice through cloud cover.
5. Has detected terrain under snow and can provide information on
snow wetness, density and thickness.
6. Less expensive than radar (no transmitter).
The disadvantages of microwave radiometry were less frequently mentioned.
Comments received were as follows:
1. Inadequate spatial resolution from satellite altitudes.
2. Theory insufficiently developed for terrain analysis.
3. Data interpretation tends to be subjective and is, partly, due
to high skill and technical background required of the interpreter..
k. Equipment is more expensive than sensors in visible region of the
spectrum.
Several favorable comments were made with respect to side-looking radar
(SLR) [7] in connection with the above remarks. These include the following:
1. Good spatial resolution from satellite altitudes.
2. Useful in mapping sea ice age distribution through snow cover.
3. All-weather capability.
k-i
It is worth elaborating somewhat on the above user comments, in terms of the
various naturally occurring and man-made features. This discussion will be
divided into two parts: Airborne and Space microwave systems, respectively.
14.1 AIRBORNE MICROWAVE SYSTEMS
Both microwave radiometry and side-looking radar (SLR) can detect land-water
boundaries with considerable ease. This is due to the strong contrast in emissive
and reflective properties of land and water. Accordingly, these systems will
clearly delineate flood boundaries, stream channels, lakes, lagoons, barrier
islands, tidal creeks and inlets, tidal marshes, stream terraces and flood plains,
and drainage patterns.
In addition, both types of sensors are capable of detecting various water-
associated man-made features such as harbors, ship channels, piers, ships, bridges,
seawalls, and water-treatment sites.
Further, these systems can furnish imagery for the location and identification
of other man-made features such as urban and residentil areas, parks, sports
arenas, industrial complexes, airports, sewage-disposal plants, highways, rail-
roads, large high tension towers, tank farms, quarries, and cemeteries.
All of the above features can be detected in avariety of atmospheric condi-
tions and in the absence of sunlight. The degree to which microwave sensors can
penetrate various cloud, rain and precipitating snow conditions is, of course,
dependent on operating frequency and, in the case of radar, on transmitter power.
In addition to the above features, Reference []] report showed that a micro-
wave radiometer can discriminate between the following materials:
Dry and moist soils versus weed-covered loam
Limestone and pumice versus weed-covered loam
Wheat, oats and alfalfa versus weed-covered loam
Dry and wet snow, and ice versus stoney loam
Forest fires versus forested areas.
14-2
Terrain imagery obtained with the NASA Goddard Space Flight Center (GSFC)
airborne Electrically Scanning Microwave Radiometer (ESMR) is quite impressive
8,9 . The false color strip-map presentations cover the brightness temperature
range from 170°K to 280°K and resemble the false color ERTS-1 data. Such presen-
tations, when correlated with topographic, hydrogeologic, and geologic maps, can
be very useful in data interpretation. It will be recalled that most of the
respondents to the Survey Questionnaire specified a need for imagery, for ready
examination of remote sensing data in the early stages of data analysis. Thus,
to be successful, microwave systems must be capable of furnishing suitable imagery.
This information must, of course, be adjustable in scale and geometrically
correctable to permit ready correlation with topographic maps.
The disadvantages of airborne microwave systems were cited, in part, at the
beginning of this Section. Reference was made there to inadequate spatial resolu-
tion, with microwave radiometers, from satellite altitudes. This comment could
also apply to airborne radiometric systems, if the required resolution is of a
high order, the radiometer operating frequency is low, and the aircraft is at a
high altitude. For example, consider the following conditions:
Radiometer operating frequency: 1.1+ GHz (A =21 cm)
Antenna aperture: 1.82 meters
Operating altitude: 3048 meters
At nadir the 3-db antenna beamspot diameter would be close to 427 meters; at
a 45-degree incidence angle it would be 854 meters (double major-axis of ellipse).
Thus, the spatial resolution available with the system would range from approxi-
mately 0.45 km to 0.9 km. The swath width, for a ± 45-deg ree raster scan would
be approximately 7 km. If a factor-of-two improvement in spatial resolution
were desired, the altitude would have to be lowered to 1524 meters; thus, the
available resolution would be 214 to 427 meters, over the above angular range,
and the swath width would reduce to 3.5 km.
The above example illustrates the difficulty involved in realizing high
spatial resolution with microwave radiometric sensors. Of course, many terrain
features do not require resolution of 214 to 427 meters, alt ough the median
value specified by the users (Section 3) was approximately 4047 sq. meters. Now,
4-3
if one were to consider operation at S-band (2.7 GHz), there would be a factor-
of-two improvement in spatial resolution, with the same antenna aperture and
operating altitudes. Thus, an S-band system would come close to satisfying the
1-acre resolution requirement, at an altitude of 1524 meters.
Airborne side-looking radar (SLR) is capable of considerably higher spatial
resolution. For example, the AN/APQ-102A (X-band) system has a resolution of
15 meters. Since this is a focused synthetic aperture radar, the resolution is
independent of operating altitude. In fairness to microwave radiometric systems,
however, it should be stated that an X-band radiometer, operating with a 6-foot-
aperture antenna would have a resolution of 29 to 58 meters, over a ± 45-degree
scan angle, from an altitude of 1524 meters.
A disadvantage of radar is that it cannot measure temperatures or salinities.
SLR is also a •good deal more expensive than a microwave radiometer operating at
the same frequency.
4.2 SATELLITE MICROWAVE SYSTEMS
The basic difference between airborne and satellite operation is the much
greater distance from the sensor to the earth's surface. At an altitude of
926 km, this distance is approximately 600 times greater than the above-mentioned
1524 meter altitude. Accordingly, the above radiometer resolutions will be
degraded by this factor, if the antenna aperture remains fixed.
If, however, the antenna aperture were increased to 100 meters (328 feet),
this factor would be reduced to about 11. At S-band, a radiometer would, then,
have a resolution of 1.85 to 3.7 km over the ± 45-de g ree scan angle. For the
L-band radiometer, this would degrade to 3.7 to 7.4 meters. These resolutions
would make microwave radiometers quite attractive for remote sensing from space.
In contrast to the above, a focused SLR will retain its resolution capability
regardless of altitude. Thus, the afore-mentioned SLR system will demonstrate a
resolution of 15 meters at a satellite altitude of 926 km. This should be of
considerable significance to the remote sensing community, particularly since an
4-4
X-band SLR will be capable of furnishing a variety of useful data under most
weather conditions. It would, therefore, appear that a focused SLR could fulfill
an important role in remote sensing of terrain-related parameters from spacecraft
altitudes.
4.3 SOPHISTICATION OF MICROWAVE SENSORS OVER OTHER TECHNIQUES
Microwave sensors possess an inherent sophistication, relative to sensors in
the visible and infrared regions of the spectrum, due to the decreasing attenuation
in physical matter with increasing wavelength. Thus, depending upon wavelength,
the atmosphere and terrestrial materials can be fairly transparent or quite opaque.
A clear atmosphere is relatively transparent at, both, long and short wave-
lengths through the visible region of the spectrum. However, the presence of
condensed water vapor causes heavy attenuation of electromagnetic energy, beginning
with the higher millimeter-wave region. At infrared and optical wavelengths, the
attenuation due to clouds is so great that even thin cloud layers are essentially
opaque. Thus, in the presence of clouds and heavy haze the earth is masked from
the view of satellite sensors operating at infrared and optical wavelengths. Such
is not the case in the microwave region of the spectrum. Here, with the exception
of the weak water vapor absorption peak at 22 GHz, clouds are relatively transparent
from 1 GHz to about 40 GHz, although the attenuation increases progressively with
frequency. Therefore, microwave satellite sensors have an inherent advantage over
infrared and optical sensors, due to their ability to "see" through a cloudy
atmosphere.
Similar statements may be made concerning the attenuation of electromagnetic
energy in dielectrics, such as solid terrestrial materials and water. Due to the
high attenuation in these materials, in the infrared and optical region, they are
opaque at these wavelengths. However, depending on the value of the complex
dielectric permittivity, at a given frequency, microwave energy can penetrate these
materials to some degree. Thus, microwaves are not confined to surface effects; it
is possible to sense energy emanating from some depth beneath the surface of a
dielectric material. This has important ramifications in remote sensing, for it
permits detection and measurement of such items as subsurface moisture in soils;
moisture content of snow; ice and soils through snow cover; and terrain and water
through foliage. Examples of these capabilities are given in References [3], [8],
[1+] and [3] respectively.
