Applications and land use practices and tools to prepare for and

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*PleaseNote:Nothinginthisdocumentshouldbeconstruedasconveyinglegaladvice.Nothinginthisdocumentpurportstoapplylawtospecificsituationsortoprovideacomprehensivepictureofthe

law.Wemakenoclaims,assurances,orguaranteesastotheaccuracyorcompletenessoftheinformationinthisdocument.Oneshouldconsultlegalcounselforup‐to‐dateinformationaboutthe

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Preparing for the Future: Climate Change and the Monterey Bay Shoreline

ApplicationofLandUsePracticesandToolstoPrepareforandAdapttoClimateChange*Preparedby:ErinPrahlerandSarahMooney,CenterforOceanSolutions1

Introduction

Therearemanylandusepracticesandtoolsthatlocalgovernmentscanusetoprepareforandadapttosealevelrise.Thisguideprovides:1)abriefGlossary(pages2‐6)ofrelevantlandusepracticesandtoolsthatlocalgovernmentscanusetoadapttosealevelriseandassociatedimpacts;2)descriptionsofAdaptationinAction:ExamplesfromtheField(pages7‐26),includinghowtheselandusepracticesandtoolscurrentlyarebeingputintopracticeinCalifornia;and3)alistofResources(page27)includingpertinentreportsonadditionallandusepracticesandtools,aswellascasestudiesoutsideofCalifornia.

Formoredetailedinformation,pleasevisithttp://www.climatechangemontereybay.org

1 Withcontributions from: MegCaldwell,AshleyErickson,EricHartge,ZachKoehnandLucieHazenoftheCenterforOceanSolutions.

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GlossaryofLandUseAdaptationPracticesandTools

OverlayZones:Zoningmapsdivideaplanningareaintodistrictsbasedonalloweduses.Overlayzonessuperimposeadditionalstandardsand/orpoliciesononeormoreestablishedzoningdistrictsbasedoncharacteristicsofthearea.Manyjurisdictionsuseoverlayzonestoprotectuniquenaturalorculturalresources(e.g.,wetlands,agriculturallandsorhistoricdistricts).Aparcelwithintheoverlayzoneissubjecttoboththeunderlyingandoverlayingzoningrequirements.2Onecommonexampleofoverlayzoningisthedesignationoffloodplainhazardareaswherespecialbuildingstandardsdesignedtominimizestructurallossesapplytoparcelswithinthezone.EnvironmentallySensitiveHabitatAreas3areanotherkindofoverlayzoninginCaliforniathatcanbeusedtoprotectsensitivecoastalhabitatsandspeciesaswellastheunderlyingecosystemservicestheyprovide.Non‐Conformities:Whenazoningschemeismodifiedsothatitchangesthealloweduse(s)inadistrict,someexistingusesorstructuresmaynolongerconformtothenewzoning.Non‐conformingusesandstructuresmay,however,beallowedtocontinueforaperiodoftime.4Byprovidingaphase‐outperiodfornon‐conformities(commonlycalledan“amortizationperiod”),alocalgovernmentcanmitigatetheeconomicimpacttopropertyownersfromchangingazoningscheme.However,somenon‐conformingusesorstructuresmaybecomeparticularlyvulnerabletocoastalhazardsfromsealevelriseovertime.Localgovernmentscanminimizetherisktothesestructuresandusesfromsealevelrisebyidentifyingspecificconditionsunderwhichownersmustremovethenon‐conformingelement.

Setbacks:Setbackrequirementsarestandardsthatprotectstructuresfromhazardsorcreatebuffersbetweenstructuresorusesbypreventingdevelopmentaminimumdistancefromabaseline.5Coastalsetbacksareoftendesignedtopreventdamageto2OfficeofPlanningandResearch,ACitizen’sGuidetoPlanning(January2001),availableathttp://ceres.ca.gov/planning/planning_guide/plan_index.html#anchor260736;LandUseLawCenter,PaceUniversitySchoolofLaw,reportpreparedfortheNatureConservancyofLongIsland,LocalLandUseResponseToSeaLevelRise54(undated),availableathttp://www.csc.noaa.gov/digitalcoast/inundation/_pdf/Pace_Final_Report.pdf.3CALIFORNIACOASTALACT,20CAL.PUB.RES.CODE§30107.5.4CityofMalibu,LocalCoastalProgramLocalImplementationPlan§13.5(adoptedSeptember13,2002).5JamesG.Titus,RollingEasementsat167(June2011),availableatwww.epa.gov/cre/downloads/rollingeasementsprimer.pdf.

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infrastructurefromfloodinganderosion.6Thedistancefromthebaselineistypicallycalculatedeitherasafixednumber(e.g.100feet)orisbasedonanalgorithm,suchastheaverageerosionrateovertheeconomiclifeofthestructure.InCalifornia,coastalsetbackrequirementsareestablishedlocallythroughtheLocalCoastalProgramprocessandvarygeographically.Setbackrequirementsbasedonanticipatedsealevelrise(asopposedtostrictlyhistoricalerosionrates)canbeusedtohelpprotectnewdevelopmentfromfutureinundationanderosionrisks.

Buffers:Similartosetbackrequirements,buffersarestandardstypicallydesignedtoprotectnaturalresources,ratherthanbuildings.Buffersprovide“atransitionzonebetweenaresourceandhumanactivities”andareintendedtoreducetheimpactsofdevelopmentonnaturalresourcesandprotectthebeneficialservicesprovidedbynaturalresources.7Buffersprovideavaluableformofadaptationtochangesinsealevel,bothintheirabilitytolimitpotentialcostsfrominfrastructureorprivatestructuraldamageandtheirbenefittohumanandnaturalsystems.

DevelopmentConditions:Stateandlocalgovernmentsoftenimposespecialconditionswhenissuingdevelopmentpermits.Impactfees,oneformofdevelopmentcondition,seektorecovercostsbornebythelocaljurisdictionassociatedwiththedevelopmentortootherwisemitigatetheimpactsofthedevelopment.8Developmentconditionscanbeusedtomanageriskstodevelopmentinareasthatarevulnerabletosealevelrisebyrestrictingfutureconstructionofcoastalarmoring,requiringmonitoringtoassesshowadevelopmentmayimpactotherpropertiesorcommunityassets,andassessingfeestocompensatethepublic,suchasforlostcoastalaccessorrecreation.

ShorelineProtectionDevices:Shorelineprotectiondevicesareusedtoprotectcoastalpropertiesfromhazards,likefloodinganderosion,andincludehard‐andsoft‐engineeredstructures.Governmentsandprivatelandownershavetypicallyreliedon

6NOAAOfficeofOceanandCoastalResourceManagement,AdaptingtoClimateChange:APlanningGuideforStateCoastalManagersat71(2010),availableathttp://coastalmanagement.noaa.gov/climate/docs/adaptationguide.pdf.7NOAAOfficeofOceanandCoastalResourceManagement,AdaptingtoClimateChange:APlanningGuideforStateCoastalManagersat85(2010),availableathttp://coastalmanagement.noaa.gov/climate/docs/adaptationguide.pdf.8JenniferGrannis,AdaptationToolKit:Sea‐LevelRiseandCoastalLandUse:HowGovernmentsCanUseLand‐UsePracticestoAdapttoSea‐LevelRiseat29(October2011),availableathttp://www.georgetownclimate.org/sites/default/files/Adaptation_Tool_Kit_SLR.pdf.

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hard‐engineeredstructuressuchasrevetments,groins,bulkheads,seawallsandcliffretainingwalls.Soft‐armoringalternativesare“man‐madebarriersthatreplenishormimicnaturalbuffersorelevatelandsothatstructuresarelessvulnerabletoflooding,stormsurge,anderosion”andcanincludebeachnourishment,dunemanagement,wetlandsrestorationandlivingshorelines.9

ManagedRetreat:Managedretreator“realignment”isalandusepracticethatallowswetlandsandbeachestomigrateinlandunimpededassealevelrises.Astheshoreerodes,structuresareremovedorrelocatedinland.Managedretreatismosteffectivewhenthereissufficientlandavailableforrelocatingstructures.10

CapitalImprovementPrograms:CapitalImprovementProgramsarefinancingplansthatidentifyandbudgetfornewconstructionormaintenanceoflocalgovernmentinfrastructure.LocalgovernmentscanconsiderchangesinsealevelrisewhendevelopingtheirCapitalImprovementPrograms(throughlocalordinance,statelaw,orbyvoluntaryactiondesignedto,“discontinuemaintenanceandrepairstoinfrastructurethatisrepetitivelydamaged,andrelocateinfrastructureorretrofitexistinginfrastructuretobemoreresilienttosealevelrise”11).Theplanscanbeusedtoproactivelydiscourageinvestmentinprojectsvulnerabletosealevelriseandstormdamage.

