APPENDIX - tspace.library.utoronto.ca€¦ · databases. The basic principle of databases that differ in format and operating parame- ters, but can nevertheless be interrogated via

APPENDIX I

At the heart of any up-to-date system for handling and accessing large quantities of data is the database. The range of computerized databases available is mind-boggling: according to Williams (1991), a major peri- odic catalogue of databases reveals "6,044 verified live databases and subfiles," exclud- ing databases that have been abandoned, withdrawn from public circulation, or have otherwise disappeared from the reviewers' gaze. These databases contain a reported 3.569 billion records. Yet even this huge compilation is undoubtedly only a sampling of the complete database "population."

The database world is dynamic, changing and growing every year with no sign of leveling off (W~lliams, 1991). The database review by Marcaccio (1991) and the United Nations catalogue (ACCIS, 1990, listing 872 databases and information systems or services) are both recommended, along with the International Institute for Sustainable Devel- opment (IISD) survey of databases and computer communications (IISD, 1992). The UN databases include many that are very small and specific, with at most a few hundred records each, as well as very large systems with more than one million records. The number of entries in the 1990 AccIs catalogue grew by over one-third since the previ- ous catalogue in 1984. Searching on-line databases can become expensive, either from user fees incurred, or from long-distance telephone charges. In order to minimize costs, especially for international enquiries, access via a network is clearly desirable (see Appen- dix 2).

Many databases are available via development agencies such as the International Development Research Centre (IDRC, Ottawa, Canada), or through commercial ventures

such as Dialog (in California) and Canada Institute for Scientific and Technical Infor- mation (crsn), Ottawa, Canada. Some databases are extremely broad in scope, such as major library catalogues. An example is a database called LC MARK - BOOKS, which contains approximately four million records for all books catalogued by the U.S. Library of Congress since 1968. Newsline services also maintain very wide coverage, an example being the RE- news agency database, with more than 800,000 records since 1987. Reuters Ltd. (London) also provides TW(TLINE, an abstracting service of newspapers and newswires, with sections covering (I) the United Kingdom, (2) Europe, (3) North, Central, and South America, and (4) Asia and Australia, plus a worldwide business- oriented journal service and German and Italian language databases. SCISEARCH is a broad-spectrum scientific database with weekly updates, including all records pub- lished in Science Citation Index, more than 10 million entries since 1974. Other databases contain information on data; examples include INFOTERRA, maintained by the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP), which does not itself provide data, but rather information on the sources of environmental data.

This appendix represents only a cursory survey of databases. The division into topics is somewhat artificial, of course, because the seven headers that follow combine in real life as elements of the social and economic fabrics of whole countries and continents. Agriculture, energy, forestry, hydrology, geology and mining, and pollution constitute a major part of human intervention in natural environments in modem times. One could move within or sideways from these

THE CHALLENGE OF SUSTAINABILIW

topics, and amve at equally valid disciplines and activities, such as botany, ecology, fish- ing, soils, zoology, etc. Remote sensing is included as well, although strictly it is a tool that may be applied to the six preceding categories. A synthesis of social and economic factors would also be required for a full assessment of the development of a community or of a nation. The following topics deal with much of the physical underpinning of a region's prosperity and/or problems, and hence are taken as a worthwhile first exploration of the field.

Agriculture

The F A 0 database, managed by the Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) of the and available through the International Development Research Centre (IDRC), contains information on such topics as food production, sustainable agriculture and rural development. AGRICOLA, available via cm and Dialog, contains over 2.8 million records on the subject (agriculture, botany, fertilizers, entomology, etc). The AGRIS INTERNATIONAL database (U.S. National Agricultural Library, in association with the FAO) is another major database, with approximately 1.3 million records, also available on Dialog. BIOBUSINESS (via Dialog) contains over 370,000 records on business applications in such fields as biotechnology, food production, and pesti- cides. CAB Abstracts (from CAB International in the United Kingdom, via CIsn or Dialog) is another large bibliography with approximately 2.8 million records. U.S. government- sponsored research relevant to agriculture and other topics is made available via the NTIS (Dialog access) database, which has more than 1.5 million records. The catalogue (ACCIS, 1990) lists 50 databases under the broad term "agriculture," including ani- mal health, fisheries, land use, fertilizers, plus a seed information system with 15,000

records, and a sheep and goat network. There are also commercially produced databases, such as the AgriData Network, located in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, United States.