L_5
Another useful characteristic of microwaves is that of antenna polarization.
An antenna can be horizontally polarized (E vector perpendicular to the plane of
incidence), vertically polarized (E vector parallel to the plane of Incidence) or
circularly polarized, which represents a combination of horizontal and vertical
polarizations. An antenna designed to receive energy at a given polarization will
essentially reject most of the energy from the other polarization component.
Both microwave radiometry and radar, when operating with linearly polarized
antennas, show markedly different results for horizontal and vertical polarizations.
A good example of these responses is shown in Figure -1 wherein theoretical bright-
ness temperatures are shown at a frequency of 2.5 GHz, for two wind velocities [9].
During the course of the referenced study, It was found that use of the vertical
component of polarization results in smaller errors, when deriving ocean tempera-
tures from brightness temperatures, than is the case with horizontal polarization.
This is because the latter polarization is somewhat more sensitive to surface rough-
ness. Subsequent studies [10] show that the sensitivity of the horizontal component
of polarization to surface roughness forms the basis for a remote sensing technique
that will furnish information on ocean surface wind velocity with a maximum error
of ± 1.5 m/s under a relatively broad range of environmental conditions, with an
error-free radiometer.
Radar has been used fairly extensively for indirect measurement of ocean surface
wind velocities [11]. In the referenced work, both horizontal and vertical polar-
izations were employed. Results ..." indicate that the scatterometer response
is essentially proportional to the square of windspeed for vertical polarization".
The above comments on polarization effects indicate an added sophistication
inherent in microwave sensors, thus enhancing their value for remote sensing.
L_6
Foam Coverage
W = L m/s: 0.1%
W = 20 m/s: 16%
150
140
W = 20 m/s
130
170
160
W = 1 m/s
V. Pol. 0
20
IjJ
a- 110
LU
W = 20 m/s
Ln LU
H. Pol.
W = 4 m/s
Heavy Rain
Clear Sky
I Iin
Ln co 60
NADIR ANGLE - degrees
Figure L_l - Brightness Temperatures of Rough, Foam-Covered Ocean Surfaces
(2.5 GHz, T = 28140K, S = 33 0/00 , W = 14 and 20 m/s, Clear Sky and Heavy Rain)
4- 7
90
80
70
Page
Section 5
DATA ANALYSIS PROBLEMS WITH MICROWAVES
COMPARED WITH OTHER TECHNIQUES
Proper interpretation of data from a remote sensing system requires that the
user be knowledgeable about the energy-matter interactions taking place between,
1. The vegetation, soil, snow, ice, water or other material on the
earth's surface,
and 2. The energy that is reflected, absorbed, transmitted, scattered
or emitted by those materials.
Knowledge of these energy-matter interactions permits the spectral characteristics
of the materials to be predicted and the remote sensor data to be accurately
interpreted.
The above statement appears in slightly different language in a technical
note by Hoffer [12]. Hoffer goes on to make the following statement:
"In remote sensing research involving vegetation, we are frequently
interested in one or more of three problem areas:
1. To delineate, identify, and map various species
(i.e. floristic mapping).
2. To delineate, identify, and map vegetative groupings
having different physical characteristics (i.e. physiog-
nomic mapping).
3. To detect, identify, and map various types of vegetative
stress conditions (e.g. stress caused by diseases, insects,
lack of available soil moisture, fertility, pollutants in
the air or water, etc.)."
Similar comments can be made about other materials and phenomena. However,
accurate analysis of remotely sensed data is dependent on a considerable store of
knowledge relative to the spectral characteristics of given materials and phenomena.
5-1
Such characteristics are reasonably well known in the visible and infrared
regions, due to the rapid development of components and remote sensing techniques.
The success of the ERTS-1 system, and similar airborne and ground-based systems,
substantiates this statement.
A variety of sophisticated processing and computer analysis techniques,
including pattern recognition, have been developed for semi-automated analysis
of data collected by multispectral sensors, by such institutions as the Environ-
mental Research Institute of Michigan (ERIM) and the Laboratory for Applications
of Remote Sensing (LARS) at Purdue University. These techniques have permitted
rapid and accurate analysis of large amounts of data recorded by, both, the ERTS-1
system and airborne visible and infrared sensors.
Unfortunately, similar claims cannot be made for microwave systems, due to
the somewhat slower development of, both, these systems and related data inter-
pretation techniques. This lag has been, partly, due to insufficient emphasis
on ground-based measurements, wherein the radiometric and radar characteristics of
materials could have been obtained under known conditions.
During the latter half of the 1960's there was a great rush, by several
groups, into airborne microwave systems - long before any comprehensive knowledge
was available on the characteristics of materials and phenomena at various
frequencies in this region of the spectrum. As a result, a great deal of conjec-
ture arose as to the meaning of much of the data collected with these systems.
These controversies persist to this day, although at a diminished level. This is
due to an increased awareness, in recent years, of the need for better information
on the microwave response to various materials and phenomena. Work by many
researchers within NASA, NOAA, the U.S. Naval Research Laboratory, the Environmental
Research Institute of Michigan, Ohio State University, University of Kansas and
several industrial research firms has contributed markedly to enhanced knowledge
in this area. However, a great deal remains to be accomplished before microwave
sensor data can be analyzed with the precision and efficiency of information
collected by visible and infrared sensors. This view is reflected in some of the
user responses appearing in Section 3.
As stated in Section 14, most of the users, responding to the Survey Question-
naire, specified a need for imagery to facilitate data interpretation. It is
5-2
evident, from a review of Reference [8] that false color imagery is of considerable
value in the analysis of microwave radiometric data. Accordingly, it would seem
appropriate to utilize this.form of presentation with any scanning system. However,
such displays should be geometrically corrected to facilitate comparison with
topographic maps. Computer maps are also very useful in data interpretation, as
shown in many reports by ERIM and LARS. For ease. of examination, however,
individual maps should be limited to a maximum of four or five symbols.
The five most important problems in the analysis of remotely sensed microwave
radiometric data are considered to be as follows:
I. Achievement of accurate, absolute temperature calibration of the
radiometer.
2. Elimination, or compensation for, the tendency of, apparent tempera-
tures, at the center of a transverse scan, to be higher or lower
• than those at the edges of the scan, depending on whether a vertical
or horizontally polarized antenna is employed, respectively.
3. Compensation for radiations received via the antenna sidelobes.
14 Elimination of the effects of reflected solar radiation from
specular surfaces such as water.
5. Development of automated data analysis techniques, similar to
thoseused with optical sensors.
5.1 RADIOMETER CALIBRATION
Various approaches are used in radiometer calibration. The important elements
of a sound method are summarized below:
1. The calibration circuit and the RE portion of the radiometer should
be housed in a well-insulated temperature-controlled enclosure, to
• reduce to a minimum fluctuations, due to temperature changes, in
reradiation from lossy components in the calibration circuit, and in
output level from the calibration source. Good temperature stability
also minimizes voltage gain fluctuations in solid-state RE amplifiers.
5-3
2. The noise levels of the calibration circuit should be determined
indirectly by measuring the response of the radiometer to
accurately known input noise temperatures, furnished by a stable
external noise source. If possible, the error in the external
level-setting attenuator should not exceed 0.05 db.
3. The radiometer amplifiers and other critical circuits should be
powered by highly stable regulated power supplies which, in turn,
should be supplied with clean, stable primary power.
1 • The radiometer RE head should be thoroughly shielded against
electromagnetic interference and all RE cables running to and
from the radiometer should be double-shielded.
5. During normal operation, the radiometer should be calibrated
frequently, consistent with the long-term gain drift of the
receiver amplifiers.
If the above basic rules are observed, data analysis will be greatly facili-
tated by the elimination of shifts in absolute apparent temperatures measured by
the radiometer. Some early radiometer measurement programs have suffered because
of insufficient attention to these imortant items.
5.2 NON-UNIFORM APPARENT TEMPERATURES ACROSS SCAN
This problem occurs mainly when a radiometer is covering a wide angular scan
(typically ± 145 degrees) over specular or near-specular materials. Referring to
Figure 14-1, it will be observed that the vertically polarized brightness temperatures
of ocean water increase markedly from a nadir angle of zero degrees to an angle
of 145 degrees. In the case of the horizontal component of polarization, the
opposite is true. Similar brightness temperature responses are obtained for fresh
water and other specular and near-specular materials.