AcquisitionPrograms:Stateandlocalgovernmentscanpurchaselandforpublicpurposes.Forexample,stateandlocalgovernmentscanacquirepropertyatriskfromsealevelrisetopreventfuturedevelopmentinvulnerableareas,conservenaturalresources,ensurepublicaccessand/orprotectuplanddevelopment.12

9JenniferGrannis,AdaptationToolKit:Sea‐LevelRiseandCoastalLandUse:HowGovernmentsCanUseLand‐UsePracticestoAdapttoSea‐LevelRiseat39(October2011),availableathttp://www.georgetownclimate.org/sites/default/files/Adaptation_Tool_Kit_SLR.pdf.10NOAAOfficeofOceanandCoastalResourceManagement,ManagedRetreatStrategies(October2007),http://coastalmanagement.noaa.gov/initiatives/shoreline_ppr_retreat.html.11JenniferGrannis,AdaptationToolKit:Sea‐LevelRiseandCoastalLandUse:HowGovernmentsCanUseLand‐UsePracticestoAdapttoSea‐LevelRiseat45(October2011),availableathttp://www.georgetownclimate.org/sites/default/files/Adaptation_Tool_Kit_SLR.pdf.12JenniferGrannis,AdaptationToolKit:Sea‐LevelRiseandCoastalLandUse:HowGovernmentsCanUseLand‐UsePracticestoAdapttoSea‐LevelRiseat47(October2011),availableathttp://www.georgetownclimate.org/sites/default/files/Adaptation_Tool_Kit_SLR.pdf.

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ConservationEasements:Conservationeasementsarevoluntaryagreementsbetweenalandownerandgovernmentagencyornon‐profitorganizationdesignedtopreservepropertyforopenspace,habitat,recreation,oragriculturepurposes,amongothers.Conservationeasementsrestrictdevelopmentbutallowthelandownertoretainownershipoftheproperty.Thedevelopmentrestrictions“runwiththeland”andthereforearebindingonallfuturelandowners.Conservationeasementscanbeusedtopreventdevelopmentontheportionofapropertythatisvulnerabletosealevelrise.13Existingconservationeasementscanalsobeamendedtoprovidearollingboundarytoallowtheshorelineandecosystemstomigrateinland.

Rollingeasements:Rollingeasementsinclude“abroadcollectionofarrangementsunderwhichhumanactivitiesarerequiredtoyieldtherightofwaytomigratingshores.”14Rollingeasementsallowwetlandsandbeachestomigrateinlandassealevelrisesbyacknowledgingthatassealevelrisesandthemeanhightidemovesinland,thepublictrustfollows.15Rollingeasementsaregenerallycreatedthroughstatestatutes,rollingconservationeasementsanddevelopmentconditions.16

TaxIncentives:Stateandlocalgovernmentscanusetaxpoliciestoinfluencetheuseanddevelopmentofland.Presentusetaxpolicies,suchastheWilliamsonAct,representonemodelfortaxincentivesthatcouldencouragesealevelriseadaptation.Becauserealestatetaxesarecommonlycalculatedbasedondevelopmentpotentialinsteadofcurrentuse,coastallandownersmayperceiveanincentivetodevelopproperty.17Byassessingtaxesaccordingtothecurrentuseoftheproperty,landownersarenot

13JenniferGrannis,AdaptationToolKit:Sea‐LevelRiseandCoastalLandUse:HowGovernmentsCanUseLand‐UsePracticestoAdapttoSea‐LevelRiseat50(October2011),availableathttp://www.georgetownclimate.org/sites/default/files/Adaptation_Tool_Kit_SLR.pdf;Cal.Civ.Code§§815‐816.14JamesTitus,RisingSeas,CoastalErosion,andtheTakingsClause:HowtoSaveWetlandsandBeachesWithoutHurtingPropertyOwners,57MD.L.REV.1279,1313(1998).15JamesG.Titus,RollingEasements(June2011),availableatwww.epa.gov/cre/downloads/rollingeasementsprimer.pdf.16JenniferGrannis,AdaptationToolKit:Sea‐LevelRiseandCoastalLandUse:HowGovernmentsCanUseLand‐UsePracticestoAdapttoSea‐LevelRiseat41(October2011),availableathttp://www.georgetownclimate.org/sites/default/files/Adaptation_Tool_Kit_SLR.pdf.17JenniferGrannis,AdaptationToolKit:Sea‐LevelRiseandCoastalLandUse:HowGovernmentsCanUseLand‐UsePracticestoAdapttoSea‐LevelRiseat54(October2011),availableathttp://www.georgetownclimate.org/sites/default/files/Adaptation_Tool_Kit_SLR.pdf.

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encouragedto“buildout”theirproperty.Thistypeoftaxpolicycanhelpmanagedevelopmentinareasthatarevulnerabletoimpactsfromsealevelrise.Preferentialassessmentprogramscanofferlowertaxassessmentstolandownerswhoagreetopreservetheirproperty.

TransferDevelopmentRights:TransferofDevelopmentCredit(TDC)programs,alsoknownasTransferofDevelopmentRights(TDR)programs,shiftdevelopmentfromdonororsourcesites(parcelsthatareunsafeorwarrantprotection)toreceiversites(parcelswheredevelopmentispreferred).Theseprogramsallowtheownerofasourcesitetosellherrighttodeveloponherpropertytotheownerofareceivingsite,compensatingherforpreservingherproperty.TheownerofthereceivingsiteisabletousetheTDCorTDRtointensifydevelopmentonhisparcel.ATDCorTDRprogramcouldbedesignedtopreventdevelopmentonlandsvulnerabletosealevelrisebycompensatingalandownerwhoyieldsherlandtosealevelrise.18

RealEstateDisclosures:Stateandfederallawsrequirepropertyownerstodisclosecertaininformationtopotentialbuyerswhenthepropertyissold,includinginformationaboutnaturalhazardsthatthepropertyisvulnerableto.Thesedisclosurerequirementscouldbeexpandedtoincludeareasvulnerabletoimpactsassociatedwithsealevelrise,includingfloodinganderosion.19

18JenniferGrannis,AdaptationToolKit:Sea‐LevelRiseandCoastalLandUse:HowGovernmentsCanUseLand‐UsePracticestoAdapttoSea‐LevelRiseat57(October2011),availableathttp://www.georgetownclimate.org/sites/default/files/Adaptation_Tool_Kit_SLR.pdf;seealsoJamesTitus,RollingEasementsat67‐68(June2011),availableatwww.epa.gov/cre/downloads/rollingeasementsprimer.pdf.19NOAAOfficeofOceanandCoastalResourceManagement,AdaptingtoClimateChange:APlanningGuideforStateCoastalManagersat61(2010),availableathttp://coastalmanagement.noaa.gov/climate/docs/adaptationguide.pdf.

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AdaptationinAction:ExamplesfromtheField

OverlayZones:

Zoningmapsdivideaplanningareaintodistrictsbasedonalloweduses.Overlayzonessuperimposeadditionalstandardsand/orpoliciesononeormoreestablishedzoningdistrictsbasedoncharacteristicsofthearea.Manyjurisdictionsuseoverlayzonestoprotectuniquenaturalorculturalresources(e.g.,wetlands,agriculturallandsorhistoricdistricts).Aparcelwithintheoverlayzoneissubjecttoboththeunderlyingandoverlayingzoningrequirements.20Onecommonexampleofoverlayzoningisthedesignationoffloodplainhazardareaswherespecialbuildingstandardsdesignedtominimizestructurallossesapplytoparcelswithinthezone.

TheFederalEmergencyManagementAgency(FEMA)administerstheNationalFloodInsuranceProgram(NFIP),offeringfederalfloodinsurancetolandownersincommunitiesthatadoptafloodplainmanagementordinanceregulatingnewdevelopmentinhighfloodriskareasmappedbyFEMA.21AlthoughFEMAreliesonhistoricalflooddataanddoesnotaccountforanticipatedsealevelrise,localgovernmentscanimposemorestringentdevelopmentstandardswithinfloodplains.22“TheNFIP’sCommunityRatingSystem(CRS)recognizescommunitieswhoexceedminimumfloodplainmanagementregulationsbyreducingfloodinsurancepremiumsforthecommunity’spropertyowners.”23

Example:CityofHuntingtonBeachFloodplainOverlayDistrict.TheCityofHuntingtonBeachparticipatesintheNFIPprogrambyimplementingfloodplainoverlayzonesin“areasofspecialfloodhazardidentifiedbytheFederalEmergencyManagement

20OfficeofPlanningandResearch,ACitizen’sGuidetoPlanning(January2001),availableathttp://ceres.ca.gov/planning/planning_guide/plan_index.html#anchor260736;LandUseLawCenter,PaceUniversitySchoolofLaw,reportpreparedfortheNatureConservancyofLongIsland,LocalLandUseResponseToSeaLevelRiseat54(undated),availableathttp://www.csc.noaa.gov/digitalcoast/inundation/_pdf/Pace_Final_Report.pdf.21FederalEmergencyManagementAgency,TheNationalFloodInsuranceProgram(lastmodifiedAugust11,2010),availableathttp://www.fema.gov/plan/prevent/floodplain/index.shtm.22JenniferGrannis,AdaptationToolKit:Sea‐LevelRiseandCoastalLandUse:HowGovernmentsCanUseLand‐UsePracticestoAdapttoSea‐LevelRiseat21(October2011),availableathttp://www.georgetownclimate.org/sites/default/files/Adaptation_Tool_Kit_SLR.pdf.23CaliforniaDepartmentofWaterResources,CommunityRatingSystem(2011),availableathttp://www.water.ca.gov/floodmgmt/lrafmo/fmb/fas/nfip/crs/.