Energy

The Energy, Science and Technology Data- base (EST) cites pertinent literature from 13 countries. The Canadian contribution is the Energy Technology Database (ETDB). This project, sponsored by the Canada Centre for Mineral and Energy Technology (CANMET), Ottawa, Canada, produced 10,351 records in 1987-1990, including both current entries (reports, conference proceedings, 1,126 items from 90 journals, plus patents, theses, etc.) and also a retrospective of earlier documents. Out of the 90 journals surveyed, 4 contrib- uted 50-194 items each, 23 yielded 10 or more each, and 25 journals yielded only 1 item each, a distribution that might be expected for most subjects (Chapman, 1990). Updated EST tapes are compiled by the U.S. Department of Energy, and can be searched via CANMET or Dialog. This literature database now contains more than 2.6 million records. The NTIS database (more than 1.5 million records, access via CISTI) also has items on energy technology. CANMET has a database on coal science and technology (COAL) and contributes to the IEA coal database of the same name, an online version of Coal Abstracts, an aggregation of more than 170,000 records from 15 member countries.

Forestry

There appears to be substantial overlap between agriculture (see above) and forestry information. The major AGRlCOLA database (produced by the National Agricultural Library) contains forestry items, as do AGRIS INTERNATIONAL and BIOBUSINESS . The Agency

APPENDIX 1 - AN OVERVIEW OF COMPUTERIZED DATABASES

for Intemational Development (USAID), Washington, D.C., AID database also contains some relevant entries. UN databases (ACCIS, 1990) include information on logging, forest fire statistics, road construction, forest management, timber products, and seed information. Biotechnology is covered by BIOTECH (coverage from April 1983 onwards, approximately 45,000 records, via CISTI).

Geology and Mining

Several very large on-line databases, each with hundreds of thousands to more than one million records, cover the related fields of geology, geophysics, oceanography, geogra- phy and geomorphology. These include GeoRef (1,675,000 records, January 1992), GeoArchive and GEOBASE. Interestingly, IISD (1992) found more records on sustainable development (375) in GEOBASE than in any other database. The documentation and management of geological resources represents an important aspect of the economy of many developing nations. Accurate resource inventories should play a role in resource- related decisions. Mineral Deposit Inven- tories (MDIS) and other Earth Science databases have been reviewed by Wilson (1992). Coverage extends to many practical subjects: mineral and energy resources, water resources, engineering geology, the mitigation of natural hazards, and so on. The UN database system includes a number of relevant items, concerning topics as diverse as coral reefs, desertification, energy, uranium geology, and wind erosion. North American mining company annual reports are presently featuring reclamation and protection plans more prominently than ever before, and a service industry in environmental protection and pollution abatement is growing rapidly. The Mining Industry Research Organization in England has established an environmental database called MINDER to provide centralized

information on heavy metals, reagents used in the mining and metal refining industry, and on mine reclamation and tailings dis- posal. CANMET has important databases on mining technology (MINTEC) and mineral processing (MINPROC). Some innovative software has been developed in the fields of geology and chemistry, including a variety of so-called "expert systems" (alias "knowledge- based systems"). These tools can be regarded as interfaces that help a user to query a database. Recent examples treat problems in analytical chemistry (Lahiri and Stillman, 1992) and provide expertise in mineral exploration (Hawkes, 1992).

Hydrology, Water Supply

ENVIRONMENTAL BIBLIOGRAPHY (via Dialog) is one source, with more than 400,000 records on land and water resources, atmospheric science, health and other topics. The month- ly trade paper U.S. Water News periodically reviews or advertises commercial and government databases on environmental themes. These include water quality, and meteoro- logical and pollution data. Software for analyzing environmental data are produced by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) at Athens, Georgia. One major database in the United Nations roster (ACCIS, 1990, item D498) is the IAEA Isotope Hydrology Database, with two million entries. This system was established in 1960 and holds records back to 1953. I t is managed by the Intemational Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) in Vienna, Austria. A series of workshops held across Canada in 1990-1991 established a set of detailed guidelines for collection and distribution of data on aquifers, well logs, and related topics (Federal-Provincial Working Group on Groundwater, 1991). In brief, the con- clusions recommended a series of three-digit codes to "flag" each item of information in

THE CHALLENGE OF SUSTAINABILIN

each regional database, as a means of establishing a standard protocol for searching between different databases, even if each database were operated with differing hardware and software. Codes would, as appropriate, conform to national environmental databases. The basic principle of databases that differ in format and operating parame- ters, but can nevertheless be interrogated via a common protocol, has evolved as an ideal for general use and should be considered a goal of regional plans. Environment Canada's AQUAREF database (available via CISTI) includes 85,000 records on Canadian water resources and related topics in agriculture, forestry, pollution, sedimentation, and erosion.