There is no basic objection to these characteristics when data is presented in
the form of plots or when comparisons are made between various materials at the
same nadir angle. The problem arises in false color imagery, since most apparent
temperatures at, and near, the center of the scan are presented in different colors
than those near the edges. Thus, material identification and classification can
be difficult with this type of display.
5-k
Three solutions seem possible to this problem. The first and easiest one
is to limit the angular scan, whenever possible, to about ± 15 degrees. This has
a disadvantage in that the swath width will be rather narrow. In addition,
angular effects will be minimized in the data; this may present problems where
the angular dependence is important to the user. The second solution is to introduce
a compensation to the data for the angular curvature, over the scan width, by observ-
ing typical curvatures over a variety of terrain. This correction would only be
applied to false color imagery. This type of angular rectification should markedly
increase the value of this form of data presentation. The third solution is,
perhaps, the best; it involves the use of a conical scan, wherein the angle of
incidence of the antenna beam, at the terrain surface, is constant over the swath
width. Of course, this method may be difficult to implement in electronically
scanned phased array antennas, but it represents a reasonable solution to the
problem of non-uniform apparent temperatures across the antenna scan.
5.3 COMPENSATION FOR RADIATIONS RECEIVED VIA THE ANTENNA SIDELOBES
Radiations received via the antenna sidelobes and backlobes tend to raise the
apparent temperatures sensed by a terrain-scanning radiometer. Depending on the
actual sidelobe levels and observed material, the increase in apparent temperatures
due to this effect can be as great as 1+-5°K. To make matters worse, the effect
tends to be a function of scan angle because, in the case of a horizontally polarized
antenna, all the high antenna sidelobes are receiving energy from the surface at the
center of the scan where the radiated energy is highest (for a homogeneous material)
whereas most of the sidelobes are receiving lower level energy at the end of the
scan. The opposite effect applies to a vertically polarized antenna. Thus, a signal
modulation takes place during the antenna scan. For a ± 145-degree scan angle, this
modulation can range from 0 to 14-50K, depending on actual sidelobe levels.
• This problem can be eliminated to some extent by a technique which, in effect,
subtracts the energy received by the sidelobes from the total energy received by
the antenna. A method for this is described in Reference [1] report. One of the
problems inherent in any such technique is the considerable amount of computer
processing time required to perform the corrections. Thus, certain approximations
are necessary to ensure economic data reduction. •
5-5
5•4 EFFECTS OF SOLAR RADIATION
This problem arises principally at frequencies below approximately 10 GHz,
where solar radiation flux is relatively high, and only when a microwave radio-
meter is viewing highly reflective surfaces, such as water, in the direction of
the sun. Reference [13] provides an analysis of this effect, over ocean surfaces,
at a frequency of 2.5 GHz. The results show that, depending on the degree of ocean
surface roughness, the reflected solar brightness temperature lies in the range
2.90K to ll.O°K, in the specular direction i.e., in the main lobe of the antenna.
Such "interference" would cause considerable problems in data analysis, if the
higher brightness temperatures were not eliminated during data reduction. However,
the problem would not exist if the solar radiation were scattered only in the
direction of the antenna sidelobes. Since the average level of this portion of the
antenna pattern is typically about -20db, with respect to main lobe peak, the above
reflected solar radiation levels would be reduced by a factor of 100. Thus, solar
interference would be negligible under these conditions.
The most practical way to eliminate the effects of solar radiation, scattered
into the main lobe of the antenna, is to take into account the direction of the
radiometer flight path, sun position and sun elevation angle during reduction of low
frequency radiometer data.
5.5 AUTOMATED DATA ANALYSIS TECHNIQUES
This problem is considered to be one of the most difficult of all the problems
cited at the beginning of this Section. This is partly due to the fact that micro-
wave remote sensing is, to some extent, still in the research stage. However, this
situation is expected to change during the next 2-3 years, with extensive opera-
tional applications developing during this period. The Nimbus 5 Electrically Scan-
ning Microwave Radiometer (ESMR) [la] represents, perhaps, the beginning of the
operational phase of, both, microwave radiometry and radar in space.
Automated data analysis is very , important where large quantities of airborne
or satellite data are concerned. Considerable advances have been made in this area,
with optical sensors, at ERIM and LARS. D.A. Landgrebe [15] has presented a
valuable summary on this topic. The referenced Work'furn,ishes an extensive biblio-
graphy on machine processing, classification and analysis of remotely sensed data.
Such information can form the basis for automated-analysis of microwave data; it
would be wise to exploit the techniques described in the above work and associated
references for this purpose.
5-6
Section 6
REFERENCES
1. Porter, R.A. and E.T. Florance, "Feasibility Study of Microwave Radiometric
Remote Sensing", Ronald A. Porter, Professional Engineer, NASA Electronics
Research Center Contract NAS 12-629, January 1969.
2. "Ninth International Symposium on Remote Sensing of Environment", Summaries,
April 15- 19th, 1974, Environmental Research Institute of Michigan.
3. Newton, R.W., S.L. Lee and J.W. Rouse, Jr., "On the Feasibility of Remote
Monitoring of Soil Moisture with Microwave Sensors", Technical Memorandum
RSC-91 Texas A&M University. Presented at the Ninth International
Symposium on Remote Sensing of Environment, Ann Arbor, MI, April 1974.
k. Moore, Robert P., and John 0. Hooper, "Microwave Radiometric Characteristics
of Snow-Covered Terrain", U.S. Naval Weapons Center, China Lake, CA.
Presented at the Ninth International Symposium on Remote Sensing of
Environment, Ann Arbor, MI, April 1974.
5. Finegan, J.W., "Use of ERTS-1 DCS in the Management and Control of Water
Resources Systems" Proceedings of the Data Collection Workshop - Earth
Resources Technology Satellite-I, NASA-Wallops Station, November 1973,
NASA SP-3614.
6. Bryan, M.L., "Radar Remote Sensing for Geosciences", An Annotated and
Tutorial Bibliography, Report No. 193500-1-B, Environmental Research
Institute of Michigan, Radar and Optics Division, December 1973.
7. Harger, R.0., Synthetic Aperture Radar Systems, Academic Press, New York,
1970.
8. Schmugge, T.J. et al, "Microwave Signatures of Snow and Fresh Water Ice",
NASA-GSFC preprint X-652-73-335, November 1973.
9. Porter, R.A. and F.J. Wentz, "Microwave Radiometric Study of Ocean Surface
Characteristics", Radiometric Technology, Inc., NOAA Contract 1-35140
July 1971.
M.
10. Wentz, F.J., "The Effect of Surface Roughness on Microwave Sea Brightness
Temperatures", Radiometric Technology, Inc., NOAA Contract 3-3531+5,
March 1974.
11. Moore, R.K. et al, "Simultaneous Active and Passive Microwave Responses
of the Earth - The Skylab RADSCAT Experiment", Ninth International
Symposium on Remote Sensing of Environment, Environmental Research
Institute of Michigan, April 1974.
12. Hoffer, R.M., "The Importance of 'Ground Truth' Data in Remote Sensing",
LARS Print No. 120371, The Laboratory for Applications of Remote Sensing,
Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN.
13. Porter, R.A., and F.J. Wentz, "Research to Develop a Microwave Radiometric
Ocean Temperature Sensing Te.chnique", Radiometric Technology, Inc., NOAA
Contract 2-35309, December 1972.
14. Schmugge, T.J. et al, "Hydrologic Applications of Nimbus 5 ESMR Data",
NASA-GSFC Technical Note X-910-714-51, February 1974.
15, Landgrebe, D.A., "Machine Processing for Remotely Acquired Data", LARS
Information Note 031573, Purdue University, 1973.
6-2
Section 7
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Poe, G. et al, "Determination of Soil Moisture Content Using Microwave Radiometry", Aerojet-General Corporation, NOAA Contract 0-35239, Report No. 1684R-2, June 1971.
Poe, G. et al, "Determination of Soil Moisture Content with Airborne Microwave Radiometry, Aerojet-General Corporation, NOAA Contract 1-35378, Report No. 4006R-2, September 1971.