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Agency.”24BecausetheCity’sfloodplainoverlayzonesrequiremorestringentregulationsthantheminimumrequirementsforparticipationinNFIP,landownerswithinHuntingtonBeachfloodplainoverlaydistrictsqualifyfordiscountsupto15%offoffederalfloodinsurancethroughCRS.25

EnvironmentallySensitiveHabitatAreas(ESHA)areanotherkindofoverlayzoninginCaliforniathatcanbeusedtoprotectsensitivecoastalhabitatsandspeciesaswellastheunderlyingecosystemservicestheyprovide.TheCaliforniaCoastalActdefinesan“environmentallysensitivearea”as“[a]nyareainwhichplantoranimallifeortheirhabitatsareeitherrareorespeciallyvaluablebecauseoftheirspecialnatureorroleinanecosystemandwhichcouldbeeasilydisturbedordegradedbyhumanactivitiesanddevelopments.”26AnESHAcanbedesignatedifthefollowingthreeconditionsaremet:(1)individualspeciesofanimalorplantortheirhabitatispresentinthegeographicarea,(2)thespeciesisrareorvaluable,and(3)theareacouldbeeasilydisturbedordegradedbyhumanactivity.27DesignationasESHAlimitsthetypesofdevelopmentallowed,28protectingnotonlythehabitatsandspeciesinthearea,butalsoecosystemservices,likestormprotection,providedbythathabitat.

Example:CityofMalibuLocalImplementationPlan.TheCityofMalibu’sLocalImplementationPlanforitsLocalCoastalProgramincludesESHAoverlayzonesinwhich“[o]nlyusesdependentontheenvironmentallysensitivehabitatareasandwhichdonotresultinsignificantdisruptionofhabitatvalues”arepermitted.29Byprotectingthesehabitatsandlimitingorprohibitingdevelopmentaroundtheseareas,communitiescanmakethemselvesmoreresilienttotheimpactsofclimatechangebyallowingthesehabitatstomigratelandwardassealevelrises.

24CityofHuntingtonBeach,ZoningandSubdivisionOrdinance,§222.04(A).25CityofHuntingtonBeach,CityManager’sWeeklyReportat3(September26,2011),availableathttp://www.huntingtonbeachca.gov/residents/news_publications/weekly_report/files/September‐26‐2011.pdf.Seealso,FederalEmergencyManagementAgency,NationalFloodInsuranceManualatCRS4(May1,2011),availableathttp://www.fema.gov/pdf/nfip/manual201105/content/19_crs.pdf.26CALIFORNIACOASTALACT,20CAL.PUB.RES.CODE§30107.5.27MemorandumfromDr.JohnDixon,CoastalCommissionEcologist/WetlandCoordinator,DesignationofESHAintheSantaMonicaMountainsat2(March25,2003),availableathttp://www.coastal.ca.gov/ventura/smm‐esha‐memo.pdf.28CALIFORNIACOASTALACT,20CAL.PUB.RES.CODE§30240.29CityofMalibu,LocalCoastalProgramLocalImplementationPlan§4.1(adoptedSeptember13,2002).

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AlthoughESHAmaybeidentifiedinLocalCoastalProgramResourceMaps,liketheCityofMalibu’sESHAoverlaymaps,theCoastalCommissionhasmadeitclearthat“thepresenceofESHAonthegrounddictatestheapplicationofpolicies.”30Localgovernmentsreviewingdevelopmentapplicationsshouldalwaysconductsite‐specificassessmentsofhabitatandresourcestoensurethat“newscientificinformationandchangesinthenaturalenvironment”areaccountedfor.31Malibu’sESHAoverlaypolicyexpresslyrecognizesthelimitationsofmappingsensitivehabitatareas:“Additionally,thoseareasnotmappedasESHA,butfoundtobeESHAundertheprovisionsofSection4.3oftheMalibuLIPshallalsobesubjecttotheseprovisions.”32

Non‐Conformities:

Whenazoningschemeismodifiedsothatitchangesthealloweduse(s)inadistrict,someexistingusesorstructuresmaynolongerconformtothenewzoning.Non‐conformingusesandstructuresmay,however,beallowedtocontinueforaperiodoftime.33Byprovidingaphase‐outperiodfornon‐conformities(commonlycalledan“amortizationperiod”),alocalgovernmentcanmitigatetheeconomicimpacttopropertyownersfromchangingazoningscheme.However,somenon‐conformingusesorstructuresmaybecomeparticularlyvulnerabletocoastalhazardsfromsealevelriseovertime.Forexample,ahomebuiltonacoastalbluffpredatingsetbackrequirementsthatweredesignedtosafeguardstructuresfromerosionmaybecomevulnerableastheblufferodes.Localgovernmentscanminimizetherisktothesestructuresandusesfromsealevelrisebyidentifyingspecificconditionsunderwhichownersmustremovethenon‐conformingelement(e.g.relocatethehomefurtherfromthebluffedge).

Althoughlocalgovernmentsareresponsibleforregulatingnon‐conformingusesandstructures,theCaliforniaCoastalCommissionhas“aninterestinabatingcertain

30CaliforniaCoastalCommission,LocalCoastalProgramUpdateGuide:SensitiveHabitatsandNaturalResourcesat3(lastupdatedApril3,2007),availableathttp://www.coastal.ca.gov/la/lcpguide/lcpguide_resources_4.pdf.31CaliforniaCoastalCommission,LocalCoastalProgramUpdateGuide:SensitiveHabitatsandNaturalResourcesat3(lastupdatedApril3,2007),availableathttp://www.coastal.ca.gov/la/lcpguide/lcpguide_resources_4.pdf.32CityofMalibu,LocalCoastalProgramLocalImplementationPlan§4.2(adoptedSeptember13,2002).33CityofMalibu,LocalCoastalProgramLocalImplementationPlan§13.5(adoptedSeptember13,2002).

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nonconformingstructuresorthenonconformingelementsofspecificbuildingsthatadverselyimpactcoastalresourcesorpublicrecreationalopportunities.”34Asfurtherdescribedbelow,CoastalCommissionstaffrecentlyrecommendedrejectionoftheCityofCarlsbad’sproposedLocalCoastalProgram(LCP)amendmentbecauseitstreatmentofnon‐conformingusesandstructureswouldhavealloweddevelopmenttopersistthatisorwouldbecomevulnerabletoimpactsoferosionandsealevelrise.35

Example:CityofCarlsbadLocalCoastalProgramAmendment.In2009,theCityofCarlsbadsubmittedaproposedLCPamendmenttotheCoastalCommissionforcertification.TheCitysoughttoremoveandreplaceitsNonconformingBuildingsandUseszoningchaptertoreplaceoutdatedlanguageand“streamlinetheprocessbywhichnonconformingbuildingsandusescanberepaired,expanded,orreplaced.”36TheCoastalCommissionfoundthatthenewzoninglanguagewasinconsistentwiththeCity’scertifiedLCPandcouldexacerbateimpactstocoastalresources.

As an example, in areas adjacent to coastal bluffs, allowing anonconformingsetbackmayresultinimpactstogeologicstabilitywithinthelifeexpectancyofthestructure. . .Specifically,atacertainpoint,re‐siting the structure and abating the nonconforming setback may benecessary to provide adequate geologic setbacks, open publicaccessways,oropenpublicviewcorridors.37

TheCoastalCommissionadvisedthat“concernspertainingtogeologicstabilityandtheconstructionofshorelineprotectiondevicesshouldbeexaminedespecially

34CaliforniaCoastalCommission,StaffRecommendationonCityofCarlsbadMajorLCPAmendmentNo.4‐09A(Non‐ConformingBuildingsandUses)at2(Feb23,2011),availableathttp://documents.coastal.ca.gov/reports/2011/3/W14a‐3‐2011.pdf.35CaliforniaCoastalCommission,StaffRecommendationonCityofCarlsbadMajorLCPAmendmentNo.4‐09A(Non‐ConformingBuildingsandUses)at9(Feb23,2011),availableathttp://documents.coastal.ca.gov/reports/2011/3/W14a‐3‐2011.pdf.36CaliforniaCoastalCommission,StaffRecommendationonCityofCarlsbadMajorLCPAmendmentNo.4‐09A(Non‐ConformingBuildingsandUses)at9(Feb23,2011),availableathttp://documents.coastal.ca.gov/reports/2011/3/W14a‐3‐2011.pdf.37CaliforniaCoastalCommission,StaffRecommendationonCityofCarlsbadMajorLCPAmendmentNo.4‐09A(Non‐ConformingBuildingsandUses)at10(Feb23,2011),availableathttp://documents.coastal.ca.gov/reports/2011/3/W14a‐3‐2011.pdf.