Pollution Control and Abatement

ENVlROLlNE (via Dialog) is a worldwide environmental indexing and abstracting service - - sourcing over 5,000 publications. Site-specific information on groundwater contaminants may be found in national databases such as Canada's NAQUADAT. A Canadian initiative for the neutralization of acid mine drainage (MEND) under the aegis of CANMET has produced numerous technical reports, but has not generated a separate database. Marine pollution is covered in Aquatic Sciences and

Fisheries Abstracts (ASFA), approximately 400,000 records, via CISTI.

Remote Sensing and Environmental Monitoring

The sophisticated processing of satellite imagery, made possible by advances in image analysis software, is becoming more accessible due to the availability of increasingly powerful minicomputer workstations. Remotesensing has become an important field, with applications in evaluations of land use trends, crop and forest health, natural hazards and mineral exploration. It has been used for all habitats from the tropics to the poles, including the oceans and the deserts. Other applications include civil engineering, archaeology, hydrology, meteorology, and the monitoring of disasters such as oil spills and volcanic eruptions. Remote sensing applications can be found in the general Earth Science databases such as GeoRef, GeoArchive, GEOBASE. There are also government agencies that maintain databases. An example is mORS of the Canadian Centre for Remote Sensing, accessing a collection of over 70,000 documents and 7,000 slides (McGurrin, 1990).

APPENDIX 1 - AN OVERVIEW OF COMPUTERIZED DATABASES

ACClS. 1990. Directory of United Nations Databases and Marcaccio, K.Y., ed. 1991. Computer-Readable Data- Information Services. 4th ed. Geneva: ACCIS Secre- bases: A Directory and Data Sourcebook. 7th ed. tariat. Detroit: Gale Research Inc.

Federal-Provincial Working Group on Groundwater. McGurrin, B.D. 1990. Remote sensing information: 1991. Groundwater Data Management Guidelines. how and why CCRS developed an online database. Ottawa, Canada: Inland Waters Directorate, Environ- Geos 19(2): 7-11. ment Canada.

Williams, M.E. 1991. The state of databases today: Hawkes, D.D. 1992. Goldfinder: A knowledge-based 1991. In Computer-Rendable Databases: A Directory and system for mineral prospecting. Journal of the Geologi- Data Sourcebook, ed. K.Y. Marcaccio, 7th ed. Detroit: cal Society of London 149: 465-471. Gale Research Inc.

IlsD. 1992. Sourcebook on Sustainable Deuelopment. Wilson, G.C. 1992. Computer Database Systems for he Winnipeg, Canada: IISD. Eanh Sciences: Applications and Prospects in Mineralogy,

Mineral Resources and Museum Curation. Report 1992- Lahiri, S., and M.J. Stillman. 1992. Expert systems: 006, 1st ed. Toronto, Canada: Turnstone Geological diagnosing the cause of problem AAS data. Analytical Services Ltd. Chemistry 64: 263A-272A.

APPENDIX 2

APC

Association of Progressive Communicators (APC) is a worldwide linkage of 11 regional networks, set up in 1990 as a forum for unrestricted exchange of information between member organizations and individuals. IGC, the APC network in the United States and Mexico, has on-line access to databases, such as EPA, which lists citations compiled by the United States Environmental Protection Agency Library Network. Other member networks are AlterNex (Brazil), Chasque (Uruguay), Comlink (Germany), Ecaunex (Ecuador), GIas.Net (Russia, the former U.S.S.R.), GreenNet (U.K. and widely flung nodes), Nicarao (Central America), Nordnet (Scandinavia), Pegasus (Australia), and Web (Canada). APC supports ongoing computer conferences on many topics: energy, population, forests, agriculture, native issues, mili- tary, oceans, pollution, UN activities, etc. (see IISD, 1992, pp. 106-115).

BrrNET

BITNET connects colleges and universities in the United States, and also in Canada and around the world. Largely an academic network, with strong electronic mail ("e- mail") capability (like Internet). BITNIC (BITNET Network Information Center) can provide documentation.

COMPUSERVE

CompuServe Information Service (CIS) com- prises the largest network of individuals using personal computers in the world, although the great majority of subscribers are in North America. It supports e-mail/fax/telex communications. Access is available to 12 commercial database suppliers.