Poe, G.et al, "Airborne Passive Microwave Measurements of NOAA Hydrology Sites", Aerojet ElectroSystems Company, NOAA Contract 2-37116, Report No. 1752FR-1, June 1973.
"Geoscience Specifications for Orbital Imaging Radar", Texas A&M University,
Report No. RSC 11276-1, January 1972 - August 1973.
Cooper, S. et al, "Proceedings of the Data Collection Workshop - Earth Resources Technology Satellite-1, NASA-Wallops Station, November 1973, NASA SP-364.
Phillips, T.L. et al, "1971 Corn Blight Watch Experiment Data Processing, Analysis, and Interpretation", Purdue University, Report No. 012272, Presented at the Fourth Annual Earth Resources Program Review, Houston, TX, January 1972.
Anuta, P. et al, "An Analysis of Temporal Data for Crop Species Classification and Urban Change Detection", LARS Information Note 110873, Purdue University, 1973.
Swain, P.H., "Pattern Recognition: A Basis for Remote Sensing Data Analysis", LARS Information Note 111572, Purdue University, September 1973.
Landgrebe, D.A., "Automatic Identification and Classification of Wheat by Remote Sensing", LARS Information Note 21567, Purdue University, March 1967.
Landgrebe, D.A., "Analysis Research for Earth Resource Information Systems: Where Do We Stand", LARS Information Note 062273, Purdue University, 1973.
Kristof, S.J;, "Preliminary Multispectral Studies of Soils", LARS Information Note 043070, Purdue University.
Blanchard, B.J., "Measuring Watershed Runoff Capability With ERTS Data", Agricul-tural Research Service, USDA, Chickasha, OK.
Silva, L.F. et al "Measurements Program in Remote Sensing", Information Note 012872, Purdue University, 1972.
Robertson, T.V., "Extraction and Classification of Objects in Multispectral Images",
LARS Information Note 191873, 1973.
7-1
"Applications of Aerial Photography and ERTS Data to Agricultural, Forest and Water Resources Management", University of Minnesota, NASA Grant NGL 214005 263, Report No. 73-1 July 1973.
"Corridor Location Dynamics", Michigan Department of State Highways and Transpor-tation, Vol. VI, November 1972.
"Environmental Sensitivity Computer Mapping", Michigan Department of State High-ways and Transportation, Vol. VI-A, April 1974.
Kumar, R. et al "Statistical Separability of Agricultural Cover Types in Subsets of One to Twelve Spectral Channels", Purdue University, NASA Grant NGL 15-005-112 and the Brazilian Institute of Space Research (INPE).
Landgrebe, D.A. et al "An Evaluation of Machine Processing Techniques of ERTS-1 Data User Applications", LARS Information Note 121373, Purdue University, 1973.
Hitchcock, H.C. et al "Mapping a Recent Forest Fire with ERTS-1 MSS Data", LARS Information Note 03267 14, Purdue University, 1974.
Ellefsen, R. et al "Urban Land-Use Mapping by Machine Processing of ERTS-1 Multi-spectral Data: A San Francisco Bay Area Example", LARS Information Note 101573, Purdue University, 1973.
Todd, W.J. et al "Land Use Classification of Marion County, Indiana by Spectral Analysis of Digitized Satellite Data", LARS Information Note 101673, Purdue University, 1973.
Todd, - W. et al "An Analysis of Milwaukee County Land Use by Machine-Processing of ERTS Data", LARS Information Note 022773, Purdue University, 1973.
Haas, I.S. et al "Digital Data Processing and Information Extraction for Earth Resources Applications", General Electric Company, Philadelphia, PA.
Kumar R. et al "Emission and Reflectance from Healthy and Stressed Natural Targets with Computer Analysis of Spectroradiometric and Multispectral Scanner Data", LARS Information Note 072473, Purdue University, 1973.
"Remote Sensing of Agriculture, Earth Resources, and Man's Environment", Technical Brochure, by Laboratory for Applications of Remote Sensing, Purdue University.
"Photography from Space to Help Solve Problems on Earth," NASA Earth Resources Technology Satellite Brochure, Goddard Space Flight Center, 1973.
Hollinger, J.P. et al, "Measurements of the Distribution and Volume of Sea-Surface Oil Spills Using Multifrequency Microwave Radiometry", Naval Research Laboratory, NRL Report No. 7512, June 1973.
Schmugge, T. et al, "Remote Sensing of Soil Moisture with Microwave Radiometers", Journal of Geophysical Research, Vol. 79, No. 2, January 1974.
7-2
Geiger, F.E. et al, "Dielectric Constants of Soils at Microwave Frequencies", GSFC preprint X-652-72-283, April 1972.
Jurica, G.M., "Atmospheric Effects on Radiation Measurements", LARS Information Note 011573, Purdue University, 1973.
Cipra, J.E., "Mapping Soil Associations Using ERTS MSS Data", LARS Information Note 101773, 1973.
Hoffer, R.M. et al "Agricultural Applications of Remote Multispectral Sensing", reprinted from Proceedings of the Indiana Academy of Science for 1966, Vol. 76, 1967.
Deutsch, M. et al "Mapping of the 1973 Mississippi River Floods from the Earth Resources Technology Satellite (ERTS)", American Water Resources Association, Proc. No. 17, June 1973.
Strong, A.E., "New Sensor on NOAA-2 Satellite Monitors The 1972-73 Great Lakes Ice Season", American Water Resources Association, Proc. No. 17, June 1973.
"Advanced Scanners and Imaging Systems for Earth Observations", NASA-GSFC SP-335, December 1972.
Cosgriffe, H.R. et al "Forest and Rangeland Resource Inventory with Small Scale Color Infrared Aerial Photography", Institute of Agriculture, University of Minnesota, Report No. 73_4, October 1973.
Gupta, J.N. et al "Machine Boundary Finding and Sample Classification of Remotely Sensed Agricultural Data", LARS Information Note 102073, Purdue University, 1973.
7-3
BIBLIOGRAPHY FURNISHED BY C.L. WIEGAND
USDA Weslaco, TX
Carter, D.L. and V.I. Myers, "Light Reflectance and Chlorophyll and Carotene Contents of Grapefruit Leaves as Affected by Na25014, NaCl, and CaC1211, Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci., Proc. 82:217-221, 1963.
Myers, V.1., L.R. Ussery and W.J. RTppert, "Photograrruiietry for Detailed Detection of Drainage and Salinity Problems", Amer. Soc. Agr. Engr. Trans. 6:332-3314, 1963.
Myers, V.1., D.L. Carter and W.J. Rippert, "Remote Sensing for Estimating Soil Salinity", Amer. Soc. Civ. Engin. J. Irrig. and Drainage, 92, 1R 14, Proc. Paper 50140 , December 59-68, 1966.
Thomas, J.R., V.I. Myers, M.D. Heilman and C.L. Wiegand, "Factors Affecting Light Reflectance of Cotton", Proc. 14th Symp. Remote Sens. of Environ., Univ. of Mich., Ann Arbor. P. 305-3 12 , 1966.
Myers, V.1., C.L. Wiegand, M.D. Heilman and J.R. Thomas, "Remote Sensing in Soil and Water Conservation Research", Proc. 14th Symp. Remote Sens. of Environ., Univ. of Mich., Ann Arbor, p. 801-813, 1966.
Wiegand, C.L., V.I. Myers and Norman P. Maxwell, "Thermal Patterns of Solid Fuel Block-Heated Citrus Trees", J. Rio Grande Valley Hort. Soc. 29:21-30, 1966.
Thomas, J.R., C.L. Wiegand and V.I. Myers, "Reflectance of Cotton Leaves and Its Relation to Yield", Agron. J. 59:551-554 , 1967.
Allen, W.A. and A.J. Richardson, "Interaction of Light With a Plant Canopy", Proc. 5th Symp. Remote Sens. of Environ., Univ. of Mich., Ann Arbor, p. 21 9- 2 3 2 , 1968.
Gausman, H.W. and R. Cardenas, "Effect of Pubescence on Reflectance of Light", Proc. 5th Symp. Remote Sens. of Environ., Univ. of Mich., Ann Arbor, p. 291-297, 1968.
Wiegand, C.L., M.D. Heilman and A.H. Gerbermann, "Detailed Plant and Soil Thermal Regime in Agronomy", Proc. 5th Symp. Remote Sens. of Environ., Univ. of Mich.. Ann Arbor, P. 325-3 142, 1968.