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conservativelywithrespecttopotentialfutureimpacts,”includingincreasesinsealevelrise,erosion,andshorelineretreat.38

CommissionstaffrecommendedtheCommissionapprovetheLCPamendmentifitwererevisedtoincludea50%alterationthreshold.Apropertyownercouldthenrepairormaintainanonconformingstructurewithoutlosingitsstatusasanonconformingbuildingwherelessthan50%oftheinteriorand/orexteriorwallsaremodified.If,ontheotherhand,morethan50%ofthestructurewasaltered,thenonconformingelementmustbeabatedandthestructurebroughtintocompliancewithallnewdevelopmentstandards.39TheCoastalCommissionhasalsorecommendedthata50%thresholdbecalculatedonacumulativebasissothatallrepairsorredevelopmentofanonconformingstructurewouldcounttowardthethreshold,regardlessofwhethertheworkisdoneallatonceorovertime.40

Setbacks:

Setbackrequirementsarestandardsthatprotectstructuresfromhazardsorcreatebuffersbetweenstructuresorusesbypreventingdevelopmentaminimumdistancefromabaseline,oftentheshoreline.41Coastalsetbacksareoftendesignedtopreventdamagetoinfrastructurefromfloodinganderosion.42Thedistancefromthebaselineistypicallycalculatedeitherasafixednumber(e.g.100feet)orisbasedonanalgorithm,suchastheaverageerosionrateovertheeconomiclifeofthestructure.InCalifornia,

38CaliforniaCoastalCommission,StaffRecommendationonCityofCarlsbadMajorLCPAmendmentNo.4‐09A(Non‐ConformingBuildingsandUses)at11(Feb23,2011),availableathttp://documents.coastal.ca.gov/reports/2011/3/W14a‐3‐2011.pdf.39CaliforniaCoastalCommission,StaffRecommendationonCityofCarlsbadMajorLCPAmendmentNo.4‐09A(Non‐ConformingBuildingsandUses)at2(Feb23,2011),availableathttp://documents.coastal.ca.gov/reports/2011/3/W14a‐3‐2011.pdf.40CaliforniaCoastalCommission,StaffReportandPreliminaryRecommendationonCoastalDevelopmentPermitApplicationNo.6‐10‐064at2(Jan6,2011),availableathttp://documents.coastal.ca.gov/reports/2011/1/Th10b‐1‐2011.pdf.41JamesTitus,RollingEasementsat167(June2011),availableatwww.epa.gov/cre/downloads/rollingeasementsprimer.pdf.42NOAAOfficeofOceanandCoastalResourceManagement,AdaptingtoClimateChange:APlanningGuideforStateCoastalManagersat71(2010),availableathttp://coastalmanagement.noaa.gov/climate/docs/adaptationguide.pdf.

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coastalsetbackrequirementsareestablishedlocallythroughtheLocalCoastalProgramprocessandvarygeographically.Setbackrequirementsbasedonanticipatedsealevelrise(asopposedtostrictlyhistoricalerosionrates)canbeusedtohelpprotectnewdevelopmentfromfutureinundationanderosionrisks.

Example:CaliforniaAdaptationStrategy.TheCaliforniaAdaptationStrategyrecommends“mandatoryconstructionsetbacks...toprohibitconstructionandsignificantredevelopmentinareasthatwilllikelybeimpactedbysea‐levelrisewithinthelifeofthestructure.”43

Example:DelMonteBeachLandUsePlan.TheCityofMonterey’sLandUsePlanforDelMonteBeachrequiressite‐specificgeotechnicalstudiesandthatnewdevelopmentnotrequireshorelineprotectionforthelifeoftheproject.44Futuresealevelrisemustbeaccountedforinthesitinganddesignofnewcoastaldevelopment.Newdevelopmentmustbesetbackandelevatedtoeliminateorminimizehazardsassociatedwithexpectedsealevelriseoverthe100‐yeareconomiclifeofthestructure.45

Example:CityofRanchoPalosVerdesCoastalDevelopmentPermitAppeal.In2006ablufftopcoastalhomeownerinstalledaswimmingpool,barbequeandaretainingwallandgradedthebluffwithoutfirstobtainingacoastaldevelopmentpermitfromtheCityofRanchoPalosVerdes.Inconsideringwhethertopermittheconstructionafterthefact,adisputearoseregardingthemethodologyusedtolocatethecoastalsetbackline.TheCitydecidedthattheunpermittedconstructionwaslandwardofthesetbackandgrantedthehomeownersalocalcoastaldevelopmentpermit(afterthefact).ThepermitdecisionwasappealedtotheCoastalCommission.

TheCommissionfoundthatuntiltheCityamendeditslocalcoastalprogramwithmoreuptodatemapsandrequirementsforsetbacks,theCityshouldcontinuetouseitshistoricmethodologyfordeterminingthesetbackline.46TheCoastalCommissionfoundthatanyfutureLCPamendmentornewdevelopmentoncoastalbluffsshouldrequire

43CaliforniaNaturalResourcesAgency,2009CaliforniaClimateAdaptationStrategy:AReporttotheGovernoroftheStateofCaliforniainResponsetoExecutiveOrderS‐13‐2008at77(2009),availableathttp://www.energy.ca.gov/2009publications/CNRA‐1000‐2009‐027/CNRA‐1000‐2009‐027‐F.PDF.44CityofMonterey,DelMonteBeach,LocalCoastalProgramLandUsePlan(2003)at36.45CityofMonterey,DelMonteBeach,LocalCoastalProgramLandUsePlan(2003)at37.46CaliforniaCoastalCommission,StaffReport:Appeal–SubstantialIssue,AppealNo.A‐5‐RPV‐10‐002at13(June1,2011),availableathttp://documents.coastal.ca.gov/reports/2011/6/Th19a‐6‐2011.pdf.

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setbacksthatensurestabilityofthecoastalblufffortheeconomiclifeofthestructure,accountingforacceleratederosionratesduetosealevelrise.47

Buffers:

Similartosetbackrequirements,buffersarestandardstypicallydesignedtoprotectnaturalresources,ratherthanbuildings.Buffersprovide“atransitionzonebetweenaresourceandhumanactivities”andareintendedtoreducetheimpactsofdevelopmentonnaturalresourcesandprotectthebeneficialservicesprovidedbynaturalresources.48Buffersprovideavaluableformofadaptationtochangesinsealevel,bothintheirabilitytolimitpotentialcostsfrominfrastructureorprivatestructuraldamageandtheirbenefittohumanandnaturalsystems.Wetlandsareoneexampleofaresourceforwhichbuffersaretypicallyrequired.Coastalwetlandsbuffertheimpactsofstorms,reduceshorelineerosion,improvewaterquality,providescenicrecreationareasandprovidehabitatformanyspecies.49

Example:CaliforniaClimateAdaptationStrategy.TheCaliforniaClimateAdaptationStrategyrecommendstheuseofbufferareastoavoidriskstostructureswithinprojected“high”futuresealevelriseorfloodinginundationzones.50

Example:CaliforniaCoastalAct.TheCaliforniaCoastalActsuggeststheuseofbufferstoprotectthebiologicalproductivityandwaterqualityof“coastalwaters,streams,wetlands,estuaries,andlakes.”51

47CaliforniaCoastalCommission,StaffReport:Appeal–SubstantialIssue,AppealNo.A‐5‐RPV‐10‐002at13(June1,2011),availableathttp://documents.coastal.ca.gov/reports/2011/6/Th19a‐6‐2011.pdf.48NOAAOfficeofOceanandCoastalResourceManagement,AdaptingtoClimateChange:APlanningGuideforStateCoastalManagersat85(2010)availableathttp://coastalmanagement.noaa.gov/climate/docs/adaptationguide.pdf.49CaliforniaCoastalCommission,DefinitionandDelineationofWetlandsintheCoastalZoneat1‐2(October5,2011),availableathttp://documents.coastal.ca.gov/reports/2011/10/W4‐10‐2011.pdf.50CaliforniaNaturalResourcesAgency,2009CaliforniaClimateAdaptationStrategy:AReporttotheGovernoroftheStateofCaliforniainResponsetoExecutiveOrderS‐13‐2008at176(2009),availableathttp://www.energy.ca.gov/2009publications/CNRA‐1000‐2009‐027/CNRA‐1000‐2009‐027‐F.PDF.51CALIFORNIACOASTALACT,20CAL.PUB.RES.CODE§30231.