GeoMail is a primarily European network. There are 15 host systems in Europe (including Russia), the United Kingdom and the United States. Major expansion is planned. Fax and telex messages can be routed within GeoMail. Databases can be accessed through the network, and an organization may arrange to have its own databases distributed via GeoMail.

INTERNET

Internet is a research network with over one million host systems in over 60 countries. Access is largely restricted to educational and research institutes. The electronic mail system is heavily used. Host systems may be accessible for such resources as bibliographic databases of university library holdings.

NNET The Joint Academic Network (JANET) of British universities has "news" (special interest) groups, basically serving as a bulletin board for 228 scientific and technical topics (Holderness, 1992).

NGONET

NGONET is operated by Institute de Tercer Mundo, which also publishes the Third World Guide (Bissio, 1990). This network was originated to help the worldwide NGO community obtain information about UNCED. Includes the NGODAT database of over 5,000 NGOS participating in UNCED and related activities. Systems are also being developed relevant to NGO contacts, funding and collaboration, women's networks, multi- language systems, and native peoples.

APPENDIX 2 - ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION NETWORKS

The majority of this table is condensed from chosen either because of their wide outreach IISD (1992), which should be consulted for or because of their apparent applicability to further information, including details on Nms in the development field @PC, GeoMail, many other networks such as TC~/Electronic and NGONET seem especially relevant here). Village (Dialcom), UUCP, and a group of APC- The InternetbITNET e-mail facility is very related initiatives in Africa (IISD pp. 67-68). useful, given access to an academic node. The seven systems represented here were

THE CHALLENGE OF SUSTAINABILIW

Bissio, R.R., ed. 1990. Third World Guide 91/92. NSD. 1992. Sourcebook on Sustainabk Deuebpment. Montevido, Uruguay: Instituto del Tercer Mundo. Winnipeg, Canada:

Holdemess, M. 1992. Net benefits from JANET. New Scientist 1820: 46-47.

APPENDIX 3

In 1991, the World Tourism Organization (WTO) began an intemational initiative to develop indicators of sustainable tourism for the sector. The indicators initiative built on work underway in several nations and internationally to develop various types of indicators of sustainable development and of environmental impact. Many of these efforts have generated long lists of sector-specific indicators, measures of biological integrity, and measures of system stability. The approach taken by the WKJ began with an initial framework based on several sources (e.g., OECD, UNDP, etc.).

An international working group wncen- trated on identifying those measures that seem best able to be adapted to address sustainable tourism concerns. The working group focused on the development of a practical subset of the long list of comprehensive indicators that was initially identified for consideration. This initial list covered a range of possible measures, which together could provide a comprehensive ability to monitor all elements of the changing human/environment relationship as it related to the tourism sector. However, this list would be much too long and detailed to be fulfilled by most nations and regions, even over several decades.

A complicating factor is the scale of indicators. The Task Force soon discovered that the needed sets of indicators fell into two categories: national and local. Both problems and sources of data tended to fall into two categories: those that were site- specific, and those that were national in nature, often collected at border points. In terms of managers' need to know, some data

would be most useful at the national level (e.g., overall numbers, percentage of tourists encountering health problems, origin of tourists) while others would be much more meaningful if gathered and portrayed for specific sites or destinations (e.g., water quality or waste production). Few of the national-level data sets could be readily disaggregated to identify specific sites. Many of the site-specific measures could not be easily aggregated to national totals. Therefore a two-element approach seemed most useful:

indicators for use at the national or regional level;

indicators that referred to specific sites, critical areas, or areas of known stress.

Results of the indicator Devebpment Process

The following recommended set of indicators and derived indexes are now being considered for intemational use by the World Tourism Organization (Tables A3.1 and A3.2). A critical next step will be pilot testing of these in selected nations, leading to adaptation as required and final accep- tance for international use.

The indicators initiative is a strategic step by the World Tourism Organization and by its Environment Committee to help governments and industry to make better decisions leading to a more sustainable tourism industry. Used properly, these indicators will strengthen the ability of decision makers to understand the principal factors that will influence their long-term prosperity. If the

THE CHALLENGE OF SUSTAINABILITY

organization is successful in establishing these measures as an internationally agreed set, future international and interregional com- parisons, measures of major trends, and understanding of major policy challenges will be strengthened.