Hart, W.G. and V.I. Myers, "Infrared Aerial Color Photography for Detection of Populations of Brown Soft Scale in Citrus Groves", J. Econ. Entom. 61(3):617-6214, 1968.
Allen, W.A. and A.J. Richardson, "Interaction of Light With a Plant Canopy", J. Opt. Soc. Amer. 58(8):1023-1028, 1968.
7_1
Myers, V.I. and W.A. Allen, "Electrooptical Remote Sensing Methods as Nondestruc-
tive Testing and Measuring Techniques in Agriculture", Appl. Opt. 7(9):1819- 1838, 1968.
Gausman, H.W. and R. Cardenas, "Effect of Soil Salinity on External Morphology of Cotton Leaves", Agron. J. 60:566-567, 1968.
Heilman, M.D., C.L. Gonzalez, W.A. Swanson and W.J. Rippert, "Adaptation of a Linear Transducer for Measuring Leaf Thickness", Agron. J. 60:578-579, 1968.
Park, A.B., R.N. Colwell and V.I. Myers, "Resource Survey by Satellite; Science Fiction Coming True", In 1968 Yearbook of Agriculture, U.S. Dept. Agr., p. 13-19, 1968.
Gausman, H.W., W.A. Allen and R. Cardenas, "Reflectance of Cotton Leaves and Their Structure", Remote Sens. of Environ. 1:19-22, 1969.
Gausman, H.W., W.A. Allen, V.I. Myers and R. Cardenas, "Reflectance and Internal Structure of Cotton Leaves (Gossypium Hirsutum L.)", Agron. J. 61:37 14376, 1969.
Allen, W.A., A.J. Richardson andH.W. Gausman, "Reflectance Produced by a Plant Leaf", 1st Ann. Earth Resources Aircraft Program Review, Vol. II, Agricultural, Forestry and Sensor Studies, NASA-MSC, Houston, P. 30C:1-13, 1969.
Gausman, H.W., R. Cardenas, W.A. Allen, V.I. Myers and R.W. Leamer, "Reflectance and Structure of Cycocel-Treated Cotton Leaves, Gossypium Hirsutum L;", 1st Ann. Earth Resources Aircraft Program Review, Vol. II, Agricultural, Forestry and Sensor Studies, NASA-MSC, Houston, P. 3013:1-9, 1969.
Leamer, R.W. and D.A. Weber, "Crop and Soil Identification From Aerial Photographs", 1st Ann. Earth Resources Aircraft Program Review, Vol. II, Agricultural, Forestry and Sensor Studies, NASA-MSC, Houston, P. 30A:1_4, 1969.
Myers, V.I. and R.W. Learner, "Integration of Detailed Laboratory and Field Studies With the Aircraft Program", 1st Ann. Earth Resources Aircraft Program Review., Vol. II, Agricultural, Forestry and Sensor Studies, NASA-MSC, Houston, p. 29: 1-22, 1969.
Allen, W.A., H.W. Gausman, A.J. Richardson,and J.R. Thomas, "Interaction of Isotropic Light With a Compact Plant Leaf", J. Opt. Soc. Amer. 59:1376-1379, 1969.
Myers, V.I. and M.D. Heilman, "Thermal Infrared for Soil Temperature Studies", Photogramm. Engin. XXXV(10):102 14-1032, 1969.
Gausman, H.W. and R. Cardenas, "Effect of Leaf Pubescence of Gynura Aurantiaca on Light Reflectance", Bot. Gaz. 130(3):158-162, 1969.
7-5
Schupp, M.L., H.W. Gausman,and R. Cardenas, "Leaf Anatomy Monograph, Photomicro-graphs of Transections of Fully-Grown Leaves of Twenty-Nine Plant Genera", SWC Res. Rept. 1412 (Multilithed), 1969.
Gausman, H.W., W.A. Allen, R. Cardenas and A.J. Richardson, "Relation of Light Reflectance to Cotton Leaf Maturity (Gossypium Hirsutum L.)", Proc. 6th Symp. Remote Sens. of Environ., Univ. of Mich., Ann Arbor. 11:112311 14 1, 1969.
Richardson, A.J., W.A. Allen and J.R. Thomas, "Discrimination of Vegetation by Multispectral Reflectance Measurements", Proc. 6th Symp. Remote Sens. of Environ. Univ. of Mich., Ann Arbor, 11:11143-1156, 1969.
Von Steen, D.I-I., R.W. Learner and A.H. Gerbermann, "Relationship of Film Optical Density to Yield Indicators", Proc. 6th Symp. Remote Sens. of Environ., Univ. of Mich., Ann Arbor, 11:1115-1123, 1969.
Allen, W.A., "Differential Corrections Applied to an Izsak-Borchers Ballistic Trajectory", Amer. Inst. Aeronaut, and Astronaut, 7(5):890-895, 1969.
Myers, V.1., M.D. Heilman, R.J.P. Lyon, L.N. Narnken, D.S. Sirnonett, J.R. Thomas, C.L. Wiegand and J.T. Woolley, "Soil Water and Plant Relations. Ch. 6 In Remote Sensing, With Special Reference to Agriculture and Forestry", National Academy of Sciences, Washington, D.C., p. 253-297, 1970.
Allen, W.A., T.V. Gayle and A.J. Richardson, "Plant Canopy Irradiance Specified by the Duntley Equations", J. Opt. Soc. Amer. 60(3):372-376, 1970.
Gausman, H.W., W.A. Allen, V.I. Myers, R. Cardenas and R.W. Learner, "Reflectance of Single Leaves and Field Plots of Cycocel-Treated Cotton (Gossypium Hirsutun L.) in Relation to Leaf Structure", J. Remote Sens. Environ. l(2):103-107, 1970.
Gausman, H.W., W.A. Allen, R. Cardenas and A.J. Richardson, "Relation of Light Reflectance to Histological and Physical Evaluations of Cotton Leaf Maturity (Gossypium Hirsuturn L.)", Appl. Opt. 9:5145552, 1970.
Allen, W.A., H.W. Gausman and A.J. Richardson, "Mean Effective Optical Constants of Cotton Leaves", J. Opt. Soc. Amer. 60( 14 ):5142-547, 1970.
Gausman, H.W., W.A. Allen, R. Cardenas and R.L. Bowen, "Color Photos, Cotton Leaves and Soil Salinity", Photogramm. Engin. XXXVI (5) :1+5141+59, 1970.
7-6
Wiegand, C.L., H.W. Gausman, W.A. Allen and R.W. Learner, "Interaction of Electro-magnetic Energy With Agricultural Crops", 2nd Ann. Earth Resources Aircraft Program Review, Vol. II, Agricultural, Forestry and Sensor Studies, NASA-MSC, Houston, p. 22:1-14, 1970.
Gausman, H.W. W.A. Allen, R. Cardenas and M. Schupp, "The Influence of Cycocel Treatment of Cotton Plants and Foot Rot Disease of Grapefruit Trees on Leaf Spectra in Relation to Aerial Photographs With Infrared Color Film", Proc. Aerial Color Photography in the Plant Sciences Workshop, Gainesville, Fla., p. 16-214, 1970.
Gerbermann, A.H., H.W. Gausman and C.L. Wiegand, "Shadow and Other Background Effects on Optical Density of Film Transparencies", Proc. Aerial Color Photo-graphy in the Plant Sciences Workshop, Gainesville, Fla., p. 127-129, 1970.
Cardenas, R., H.W. Gausman, W.A. Allen and M. Schupp, "The Influence of Ammonia-
Induced Cellular Discoloration Within Cotton Leaves (Gossypium Hirsutum L.) on Light Reflectance, Transmittance, and Absorptance", Remote Sens. of Environ. l(3):199- 2 02 , 1970.
Allen, W.A., H.W. Gausmán, A.J. Richardson and C.L. Wiegand, "Mean Effective Optical Constants of Thirteen Kinds of Plant Leaves", AppI. Opt. 9(11): 2573-
2577, 1970. -
Richardson, A.J., R.J. Torline, D.A. Weber, R.W. Learner and C.L. Wiegand, "Compari-son of Computer Discrimination Procedures Using Film Optical Densities", SWC Res. Rept. 1422, 1970.
Baumgardner, F.J. (ed.), R.W. Learner and J.R. Shay, "Remote Sensing Techniques Used in Agriculture Today", Aerial Space Science and Agricultural Develop., Amer.