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Example:CityofMalibuLocalImplementationPlan.NewdevelopmentwithinanESHAoverlayzoneundertheCityofMalibu’slocalcoastalprogramissubjecttoavarietyofdevelopmentstandardsandmust“providenativevegetationbufferareastoserveastransitionalhabitatandprovidedistanceandphysicalbarrierstohumanintrusion.”52

DevelopmentConditions:

Stateandlocalgovernmentsoftenimposespecialconditionswhenissuingdevelopmentpermits.Impactfees(oneformofdevelopmentcondition)seektorecovercostsbornebythelocaljurisdictionassociatedwiththedevelopmentortootherwisemitigatetheimpactsofthedevelopment.53Developmentconditionscanbeusedtomanageriskstopublicassetsandprivatedevelopmentinareasthatarevulnerabletosealevelrisebyrestrictingfutureconstructionofcoastalarmoring,requiringmonitoringtoassesshowadevelopmentmayimpactotherpropertiesorcommunityassets,andassessingfeestocompensatethepublic,suchasforlostcoastalaccessorrecreation.

Example:Restrictionsonfutureshorelineprotectiondevices.TheCaliforniaCoastalCommissionoftenconditionsapprovalofcoastaldevelopmentpermitsonalandowner’sagreementnottoconstructblufforshorelineprotectiondevicesinthefuture.Suchpermitsalsocontainprovisionsthatwaiveriskandliabilityandimposeapermanentdeedrestrictiontonotifysubsequentownersoflimitsonfuturedevelopment.54Wherehardarmoringprojectsarepermittedtoprotectexistingstructures,theCoastalCommissionoftenrequiresamitigationfeetocompensatethepublicforimpacts,includinglostrecreationalopportunity,causedbythearmoring.55

Example:GoletaBeachSandRetentionCoastalDevelopmentPermit.In2009theSantaBarbaraCountyDepartmentofParksandRecreationsubmittedacoastaldevelopment

52CityofMalibu,LocalCoastalProgramLocalImplementationPlan§4.2(adoptedSeptember13,2002).53JenniferGrannis,AdaptationToolKit:Sea‐LevelRiseandCoastalLandUse:HowGovernmentsCanUseLand‐UsePracticestoAdapttoSea‐LevelRiseat29(October2011),availableathttp://www.georgetownclimate.org/sites/default/files/Adaptation_Tool_Kit_SLR.pdf.54MegCaldwell&CraigHoltSegall,NoDayattheBeach:SeaLevelRise,EcosystemLoss,andPublicAccessAlongtheCaliforniaCoast,34ECOLOGYL.Q.564‐566(2007).55MegCaldwell&CraigHoltSegall,NoDayattheBeach:SeaLevelRise,EcosystemLoss,andPublicAccessAlongtheCaliforniaCoast,34ECOLOGYL.Q.566(2007).

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permitapplicationtotheCoastalCommissiontoreplacearockrevetmentwithapermeablepiersandretentionsystem.Thecountybelievedthatitsproposedpermeablepiersandretentionsystemwouldwidenthesandybeachandextendtheusablelifeoftheparkrelativetosealevelriseimpacts.56However,thedesignwasexperimental:nopierhadeverbeenconstructedforthepurposeofretainingsand.TheCountyreliedonanecdotalevidencefromotherpierprojectsthatretainedsandonceconstructedorlostsandwhenremoved.57Inaddition,engineeringconsultantsdisagreedonwhetherthepermeablepierwouldcauseerosionfurtherdownthecoast.58

CoastalCommissionstaffrecommendedapprovalofthepermitsubjectto18specialconditionstoaddressthisuncertaintyandotherconcerns.59Becausethedesignwasexperimental,Commissionstaffrecommendedthesandretentionsystembeapprovedforatenyearterm,afterwhichtimeitwouldneedtoberemovedorre‐permittedbytheCoastalCommission.60AlthoughthepermitapplicationwasultimatelydeniedbytheCoastalCommissionoverconcernsregardinguncertaintyofthephysicalmodeling,thespecialconditionsrecommendedbystaffwouldhaverequiredtheCountytoprepareannualmonitoringreportsandtakeadaptivemanagementactionsbasedonthemonitoringresults.Forinstance,ifbluffsorbeachesdowncoastofthepermeablepierexperiencedincreasedretreatinfiveconsecutiveyears,theCountywouldberequiredtoremovethepermeablepier.61Finally,theCountywouldhavebeenrequiredtoexecuteanagreementacknowledgingthatthesitemaybesubjecttocoastalhazards,

56CaliforniaCoastalCommission,StaffReport:CoastalDevelopmentPermitNo.4‐08‐006at2(June25,2009),availableathttp://documents.coastal.ca.gov/reports/2009/7/W8b‐7‐2009.pdf.57CaliforniaCoastalCommission,StaffReport:CoastalDevelopmentPermitNo.4‐08‐006at4(June25,2009),availableathttp://documents.coastal.ca.gov/reports/2009/7/W8b‐7‐2009.pdf.58CaliforniaCoastalCommission,StaffReport:CoastalDevelopmentPermitNo.4‐08‐006at3(June25,2009),availableathttp://documents.coastal.ca.gov/reports/2009/7/W8b‐7‐2009.pdf.59CaliforniaCoastalCommission,StaffReport:CoastalDevelopmentPermitNo.4‐08‐006at1‐2,9‐30(June25,2009),availableathttp://documents.coastal.ca.gov/reports/2009/7/W8b‐7‐2009.pdf.60CaliforniaCoastalCommission,StaffReport:CoastalDevelopmentPermitNo.4‐08‐006at9(June25,2009),availableathttp://documents.coastal.ca.gov/reports/2009/7/W8b‐7‐2009.pdf.61CaliforniaCoastalCommission,StaffReport:CoastalDevelopmentPermitNo.4‐08‐006at14(June25,2009),availableathttp://documents.coastal.ca.gov/reports/2009/7/W8b‐7‐2009.pdf.

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includingfromsealevelrise,andagreeingtoassumetherisksofthosecoastalhazardsandwaiveanyfutureclaimofliabilityagainsttheCoastalCommission.62

ShorelineProtectionDevices:

Shorelineprotectiondevicesareusedtoprotectcoastalpropertiesfromhazards,likefloodinganderosion,andincludehard‐andsoft‐engineeredstructures.Governmentsandprivatelandownershavetypicallyreliedonhard‐engineeredstructuressuchasrevetments,groins,bulkheads,seawallsandcliffretainingwalls.However,hard‐armoring“canincreasefloodinganderosiononneighboringpropertyanddestroybeachesandwetlandsthatprovidenaturalfloodprotectionsandotherecologicalservices.”63Hard‐armorsolutionsalsocanencouragedevelopmentinvulnerablecoastalareas,increasingtherisktocommunitiesintheeventoffailure.

Astheimpactsfromhard‐armoringhavebecomeapparent,attentionhasincreasinglyturnedtosoft‐armoringalternatives.Soft‐armoringalternativesare“man‐madebarriersthatreplenishormimicnaturalbuffersorelevatelandsothatstructuresarelessvulnerabletoflooding,stormsurge,anderosion”andcanincludebeachnourishment,dunemanagement,wetlandsrestorationandlivingshorelines.64

Example:CaliforniaCoastalAct.TheCaliforniaCoastalActallowsforhardarmoringinorder“toservecoastal‐dependentusesortoprotectexistingstructuresorpublicbeachesindangerfromerosion,andwhendesignedtoeliminateormitigateadverseimpactsonlocalshorelinesandsupply.”65However,theCoastalCommissionuses“nofuturearmoring”conditionsincoastaldevelopmentpermitsfornewdevelopmentto

62CaliforniaCoastalCommission,StaffReport:CoastalDevelopmentPermitNo.4‐08‐006at30(June25,2009),availableathttp://documents.coastal.ca.gov/reports/2009/7/W8b‐7‐2009.pdf.63JenniferGrannis,AdaptationToolKit:Sea‐LevelRiseandCoastalLandUse:HowGovernmentsCanUseLand‐UsePracticestoAdapttoSea‐LevelRiseat37(October2011),availableathttp://www.georgetownclimate.org/sites/default/files/Adaptation_Tool_Kit_SLR.pdf;seealsoMontereyBayNationalMarineSanctuary,MBNMSResourceManagementIssues:CoastalArmoring,availableathttp://montereybay.noaa.gov/resourcepro/resmanissues/coastal.html.64JenniferGrannis,AdaptationToolKit:Sea‐LevelRiseandCoastalLandUse:HowGovernmentsCanUseLand‐UsePracticestoAdapttoSea‐LevelRiseat39(October2011),availableathttp://www.georgetownclimate.org/sites/default/files/Adaptation_Tool_Kit_SLR.pdf.65CALIFORNIACOASTALACT,20CAL.PUB.RES.CODE§30235.