As the public, major interest groups, and local communities demand increasing accountability and responsibility by tourism sector decision makers, it becomes increasingly necessary to empower decision makers

with the best information possible. Without this information, the industry will continue to be the surprised victims of environmental, economic, and regulatory impacts - impacts that do harm to both corporate interests and to the environment in which the industry must sunrive. Indicators of sustainable tourism represent a significant contribution to the future management of this important global industry.

APPENDIX 3 - A SECTORAL APPROACH

Table A3.1 - Recommended Column 1 : Indicator

A. Area protected (%of national territoty)

subclassification re level of protection subclassification re permitted uses

B. Endangered spaces (area under sttess)

proxy indicator = endangered species

C. Cultural protection

% of nation's cultural themes protected

number (%) of protected cultural sites

D. Travel Intensity (number of domestic and international nips per capita)

E. Use Intensity (several com- plementary measures): 1. number of lofalities classed

as hot spots due to use levels, stress or degradation

2. % UNESCO sites classed as stressed

3. concentration (% focused on specific natural features or types of features)

4. % of all tourists visiting top 5 sitesldefined hot spots

F. Key resource consumption: a. water b. energy (Express consump-

tion per tourist, per bed, or per night)

c. fuel (air)

Indicators for National

Column 2: Policy Relevance

Comparative performance indicator. Links to Agenda 21/IUCN biodiversity goals. Measure of priority to "treasures"

Endangered species are key to ulti- mate impact on biodiversity, variety.

Measure of existence of recognition of cultural values, and action to protect them.

Measure of level of navel - hence potential impact, or potential response to environmentaVcultutaI changes

Key high priority measure of current and potential sttess/problems

lndicator can be compared to use of resources by locals as well as to other nations or change over time.

Use

Column 3: Logistics

IUCN index available. Data already reported by most governments to UN agencies. Work needed on classification and standardization.

Available through most governments (CITES, WWF, IUCN) Variable levels of knowledge/classification

Classification of cultural themes is new. Data may be initially hard to obtain. Classes such as cultural tourism, rural tourism used differently by each nation.

International is easily obtain- able at bordets for most nations. Domestic is more difficult but collected by many larger nations -where it may be more meaningful.

Will depend on some standard forn of idendcation of hot spots - beginning with UNESCO sites, and aug- mented. Much information will be sourced from attractions themselves -therefore this links well to hot spot indicators

Most nations will collect this for national level, but many will not break out tourist sector, particularly for domestic tourism. Problem to isolate and relate fuel use to get to destination to specific siteslnations.

1 Column 4: Comments Concern: may need to be related to other indicaton re need for protection, level of enforcement to yield g o d policy information

Measures effects of stress on a key tourism resource. Does not necessady give adequate value to areas not recognized as protected, but ecologically or aes- thetically important.

May need to be adapted to suit smaller or culturally homo- geneous nations as opposed to larger ones containing several discrete cultural communities.

Readily available in short tern on comparative basis for most nations. Needs attention to standard definition of tourist. trip. (use WTO standard)

Links to application at local scale of stress measurement for identitied priority areas and hot spots.

As air travel is a significant component of overall energy use by the sector, attention need be given to an overall (international!)use index per tourist (or per airline?.)

G. Ratio of tourists to residents:

a. annually (touristslresident) b. peak period (touristslresident)

H. Healrh/Social Impact:

a. % tourists charged withlaffected by reportable crime

b. % tourists affected by reported communicable diseases.

c. general health indicator from WHO

I. Foreign or mn-resident Ownership: percentage of tourist facilities owned by foreigners or non-residents.

1. Political stability index: (UNDP)

K. Environmental Standards:

a. % of homes, andlor hotels with potable water.

b. % of urban commun- itieskoastal communities serviced with sewage ueat- ment (% of sewage dis- charged raw into water- coursesheas)

c. % recognized beaches meet- ing blue flaglequivalent standard.

M. Inftasmcture capacity utilization:

a. sewage and water b. transportation (roads, air-

ports, ports) c. energy supply

N. Tourism Employment:

a. ratio of toutism job creation to jobs in other industries

b. ratio of management to menial jobs

c percentage locals employed in tourism industry at each level.

Use with E, 1 to clarify pattern and destination of stress on system.

Key indicator of social distress. Dif- ferent components (diseases or crimes) may be better indicators of specific stresses. (AIDS, gastrointesrinal disease, robbety)

Relates to control of investment and to overall impact by outsiders

Key social indicator of risk to product,and of risk to tourists. Major direct impact on market. Can be used with H to give rough indicator of risk to travellers.