Soc. Agron. Spec. Pub. No. 18, p. 9-26, 1970.
Wiegand, C.L. and J.F. Bartholic, "Remote Sensing in Evapotranspiration Research on the Great Plains", Proc. Great Plains Agricultural Council Evapotranspira-tion Seminar, Research Committee Great Plains Agricultural Council, Publication
No. 50, p. 137-180, 1970.
Gausman, H.W., W.A. Allen, R. Cardenas and R.L. Bowen, "Detection of Foot Rot Disease of Grapefruit Trees With Infrared Color Film", J. Rio Grande Valley Hort.
Soc. 214:36142, 1970.
Gausman, H.W. W.A. Allen, M.L. Schupp, C.L. Wiegand, D.E. Escobar and R.R. Rodriguez, "Reflectance, Transmittance and Absorptance of Electromagnetic Radia-tion of Leaves of Eleven Plant Genera With Different Leaf Mesophyll Arrangements",
Texas A&M Univ. Tech. Monogr. 7, 38 p., 1970.
Gausman, H.W., W.A. Allen, R. Cardenas and A.J. Richardson, "Effects of Leaf Nodal Position on Absorption and Scattering Coefficients and Infinite Reflectance of Cotton Leaves, Gossypium Hirsuturn L.", Agron. J. 63:87-91, 1971.
7-7
Wiegand, C.L., "Agricultural Applications and Requirements for Thermal Infrared Scanners", Proc. International Workshop Earth Resource Survey Systems, United States Government, Vol. II, p. 66-81, 1971.
Gausman, H.W., "PhYtographic Remote Sensing of 'Sick' Citrus Trees", Proc. Inter-national Workshop Earth Resource Survey Systems, United States Government, Vol. II, P. 15-30, 1971.
Wiegand, C.L., R.W. Learner, D.A. Weber and A.H. Gerbermann, "Multibase and Multi-emulsion Space Photos for Crops and Soils", Photogramm. Engin. XXXVII(2):147-156, 1971.
Gerbermann, A.H., H.W. Gausman and C.L. Wiegand, "Color and Color-IR Films for Soil Identification", Photogramm. Engin. XXXVII(4):359-36 14 , 1971.
Gausman, H.W., W.A. Allen, D.E. Escobar, R.R. Rodriguez and R. Cardenas, "Age Effects of Cotton Leaves on Light Reflectance, Transmittance, and Absorptance, and on Water Content and Thickness", Agron. J. 63:1+65_1+69, 1971.
Gausman, H.W. and M. Schupp, "Rapid Transectioning of Plant Leaves", Agron. J.
63:515-516, 1971.
- Allen, W.A., H.W. Gausman, A.J. Richardson and R. Cardenas, "Water and Air Changes in Grapefruit, Corn, and Cotton Leaves With Maturation", Agron. J. 63:3923914,
1971.
Gausman, H.W., W.A. Allen, C.L. Wiegand, D.E. Escobar, R.R. Rodriguez and A.J. Richardson, "The Leaf Mesophylls of 20 Crops, Their Light Spectra, and Optical and Geometrical Parameters", SWC Res. Rpt. 423, 88 p. , 1971.
Allen, W.A., H.W. Gausman and C.L. Wiegand, "Spectral Reflectance from Plant Canopies and Optimum Spectral Channels in the Near Infrared", Proc. 3rd Ann. Earth Resources Aircraft Program Status Review, Vol. II, Agricultural, Forestry and Sensor Studies, NASA-MSC, Houston, p. 23.1-23.15, 1971.
Bartholic, J.F., C.L. Wiegand, R.W. Learner and L.N. Namken, "Thermal Scanner Data for Studying Freeze Conditions and for Aiding Irrigation Scheduling", Proc. 3rd Ann. Earth Resources Aircraft Program Status Review, Vol. II, Agricultural, Forestry and Sensor Studies, NASA-MSC, Houston, p. 27.1-27.23, 1971.
Richardson, A.J., R.J. Torline and W.A. Allen, "Computer Discrimination Procedures Applicable to Aerial, Space, and ERTS Multispectral Data", Proc. 3rd Ann. Earth Resources Aircraft Program Status Review, Vol. II, Agricultural, Forestry and Sensor Studies, NASA-MSC, Houston, p. 28.128.2 14, 1971.
Gausman, H.W., R. Cardenas and W.G. Hart, "Aerial Photography for Sensing Plant Anomalies", Proc. 3rd Ann. Earth Resources Aircraft Program Status Review, Vol. II, Agricultural, Forestry and Sensor Studies, NASA-MSC, Houston, p. 214.1_ 24.15, 1971.
7-8
Gausman, H.W., W.A. Allen, C.L. Wiegand, D.E. Escobar and R.R. Rodriguez, "Leaf Light Reflectance, Transmittance, Absorptance, and Optical and Geometrical Parameters for Eleven Plant Genera With Different Leaf Mesophyll Arrangements", Proc. 7th Intl. Symp. Remote Sens. of Environ., Univ. of Mich., Ann Arbor. Vol. 111:1599-1626, 1971.
Richardson, A.J., R.J. Tori me and W.A. Allen, "Computer Identification of Ground Patterns from Aerial Photographs", Proc. 7th Intl. Symp. Remote Sens. of Environ., Univ. of Mich., Ann Arbor, Vol. 11:1357-1375, 1971.
Cardenas, R., H.W. Gausman and A. Peynado, "Detection of Boron and Chloride Toxicities by Aerial Photography", Proc. 3rd Bienn. Wksp. on Aerial Color Photo-graphy in the Plant Sciences, Gainesville, Fla., p. 267-288, 1971.
Cardenas, R., A. Peynado, H.W. Gausman, A.H. Gerbermann and R.L. Bowen, "Photo-graphic Sensing of Boron and Chloride Toxicities of Citrus Trees", J. Rio Grande Valley Hort. Soc. Vol. 25:36-145, 1971.
Allen, W.A. and A.J. Richardson, "Calibration of a Laboratory Spectrophotometer for Specular Light by Means of Stacked Glass Plates", The Review of Scientific Instruments, Vol. 142(12):1813-1817, 1971.
Thomas, J.R. and G.E. Oerther, "Estimating Nitrogen Content of Sweet Pepper Leaves by Reflectance Measurements", Agron. J. 614:11-13, 1972.
Wiegand, C.L. and L.J. Bartelli, "Remote Sensing for Conservation and Environmental Planning", Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer. Proc. Aug. pp. 2312 140, 1971.
"Effects of Salt Treatments of Cotton Plants (Gossypium Hirsutum L.) on Leaf Mesophyll Cell Microstructure", Agron, J. 61:133_136, 1972.
Gausman, H.W., W.A. Allen and C.L. Wiegand, "Plant Factors Affecting Electromagnetic Radiation", SWC Res. Rept. 1432, 1972.
Richardson, A.J., C.L. Wiegand, R.W. Leamer, H.D. Petersen, A.H. Gerbermann and R.J. Torline, "Final Report: Bendix 9-Channel Scanner 1969 Seasonal Flights", SWC Res. Rept. 1431, 1972.
Bartholic, J.F., L.N. Namken and C.L. Wiegand, "Aerial Thermal Scanner to Determine Temperature of Soils and of Crop Canopies Differing in Water Conditions", Agron. J. 614:603-608, 1972.
Richardson, A.J., C.L. Wiegand, R.W. Learner, A.H. Gerbermann andR.J. TorI me, "Discriminant Analyses of Bendix Scanner Data", Proc. 4th Ann. Earth Resources Aircraft Program Status Review, NASA-MSC, Houston, Vol. V, Section 119:22 p.,
1972.
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Cooper, G.R., R.L. Bowen and H.W. Gausman, "The Use of Kodak Aerochrome Color Film, Type 214143, As a Remote Sensing Tool", Proc. 14th Ann. Earth Resources Aircraft Program Status Review, NASA-MSC, Houston, Vol. V, Section 117: 6 pp., 1972.
Gausman, H.W., W.A. Allen, R. Cardenas and A.J. Richardson, "Effects of Leaf Age for Four Growth Stages of Cotton and Corn Plants on Leaf Reflectance, Structure, Thickness, Water and Chlorophyll Concentrations and Selection of Wavelengths for Crop Discrimination", Proc. Earth Resources Observation and Information Analysis Systems, Vol. I, pp. 25-51, 783 pp. , March 1972.