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ensurenewdevelopmentminimizes“alterationofnaturallandforms”anddoesnoteventuallyresultinorrequiretheconstructionofprotectivedevices.66

Example:SanFranciscoBayPlan.TheSanFranciscoBayConservationandDevelopmentCommissionrecentlyamendedtheSanFranciscoBayPlantorequirethatpermittedshorelineprotectionprojectsmustbedesignedto“provideerosioncontrolandfloodprotectionfortheexpectedlifeoftheprojectbasedona100‐yearfloodeventthattakesfuturesealevelriseintoaccount.”67

Example:SanFranciscoBayLivingShorelines.LargetractsofwetlandsarepreservedinthenorthernandsouthernmostportionsofSanFranciscoBay.ExamplesoftheselargertractsoflivingshorelinesincludetheNorthBaywetlands,includingRichardsonBayandSonomawetlands,andtheSanPabloBayNationalWildlifeRefugeandtheSuisunMarsh,alsotothenorth.DonEdwardsWildlifeRefugeandtheSouthBaySaltPondRestorationProjectarealsogoodexamplesoflivingshorelineslocatedinthesouthandeastportionsofthebay.68

Example:GoletaBeachSandRetentionCoastalDevelopmentPermit.In2009theSantaBarbaraCountyDepartmentofParksandRecreationproposedacombinationofhard‐andsoft‐armoringtoaddressshorelineerosionatGoletaBeach.TheCountysoughttoreplacearockrevetmentwithapermeablepiersandretentionsystemandaseasonalbeachnourishmentprogram,examplesofbothhard‐andsoft‐engineeredshorelineprotectiondevices.69

Example:CityofMalibuLocalImplementationPlan.TheCityofMalibu’sLocalImplementationPlanforitsLocalCoastalProgramrequiresthatwhereverfeasible,

66MegCaldwell&CraigHoltSegall,NoDayattheBeach:SeaLevelRise,EcosystemLoss,andPublicAccessAlongtheCaliforniaCoast,34ECOLOGYL.Q.564‐566(2007).67SanFranciscoBayConservation&DevelopmentCommission,ResolutionNo.11‐08:AdoptionofBayPlanAmendmentNo.1‐08AddingNewClimateChangeFindingsandPoliciestotheBayPlan;AndRevisingtheBayPlanTidalMarshandTidalFlats;SafetyofFills;ProtectionoftheShoreline;andPublicAccessFindingsandPoliciesat22(October6,2011),availableathttp://www.bcdc.ca.gov/proposed_bay_plan/10‐01Resolution.pdf.68Strategiesformanagingsealevelrise,Urbanist(November2009),availableathttp://www.spur.org/publications/library/report/strategiesformanagingsealevelrise_110109.69CaliforniaCoastalCommission,StaffReport:CoastalDevelopmentPermitNo.4‐08‐006at2(June25,2009),availableathttp://documents.coastal.ca.gov/reports/2009/7/W8b‐7‐2009.pdf.

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“alternative‘softsolutions’totheplacementofshorelineprotectionstructuresshallberequiredtoprotectneworexistingdevelopment.”70

ManagedRetreat:

Managedretreator“realignment”isalandusepracticethatallowswetlandsandbeachestomigrateinlandunimpededassealevelrises.Astheshoreerodes,structuresareremovedorrelocatedinland.Managedretreatismosteffectivewhenthereissufficientlandavailableforrelocatingstructures.71

Example:Surfer’sPointManagedShorelineRetreat.InordertomanagecoastalerosionatSurfer’sPoint,apopularsurfspotatthemouthoftheVenturaRiver,theCityofVenturainstalledarockrevetmentinthe1990s.Thearmoringexacerbatederosionelsewherealongthecoast.In2000aworkinggroupproposedamanagedretreatplanthatcalledforrelocationofabikepathandparkinglotinland,removaloftherockrevetment,andrestorationofnaturalbeachhabitatusingacobblebermandsandnourishment.72ThefirstphaseoftheprojectwascompletedinJuly2011.

Example:PacificaStateBeachImprovement.ToreducethethreatoffloodingtohomesandbusinessesanderosionofthePacifica/LindaMarStateBeach,aswellasmaintainsteelheadtrouthabitatintheSanPedroCreek,theCityofPacificapartneredwiththeStateCoastalConservancyandPacificaLandTrusttopursueamanagedretreatplan.Inthe1990s,tidalwetlandsatthemouthofSanPedroCreekwererestored,enhancingsteelheadhabitatandprovidingfloodprotectionfortheneighboringcommunity.In2002,theCity,CoastalConservancyandthePacificaLandTrustpurchasedandremovedtwohomesthatwereparticularlyvulnerabletofloodingandrestoreddune,beachandestuaryhabitat.TodayonebuildingremainsalongtheshoreandtheCityofPacifica

70CityofMalibu,LocalCoastalProgramLocalImplementationPlan§10.4P(adoptedSeptember13,2002).71NOAAOfficeofOceanandCoastalResourceManagement,ManagedRetreatStrategies(October2007),http://coastalmanagement.noaa.gov/initiatives/shoreline_ppr_retreat.html.72CaliforniaCoastalCommission,StaffReport:CoastalDevelopmentPermitNo.4‐05‐148at32‐33(November2,2006),availableathttp://documents.coastal.ca.gov/reports/2006/11/Th17c‐s‐11‐2006.pdf.

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planstorelocatethebuildinglandwardofHighway1pursuanttoitsplannedretreatstrategy.73

CapitalImprovementPrograms:

CapitalImprovementProgramsarefinancingplansthatidentifyandbudgetfornewconstructionormaintenanceoflocalgovernmentinfrastructure.LocalgovernmentscanconsiderchangesinsealevelrisewhendevelopingtheirCapitalImprovementPrograms(throughlocalordinance,statelaw,orbyvoluntaryactiondesignedto,“discontinuemaintenanceandrepairstoinfrastructurethatisrepetitivelydamaged,andrelocateinfrastructureorretrofitexistinginfrastructuretobemoreresilienttosealevelrise”74).Theplanscanbeusedtoproactivelydiscourageinvestmentinprojectsvulnerabletosealevelriseandstormdamage.

Todate,wearenotawareofanylocalgovernmentinCaliforniathathasusedtheirCapitalImprovementProgramtosystematicallyreduceinfrastructurevulnerability.

AcquisitionPrograms:

Stateandlocalgovernmentscanpurchaselandforpublicpurposes.Forexample,stateandlocalgovernmentscanacquirepropertyatriskfromsealevelrisetopreventfuturedevelopmentinvulnerableareas,conservenaturalresources,ensurepublicaccessand/orprotectuplanddevelopment.75

Example:CaliforniaCoastalConservancy.TheCaliforniaCoastalConservancyisastateagencythatusespublicfundstopurchase,protectandrestorecoastalresourcesaswell

73NOAAOfficeofOceanandCoastalResourceManagement,ManagedRetreatStrategies(October2007),http://coastalmanagement.noaa.gov/initiatives/shoreline_ppr_retreat.html.74JenniferGrannis,AdaptationToolKit:Sea‐LevelRiseandCoastalLandUse:HowGovernmentsCanUseLand‐UsePracticestoAdapttoSea‐LevelRiseat45(October2011),availableathttp://www.georgetownclimate.org/sites/default/files/Adaptation_Tool_Kit_SLR.pdf.75JenniferGrannis,AdaptationToolKit:Sea‐LevelRiseandCoastalLandUse:HowGovernmentsCanUseLand‐UsePracticestoAdapttoSea‐LevelRiseat47(October2011),availableathttp://www.georgetownclimate.org/sites/default/files/Adaptation_Tool_Kit_SLR.pdf.