Wiegand, C.L., H.W. Gausman and W.A. Allen, "Physiological Factors and Optical Parameters as Bases of Vegetation Discrimination and Stress Analysis", Proc. Seminar on Operational Remote Sensing, Amer. Soc. Photogram., pp. 82-102, Falls Church, VA, 3141 pp. , 1972.
Heald, C.M., W.H. Thames and C.L. Wiegand, "Detection of Rotylenchulus Reniformis Infestations by Aerial Infrared Photography", Journal of Nematology 14:298-300, 1972.
Cardenas, R., H.W. Gausman and G.E. Thomas, "Photographic Previsual Detection of Watermelon Mosaic Virus in Cucumber", J. Rio Grande Valley Hort. Soc. 23:73-75, 1972.
Gausman, H)iI., W.A. Allen, C.L. Wiegand, D.E. Escobar, R.R. Rodriguez and A.J. Richardson, "The Leaf Mesophylls of Twenty Crops, Their Light Spectra, and Optical and Geometrical Parameters", U.S. Dept. Agr. Tech. Bull. No. 11465, 59 pp. , 1973.
Gausman, H.W., W.A. Allen, R. Cardenas and A.J. Richardson, "Reflectance Discrimina-tion of Cotton and Corn at Four GrowthStages", Agron. J. 65:1914-198, 1973.
Cardenas, R., and H.W. Gausman,' "Relation of Light Reflectance of Six Barley Lines With Chlorophyll Assays and Optical Film Densities", Agron. J. (Note) 65:518-519,
1973.
Gausman, H.W., "Photornicrographic Record of Light Reflected at 850 Nanometers by Cellular Constituents of Zebrina Leaf Epidermis", Agron. J. (Note) 65:5014-505,
1973.
Richardson, A.J., C.L. Wiegand and R.J. Torline, "Temporal Analysis of Multispectral Scanner Data", Proc. 8th Intl. Symp. on Remote Sens. of Environ., Univ. of Mich., Ann Arbor, 11:121491258, 1973.
Learner, R.W., V.I. Myers and L.F. Silva, "A Spectroradiometer for Field Use", Rev. Sci. Instrum. 1414:611-6114, 1973.
Allen, W.A., "Transmission of Isotropic Light Across a Dielectric Surface in Two and Three Dimensions", J. Opt. Soc. Am., 63:6614-666, 1973.
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Gausman, H.W., "Reflectance, Transmittance, and Absorptance of Light by Subcellular Particles of Spinach (Spinacia Oleracea L.) Leaves", Agron. J., 65:551-553,
1973.
Gausman H.W., and W.A. Allen, "Optical Parameters of Leaves of Thirty Plant Species", Plant Physiol., 52:57-62, 1973.
Gausman, H.W. and R. Cardenas, "Light Reflectance by Leaflets of Pubescent, Normal, and Glabrous Soybean Isolines", Agron. J. (Note) 65:837-838, 1973.
Wiegand, C.L., and W.A. Swanson, "Time Constants for Thermal Equilibration of Leaf, Canopy, and Soil Surfaces With Changes in Isolation", Agron. J. 65:722-724,
1973.
Allen, W.A., H.W. Gausman and A.J. Richardson, "Willsttter-Stoll Theory of Leaf Reflectance Evaluated by Ray Tracing", J. Opt. Soc. Am. 12:2 14148_2453, 1973.
Learner, R.W., and A.J. LaRocca, "Calibration of Field Spectroradiometers", Opt. Engin. 12:121+-130, 1973.
Richardson, A.J., M.R. Gautreaux and C.L. Wiegand, "ERTS-1 Aircraft Support, 2k-Channel MSS CCI Experiences and Land Use Classification Results", Conf. Machine Processing of Remotely Sensed Data, LARS, Purdue Univ., 2a,33-53, 1973.
Gausman, H.W., W.A. Allen and D.E. Escobar, "Refractive Index of Plant Cell Walls',', Appi. Opt. 13(l):109-111, January 1974.
Gausman, H.W., R. Cardenas and A.H. Gerbermann, "Plant Size, Leaf Structure, Spectra, and Chlorophyll Content of Normal and Chiorotic Sorghum Plants and Correlations With Film Density Readings from Aerial Infrared Color, Positive Transparencies", Photogram. Engr. XL(l):61-67, January 1974.
Gausman, H.W., "Light Reflectance of Leaf Constituents", 2nd Ann Remote Sens. Earth Resources Conf., Tullahoma, TN. 11:585-599, 1973.
Rodriguez, R.R. and H.W. Gausman, "Flooding Effects on Light Reflectance, Trans-mittance, and Absorptance of Cotton (Gossypium Hirsutum L.) Leaves", Jour. Rio. Grande Valley Hort. Soc. 27:81-85, 1973.
Nixon, P.R., L.N. Namken and C.L. Wiegand, "Spatial and Temporal Variations of Crop Canopy Temperature and Implications for Irrigation Scheduling", 2nd Ann. Remote Sens. Earth Resources Conf., Tullahoma, TN. II:643-657, 1973.
Gausman, H.W., "Leaf Reflectance of Near-Infrared Light", Photogramm. Engr. XL(2): 183-191, Feb. 1974.
Gausman, H.W., "Light Reflectance of Peperomia Chloroplasts", J. Rio Grande Valley Hort. Soc. 27:86-89, 1973.
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BIBLIOGRAPHY FURNISHED BY H. L. MC KIM
U.S. Army CRREL, Hanover, NH
Symposium, Conference, and Journal Articles
Lange, G.R. and H.L. McKim, "Saturation, Phase Composition and Freezing Point Depression in a Rigid Soil Model," 1st International Permafrost Convention, 1963.
McKim, H.L., T.L. Marlar, and D.M. Anderson, "The Use of ERTS-1 Imagery in the National Program for the Inspection of Danis," Remote Sensing of Water Resources International Symp., Canada Centre for Inland Waters, 11-11+ June 1973. Also USACRREL Special Report 183.
Haugen, R.K., H.L. McKim, L.W. Gatto, and D.M. Anderson, "Cold Regions Environ-mental Analysis based on ERTS-1 Imagery." Proc. of the 8th International Symp. on Remote Sensing of Environment, Univ. of Michigan, 2-6 Oct. 1972.
Anderson, D.M., H.L. McKim, L.W. Gatto, and W.K. Crowder, 'The Use of ERTS-1 Imagery in the Regional Interpretation and Estuarine Processes in Alaska," Proc. of the Second Annual Remote Sensing of Earth Resources Conference, Univ. of Tennessee, Space Institute, March 1973.
Crowder, W.K., H.L. McKim, S.F. Ackley, W.D. Hibler, and D.M. Anderson, "Mesoscale Deformation of Sea Ice from Satellite Imagery," International Symposium on Snow and Ice Resources (IHD), Monterey, California, 1973.
Anderson, D.M., L.W. Gatto, and H.L. McKim, "Sediment Distribution and Circulation Patterns in Cook Inlet, Alaska," Proc. of ERTS-1 Symposium, March 1973.
Anderson, D.M., H.L. McKim, W.K. Crowder, R.K. Haugen, L.W. Gatto, and T.L. Marlar, "Applications of ERIS-1 Imagery to Terrestrial and Marine Environmental Analysis in Alaska," Third ERTS Symposium, Washington, DC, 1973.
Anderson, D.M., A.R. Tice, and H.L. McKim, "Unfrozen Water in Frozen Soils," Second International Permafrost Conference, Yakutsk, U.S.S.R., July 1973.
Hibler, W.D., S.F. Ackley, W.K. Crowder, H.L. McKim, and D.M. Anderson, "Analysis of Shear Zone Ice Deformation in the Beaufort Sea Using Satellite Imagery," in "The Coast and Shelf of the Beaufort Sea," San Francisco, Jan. 7-9, 1974, the Arctic Institute of North America, Washington, DC, pp. 285-299, editors: Reed, J.C. and Sater, J.E.
Technical Reports
Anderson, D.M., H.L. McKim, and A.R. Tice, "The Specific Heat Capacity of Frozen Soils," CRREL Technical Report 73-16, January 1974.