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asprovidepublicaccesstothecoast.ProjectsfundedbytheConservancymustmeetkeycriteria.Oneprotectselectioncriterionisthattheprojectsiteisvulnerabletosealevelrise.76

Example:JennerHeadlandsAcquisition.TheJennerHeadlands,a5,630acrepropertyalongtheSonomaCountycoast,waspurchasedbytheSonomaLandTrustinDecember2009usingfundingfrommultiplepartners.77TheHeadlandsarelocatedadjacenttotheSonomaCoastStatePark.ProtectionoftheJennerHeadlands“willcreatealarger,contiguousblockofwildlifehabitatandcorridors.Theseconnectionswillalsoprovideabuffertohelpspeciesadapttotheeffectsofclimatechange.”78

ConservationEasements:

Conservationeasementsarevoluntaryagreementsbetweenalandownerandgovernmentagencyornon‐profitorganizationdesignedtopreservepropertyforopenspace,habitat,recreationoragriculturepurposes,amongothers.Conservationeasementsrestrictdevelopmentbutallowthelandownertoretainownershipoftheproperty.Thedevelopmentrestrictions“runwiththeland,”andthereforearebindingonallfuturelandowners.Conservationeasementscanbeusedtopreventdevelopmentontheportionofapropertythatisvulnerabletosealevelrise.79Existingconservationeasementscanalsobeamendedtoprovidearollingboundarytoallowtheshorelineandecosystemstomigrateinland(seeRollingEasementssection).

Example:Conservationeasementforcoastalhabitatprotection.In2010theCoastalCommissionconditionallyapprovedacoastaldevelopmentpermitapplicationtoconstructa101‐unitresidentialcondominiuminSantaBarbaraCounty.Oneofthe

76CaliforniaCoastalConservancy,ProjectSelectionCriteria(adoptedJune4,2009),availableathttp://scc.ca.gov/project‐selection‐criteria/#more‐204.77SonomaLandTrustwebsite,http://www.sonomalandtrust.org/protect/campaigns/jenner/jenner.html.78SonomaLandTrust,JennerHeadlandsFAQ,availableathttp://www.sonomalandtrust.org/protect/campaigns/jenner/jenner_faq.html.79JenniferGrannis,AdaptationToolKit:Sea‐LevelRiseandCoastalLandUse:HowGovernmentsCanUseLand‐UsePracticestoAdapttoSea‐LevelRiseat50(October2011),availableathttp://www.georgetownclimate.org/sites/default/files/Adaptation_Tool_Kit_SLR.pdf;CAL.CIV.CODE§§815‐816.

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permitconditionsrequiredthepropertyownertorecordanopenspaceconservationeasementontheportionofthepropertyincludingwetlands.Theeasementwasrequiredtoprotecthabitatandthereforeprohibitfuturedevelopmentexceptforspecificallydefinedactions,includingconstructionofpedestriantrails,benchesandbridges,aswellashabitatrestorationactivitiessuchasplantingnativevegetation,withintheeasementboundaries.80

RollingEasements:

Rollingeasementsinclude“abroadcollectionofarrangementsunderwhichhumanactivitiesarerequiredtoyieldtherightofwaytomigratingshores.”81Rollingeasementsallowwetlandsandbeachestomigrateinlandassealevelrisesbyacknowledgingthatassealevelrisesandthemeanhightidemovesinland,thepublictrustfollows.82Rollingeasementsaregenerallycreatedthroughstatestatutes,rollingconservationeasements,anddevelopmentconditions.83

Example:RollingEasementStatute.Californiadoesnotcurrentlyhavearollingeasementstatute.However,forathoroughdiscussionofrollingeasementpoliciesinCaliforniaandtheconstitutionalconsiderations,see:

MegCaldwell&CraigHoltSegall,NoDayattheBeach:SeaLevelRise,EcosystemLoss,andPublicAccessAlongtheCaliforniaCoast34ECOLOGYL.Q.533‐578(2007),availableathttp://www.boalt.org/elq/documents/elq34‐2‐09‐caldwell‐2007‐0910.pdf

80CaliforniaCoastalCommission,StaffReport:ApplicationNo.4‐09‐038at24(November17,2010),availableathttp://documents.coastal.ca.gov/reports/2010/11/Th8b‐11‐2010.pdf.81JamesTitus,RisingSeas,CoastalErosion,andtheTakingsClause:HowtoSaveWetlandsandBeachesWithoutHurtingPropertyOwners,57MD.L.REV.1279,1313(1998).82JamesTitus,RollingEasements(June2011),availableatwww.epa.gov/cre/downloads/rollingeasementsprimer.pdf.83JenniferGrannis,AdaptationToolKit:Sea‐LevelRiseandCoastalLandUse:HowGovernmentsCanUseLand‐UsePracticestoAdapttoSea‐LevelRiseat41(October2011),availableathttp://www.georgetownclimate.org/sites/default/files/Adaptation_Tool_Kit_SLR.pdf.

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Example:CaliforniaCoastalCommission“nofutureseawall”permitconditions.AlthoughCalifornialawdoesnotaddressrollingeasements,forwelloveradecade,theCoastalCommissionhasimposed“nofutureseawall”conditionsonCoastalDevelopmentPermitsfornewdevelopmentofshorelineproperties.SeediscussionofDevelopmentConditions.

Example:RollingConservationEasements.Existingconservationeasementscouldbeamendedornewconservationeasementscanbedesignedto“roll”withtheshorelinesothattheboundaryoftheeasementmovesinlandaserosionoccurs.Tobeeffective,rollingeasementswouldneedtoprohibitinstallationofshorelineprotectiondevicesandprovideforremovalorrelocationofexistingdevelopmentastheeasementrollstowardit.84SeediscussionofConservationEasements.

TaxIncentives:

Stateandlocalgovernmentscanusetaxpoliciestoinfluencetheuseanddevelopmentofland.Presentusetaxpolicies,suchastheWilliamsonAct,representonemodelfortaxincentivesthatcouldencouragesealevelriseadaptation.Becauserealestatetaxesarecommonlycalculatedbasedondevelopmentpotentialinsteadofcurrentuse,coastallandownersmayperceiveanincentivetodevelopproperty.85Byassessingtaxesaccordingtothecurrentuseoftheproperty,landownersarenotencouragedto“buildout”theirproperty.Thistypeoftaxpolicycanbeusedtohelpmanagedevelopmentinareasthatarevulnerabletoimpactsfromsealevelrise.Preferentialassessmentprogramscanofferlowertaxassessmentstolandownerswhoagreetopreservetheirproperty.

Example:PresentUseTaxIncentives.TheCaliforniaLandConservationActof1965,referredtoasthe“WilliamsonAct,”worksasapresentusetaxincentivebyallowing

84JenniferGrannis,AdaptationToolKit:Sea‐LevelRiseandCoastalLandUse:HowGovernmentsCanUseLand‐UsePracticestoAdapttoSea‐LevelRiseat41(October2011),availableathttp://www.georgetownclimate.org/sites/default/files/Adaptation_Tool_Kit_SLR.pdf.85JenniferGrannis,AdaptationToolKit:Sea‐LevelRiseandCoastalLandUse:HowGovernmentsCanUseLand‐UsePracticestoAdapttoSea‐LevelRiseat54(October2011),availableathttp://www.georgetownclimate.org/sites/default/files/Adaptation_Tool_Kit_SLR.pdf.

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“localgovernmentstoenterintocontractswithprivatelandownersforthepurposeofrestrictingspecificparcelsoflandtoagricultureorrelatedopenspaceuse.”86Landownersareassessedlowertaxesbasedonagricultureandopenspaceusesinsteadofthefullmarketvalueoftheproperty.Bytaxingagriculturallandforitscurrentuse,localgovernmentscandiscourageconversionofthelandtoamoreintensiveuse.87WilliamsonActcontractsareexecutedforaminimumten‐yearterm.AsofJanuary1,2009,nearly15millionacresofopenspaceandagriculturalusewerepreservedundertheWilliamsonActprogram.88

TheMillsAct,anotherstatestatutethatactsasapresentusetaxincentive,provideseconomicincentivesthatfosterthepreservationofresidentialneighborhoodsandtherevitalizationofdowntownhistoricdistricts.89Byagreeingtomaintainhistoricaspectsofaproperty,theownercanenterintoacontractwiththelocalgovernmentforaminimumten‐yeartermthatautomaticallyrenewseachyear.Ratherthanassessingthefullmarketvalueoftheproperty,localgovernmentstaxMillsActpropertyownersbasedontheincomepotentialoftheproperty.

TransferofDevelopmentCredit:

TransferofDevelopmentCredit(TDC)programs,alsoknownasTransferofDevelopmentRights(TDR)programs,shiftdevelopmentfromdonororsourcesites(parcelsthatareunsafeorwarrantprotection)toreceiversites(parcelswheredevelopmentispreferred).Theseprogramsallowtheownerofasourcesitetosellherrighttodeveloponherpropertytotheownerofareceivingsite,compensatingherforpreservingherproperty.TheownerofthereceivingsiteisabletousetheTDCorTDRto

86CaliforniaDepartmentofConservation,WilliamsonActProgram,availableathttp://www.conservation.ca.gov/dlrp/lca/Pages/Index.aspx.87CaliforniaDepartmentofConservation,WilliamsonActProgram,availableathttp://www.conservation.ca.gov/dlrp/lca/Pages/Index.aspx.88CaliforniaDepartmentofConservation,CaliforniaLandConservation(Williamson)ActStatusReport2010at2(November2010),availableathttp://www.conservation.ca.gov/dlrp/lca/stats_reports/Documents/2010%20Williamson%20Act%20Status%20Report.pdf.89CaliforniaStateParksOfficeofHistoricPreservation,MillsActPropertyTaxAbatementProgram,availableathttp://ohp.parks.ca.gov/?page_id=21412.

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intensifydevelopmentonhisparcel.ATDCorTDRprogramcouldbedesignedtopreventdevelopmentonlandsvulnerabletosealevelrisebycompensatingalandownerwhoyieldsherlandtosealevelrise.90

Example:SantaMonicaMountainsTransferofDevelopmentCreditProgram.In1978theCaliforniaCoastalCommissionbeganaTDCprogramintheSantaMonicaMountains/Malibucoastalzonetopreventdevelopmentofthousandsofsmalllotsthatlackedinfrastructure,werelocatedonaslopeandwouldhavebeendifficulttodevelop,andweresubjecttofireandlandslidehazards.Theprogramwaslaterexpandedtoincludeparcelswithenvironmentallysensitivehabitats.91ImplementationoftheTDCprogramhasresultedinover1,000retiredlotsintheSantaMonicaMountains.92Example:BigSurScenicTransferofDevelopmentCreditProgram.TheBigSurcoastviewshedwasprotectedthroughimplementationofaTDCprogramalongHighway1.MontereyCounty’sBigSurLandUsePlanidentifiessourcesites(calleddonorsites)ontheoceansideofHighway1andreceiversitesontheinlandside.TheTDCprogramallowsthereceiversitetoexceeddensityrestrictionsthatwouldnormallyapplytodevelopmentonthatparcel.Thedonorsitemustrecordapermanent,irrevocablesceniceasement.TheCountyalsoestablishedarevolvingfundtopurchaseTDCsforretirementorsale.93

RealEstateDisclosures:

Stateandfederallawsrequirepropertyownerstodisclosecertaininformationtopotentialbuyerswhenthepropertyissold,includinginformationaboutnaturalhazards

90JenniferGrannis,AdaptationToolKit:Sea‐LevelRiseandCoastalLandUse:HowGovernmentsCanUseLand‐UsePracticestoAdapttoSea‐LevelRiseat57(October2011),availableathttp://www.georgetownclimate.org/sites/default/files/Adaptation_Tool_Kit_SLR.pdf;JamesTitus,RollingEasementsat67‐68(June2011),availableatwww.epa.gov/cre/downloads/rollingeasementsprimer.pdf.91MargaretWalls&VirginiaMcConnell,TransferofDevelopmentRightsinU.S.Communities:EvaluatingProgramDesign,Implementation,andOutcomesat79‐85(September2007),availableathttp://www.rff.org/rff/News/Features/upload/30347_1.pdf.92CaliforniaCoastalCommission,SantaMonicaMountains/MalibuReCAP:ReportSummary,availableathttp://www.coastal.ca.gov/recap/smmsum.html.93MontereyCounty,CoastalImplementationPlan,CountyCode§20.64.190.

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thatthepropertyisvulnerableto.Thesedisclosurerequirementscouldbeexpandedtoincludeareasvulnerabletoimpactsassociatedwithsealevelrise,includingfloodinganderosion.94

Example:NaturalHazardsDisclosureAct.California’sNaturalHazardsDisclosureActrequiressellerstodisclosewhenaresidentialpropertyislocatedwithinastate‐mappedhazardarea.95Mappedhazardareassubjecttothedisclosurerequirementscurrentlyinclude:

• AspecialfloodhazardareadesignatedbytheFederalEmergencyManagementAgency.

• Anareaofpotentialfloodingintheeventofadamfailure,designatedbythestateOfficeofEmergencyServices.

• AveryhighfirehazardseverityzonedesignatedbytheCaliforniaDepartmentofForestryandFireProtection.

• Awildlandfireareathatmaycontainsubstantialforestfirerisksandhazards,designatedbytheStateBoardofForestry.

• AnearthquakefaultzonedesignatedbytheStateGeologist.• AseismichazardzonedesignatedbytheStateGeologist.96

Althoughrisksfromsealevelrisearenotcurrentlycapturedinthedisclosureregulation,theStatecouldpreparesealevelrisehazardmapsandamendtheNaturalHazardsDisclosureActtorequirerealestatedisclosures.Example:HumboldtCountyLocalCoastalProgram(LCP)Amendment.InMarch2011,theCoastalCommissionapprovedwithmodificationstheCountyofHumboldt’sproposedLCPamendmentforredevelopmentofthetownofSamoa,locatedonthenorthernspitofHumboldtBay.SamoalieswithintheCascadiaSubductionZone,makingit“unusuallyvulnerabletocoastalandgeologichazards”likeearthquakesand

94NOAAOfficeofOceanandCoastalResourceManagement,AdaptingtoClimateChange:APlanningGuideforStateCoastalManagersat61(2010),availableathttp://coastalmanagement.noaa.gov/climate/docs/adaptationguide.pdf.95NaturalHazardsDisclosureAct,effectiveJune1,1998.CAL.CIV.CODE§1102.6.96PeterM.Detwiler,ShowandTell:TheNew“NaturalHazardDisclosureStatement”atsectionII.A.(1998),availableathttp://ceres.ca.gov/planning/nhd/showtell.html.

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tsunamis.97TheCascadiaSubductionZoneisgeographicallysimilartotheformationsthattriggeredthesubductionzoneearthquakeandthe2004tsunamiinIndonesiathatkilledaquarterofamillionpeople.

TheCoastalCommissionapprovedtheLCPamendmentwithmodifications,includingrequirementstodiscloserisksfromsealevelrise.98TheSamoaTownMasterPlannowrequiresdeedrestrictionstodisclosethatpropertyis“subjecttoextraordinaryhazardsposedbyearthquakeandtsunamis,andbyfuturesealevelrise,whichmayalsoincreasetherisksposedbycoastalerosion,stormsurge,andwaveattack.”99TheMasterPlanfurtherrequiresdisclosurethatcurrentpropertyownershaveaccountedforfuturesealevelrise,warrantthatnoshorelineprotectiondeviceswillbenecessary,andacknowledgethatnoshorelineprotectiondeviceswillbepermitted.100

97CaliforniaCoastalCommission,StaffReportandRecommendation:HumboldtCountyLCPAmendmentNo.HUM‐MAJ‐01‐08(Samoa)at21(September30,2010),availableathttp://documents.coastal.ca.gov/reports/2010/10/Th11b‐10‐2010.pdf.98CaliforniaCoastalCommission,StaffReportandRecommendation:HumboldtCountyLCPAmendmentNo.HUM‐MAJ‐01‐08(Samoa)at62(February24,2011),availableathttp://documents.coastal.ca.gov/reports/2011/3/Th7a‐3‐2011.pdf.99CaliforniaCoastalCommission,StaffReportandRecommendation:HumboldtCountyLCPAmendmentNo.HUM‐MAJ‐01‐08(Samoa)at62(February24,2011),availableathttp://documents.coastal.ca.gov/reports/2011/3/Th7a‐3‐2011.pdf.100CaliforniaCoastalCommission,StaffReportandRecommendation:HumboldtCountyLCPAmendmentNo.HUM‐MAJ‐01‐08(Samoa)at62(February24,2011),availableathttp://documents.coastal.ca.gov/reports/2011/3/Th7a‐3‐2011.pdf.

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Resources

JenniferGrannis,AdaptationToolKit:Sea‐LevelRiseandCoastalLandUse:HowGovernmentsCanUseLand‐UsePracticestoAdapttoSea‐LevelRise(October2011),availableathttp://www.georgetownclimate.org/sites/default/files/Adaptation_Tool_Kit_SLR.pdfJamesG.Titus,RollingEasements(June2011),availableatwww.epa.gov/cre/downloads/rollingeasementsprimer.pdfMegCaldwell&CraigHoldSegall,NoDayattheBeach:SeaLevelRise,EcosystemLoss,andPublicAccessAlongtheCaliforniaCoast34ECOLOGYL.Q.533‐578(2007),availableathttp://www.boalt.org/elq/documents/elq34‐2‐09‐caldwell‐2007‐0910.pdfLandUseLawCenter,PaceUniversitySchoolofLaw,reportpreparedfortheNatureConservancyofLongIsland,LocalLandUseResponsetoSeaLevelRise(undated),availableathttp://www.csc.noaa.gov/digitalcoast/inundation/_pdf/Pace_Final_Report.pdfNOAAOfficeofOceanandCoastalResourceManagement,AdaptingtoClimateChange:APlanningGuideforStateCoastalManagers(2010),availableathttp://coastalmanagement.noaa.gov/climate/adaptation.html