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Special Report
McKim, H.L., L.W. Gatto, and C.J. Merry, "Inundation Damage to Vegetation at Selected New England Flood Control Reservoirs," CRREL Special Report 220, March 1975.
Research Report
Anderson, D.M., H.L. McKim, L.W. Gatto, R.K. Haugen, T.L. Marlar, W.K. Crowder, and A. Petrone, 'An ERTS View of Alaska: Regional Analysis of Earth and Water Resources Based on Satellite Imagery," CRREL Research Report 241, June 1973.
Presentation Given; Abstracts Published -
McKim, H.L. and G.H. Miller, "Pedological Weathering in Oligocene Deposits of Northwestern Nebraska," Midwest Regional UsGS Meetings, Lincoln, Nebraska, 1971.
Lynn, W.D., H.L. McKim, and R.B. Grossman, "Clay Minerology in a Desert Area of South-Central New Mexico," presented at the SSSAP meetings, Tucson, Arizona, 1971.
McKim, H.L., "Relationship of Free Iron, Aeration Porosity, and Clay Content in Loess Soils from Southern Iowa," Ph.D. Thesis, Iowa State Univ., presented at the Soil Sci. Soc. of Amer., Annual Meetings, October-November 1972.
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BIBLIOGRAPHY FURNISHED BY D.R. WIESNET
NOAA-ESG, Hillcrest Heights, MD
Recen.t Satellite Hydrology Papers from NOAA-ESG
Strong, A.E., McClain, E.P., and McGinnis, D.F., Detection of Thawing Snow and Ice Packs through the Combined use of Visible and near-Infrared Measurements from Earth Satellites, Monthly Weather Review, V. 99, no. 11, P. 828-830, 1971.
Wiesnet, D.R., Comparison of Remote Sensors for Soil Moisture and other Hydrologic, Proc. 14th Annual Earth Resources Prog. Review. Houston, 11 pp , 1972.
Wiesnet, D.R. and McGinnis, D.F., Determination of Thawing Snow and Ice Surfaces using Earth Satellite Data, Proc. 14th Ann. Earth Resources Prog. Review. Houston, 11 pp, 1972.
Wiesnet, D.R., Quasioperational Current Mapping by Thermal Infrared in South Korean Coastal Regions, Proc. Coastal Mapping Symposium, Amer. Soc. Photogramm. Washington, DC., 18 pp, 1972.
McGinnis, D.F., Detecting Melting Snow and Ice by Visible and Near-Infrared Measurements from Satellites, Proc. Internat. Sympos. on Role of Snow and Ice in Hydrology, Banff, Alberta, Canada, 10 pp, 1973.
Wiesnet, D.R., The NOAA/NESS Program of Remote Sensing of Soil Moisture, Proc. Internat. Conf. Remote Sensing in Arid Lands, U. of Arizona, Tucson, 1973.
Wiesnet, D.R., and Peck, E.L., Progress Report on Aircraft Gamma-Ray Surveys for Soil-Moisture Detection at a NOAA Test Site near Phoenix, Arizona, Proc. 8th Internat. Symp. on Remote Sensing of Environment, Ann Arbor, Mich., P. 747-754, 1973.
Wiesnet, D.R., Detection of Snow Conditions in Mountainous Terrain, Proc. ERTS-1 Sympos., Sept. 1972, p. 13 1 -132, 1973.
McGinnis, D.F., and Wiesnet, D.R., Snowline Mapping using NOAA-2's Very High Resolution Radiometer (abs) Trans. Amer. Geophys. Un., v. 514, no. 14, p. 272, 1973.
Wiesnet, D.R., and McGinnis, D.F., Hydrologic Applications of NOAA-2's Very High Resolution Radiometer, Proc. Amer. Water Resources Assoc. Sympos. on Remote Sensing of Water Resources, Burlington, Ont, In Press.
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BIBLIOGRAPHY FURNISHED BY A. N. WILLIAMSON
USAE Waterways Experiment Station Vicksburg, MS
Williamson, A.N., "Interpretation of Multispectral Remote Sensor Data." This paper was submitted to the American Society of Photogrammetry in October 1973 and was ultimately published in revised form in the Journal of Surveying and Mapping Division, Proceedings of the America] Society of Civil Engineers, November 1974.
Williamson, A.N., et al., "Sediment Concentration Mapping in Tidal Estuaries,"
NASA SP-351, December 1973.
Williamson, A.N., "Mapping Suspended Particle and Solute Concentrations from Satellite Data." This paper was not published; it was presented at a symposium in Los Angeles, California. Unfortunately, the author does not recall the exact name of the symposium. The paper is dated January 1974.
Williamson, A.N., et al., "Remote Sensing Practice and Potential." This is a Waterways Experimental Station paper, No. 'M-71+-2, May 1974.
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BIBLIOGRAPHY FURNISHED BY MARK F. MEIER
USGS, Tacoma, WA
Meier, M.F., Alexander, R.H., and Campbell, W.J., 1966, Multispectral sensing tests at South Cascade Glacier, Washington: Proc. Fourth Symposium on Remote Sensing of Environment, Ann Arbor, p. 1145_159.
Meier, M.F.,, 1969, Evaluation of South Cascade Glacier test site results: NASA Earth Resources Aircraft Program Status Review 1968, v. III, Hydrology, Oceanography, and Sensor Studies, Sec. 20, 17 p.
Meier, M.F., and Edgerton, A.T., 1970, Snow and ice sensing with passive micro-wave and ground truth instrumentation: recent results, South Cascade Glacier: NASA Second Ann. Earth Resources Aircraft Pr. Status Rev., v. III, Hydrology and Oceanography, Sec. 143, 15 P.
Meier, M.F., and Edgerton, A.T., 1971, Microwave emission from snow - a progress report: Proc. Seventh Internat. Symposium on Remote Sensing of Environment, 1971, Ann Arbor, p. 1155-1163.
Meier, M.F., and Edgerton, A.T., 1971, Microwave emission from snow - a progress report: Proc. Seventh Internat.-Symposium on Remote Sensing of Environment, 1971, Ann Arbor, p. 1155-1163.
Meier, M.F., and Edgerton, A.T., 1971, Emission characteristics of snow and ice in the microwave range: NASA Third Ann. Earth Resources Pr. Rev., v. 3, Hydrology and Oceanography, Sec. 51, l+ p.
Meier, M.F., Measurement of snow cover using passive microwave radiation: Proc. Internat. Symposia on the Role of Snow and Ice in Hydrology, Banff 1972 Unesco/WMO 1974, p.739-750.
Linlor, W.I., Meier, M.F.. and Smith, J.L., Microwave profiling of snowpack free-water content: Proc. Symposium on Advanced Concepts in the Study of Snow and Ice Resources, Monterey, December 1973 (in press).
Schmugge, T., Wilheit, T.T., Gloersen, P., Meier, M.F., Frank, D., and Dirmhirn, I., Microwave signatures of snow and fresh water ice: Proc. Symposium on Advanced Concepts in the Study of Snow and Ice Resources, Monterey, December 1973 (in press).
Meier, M.F., 1973, Applications of ERTS imagery to snow and glacier hydrology: Proc. COSPAR Symposium on Approaches to Earth Survey Problems Through Use of Space Techniques, Konstanz (in press).
Meier, M.F., 1973, New ways to monitor the mass and areal extent of snowcover: Proc. COSPAR Symposium on Approaches to Earth Survey Problems Through Use of Space Techniques, Konstanz (in press).
Meier, M.F., 1973, Evaluation of ERTS imagery for mapping and detection of changes of snowcover on land and on glaciers: NASA Symposium on Significant Results Obtained from ERTS-1, v. I, Tech. Presentations Sec. A, Paper W-19, P . 863-875.
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Meier, N.E., Evaluate ERTS imagery for mapping and detection of changes in snowcover on land and on glaciers, NASA Type I progress Report for
July - 31 August 1972, 3 P. September - 31 October 1972, 4 p. January - 28 February 1 973, 3 P. March - 30 April 1973, 4 p. July - 31 August 1973, 4 p. September - 31 October 1973, 4 p.
Meier, M.F., Evaluate ERTS imagery for mapping and detection of changes of snowcover on land and on glaciers, NASA Type II Progress Report for
1 July - 31 December 1972, 14 p. 1 January - 30 June 1973, 7 P. 1 July - 31 December 1973, 6 p.
NASA-Langley, 1975 CR-2581 7-17
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