Direct measure of environmental impact and of effects of cleanuphvaste reduction

Measures stress on inftastructutal system.

---- Indicator shows economic effects of toutism in terms of job creation. Also s h potential social effects re involvement of nationals in key job sectors.

Statistics normally collected by most nations. Indicator may not be vety meaningful for larger nations - therefore use the comparable destinationhot spot statistic.

Data may be unreliable and not currently collected in compat- ible fonn - but through WHO and regional counter- parts (e.g.. PAHO), and though Intetpol/UNESCOl UNDP some currently exists

Likely available from national investment agencies where collected.

Directly available fmm UNDP sources .

Available at national level from a majority of governments - as input to UNEP. Beach data available for Europe and for many other nations. Need to standardize means of measure and reporting. Other- wise establish minimum baseline for colifotm count etc, met x days per year (or number of days in season beach should be closed)

Data likely available for air- ports, port facilities, unlikely available for roads transport except for hot spots.

-- Data likely available at national level through national inputs to ILO, UNDP. May need to spe- cifically seek tourism sector data.

May be key indicator of social stress - and leading indicator of potential social or enviton- mental problems.

Does this measure different sociahygiene standards, or real stresses?

This may show levels of impact of foreign development dollars, or reflect host government's policy re such investment.

While this may be a good risk indicator, many countries with "good" ratings may be affected by perception of conflict else, where (e.g. overall tourism decline due to Mideast conflict). Politically controversial indicator.

Uses existing data in most cases. Ties in directly to local measures.

Indicator most suitable for smaller nations or regions with a limited number of entry points. May be difficult to relate to the part of inftasuuc- ture which relates directly to tourism.

0. Environmental Planning

a. existence of comprehensive environmental strategy at national level component elements: sustainable tourism strategy, protected areas strategy.

b. adoption of national-level codes of practice for tourism operators and tourists.

P. Environmental Review process:

a. existence of legislated EIA process for all projects.

b. level of resourcing/application of process re major tourism projects

c. measure of effectiveness of review procedure1 enforcement

Q. Foreign Exchange Leakage: percentage of foreign exchange from international tourism which leaves the country. (as opposed to that which remains in the form of local purchases, wages, profits etc.)

Indicator of level of government attention given to protection of key tourism/environmend values

Key indicator of level of concern for future environmentaVsocia1 impacts.

Measure of net benefit of inbound international tourism to host nation.

Readily available - may have to be refined over time to cover specific contents and measures of effectiveness of implementation

Existence of process is easy to establish. Development of accepted measures of effectiveness will be a medium-term process, linked to standards for EIA application to tour- isdother projects and to en - dence of follow-through.

Available from most (particularly more-developed) national governments as part of foreign exchangeltrade statistics but problems exist with package tours and multi-destination or pass-through uaffic.

After the fact evaluatiom of effectiveness of EIA procedures are rare - existence of process does not necessarily mean real impact or enforcement

Links to environment/economic sustainability.


Table A3.2 - Recommended Column 1 : lnditors

A. Desrination atuactivity index (described above) - individual indicators which make up this composite are included below

B. Site stress index (described above)

C. Site Protection: a. level of site protection

(IUCN index) b. % of site for visitor use c. % of site hardened off

(paved)

D. Endangered spaces: is site considered endangered or under sues.

Does site contain unique ecosystems or tare species?

E. Use intensity: number of visims to site

total annual numbers ~ e a k daylmonth numbers

F. Consumption:

a. energl consumption per visitor day

b. water consumption per visitor day

G. Ratio of tourisu to residents annual totals peak daylmonth

H. Development density: a, site - sq. meues per tour-

ist (avglpeak) b. existence of development

density controls or limits

Indicators for Hot

Column 2: Policy Relevance

Key ovetview indicator

Key overview indicator

Shows base condition of site and level of designated protection.

Site categotiration

Baseline measure of levels of use

Useful indicators for destination resorts. measuring suessors

Related to (73) above. Measure of potential cultural impact

a. measure of intensity of impact b. indicator of control or management

Spots/Local Application

Column 3: Lo+cs

Development of standardized measurement process and agreed criteria is essential.

Site monitoring required - data unavailable unless part of site management process.

Siteapecific inventoty required

Use ordinal scale -base on IUCN sites in danger list.

Readily collected on site for all controlled sites. Unmanaged sites (open beaches, hqh use communities (Lourdes, Niagara, Oberam-mergau, Montego Bay) may require special data collection. Need for standardization of definition of visitor, means of collection.

Requires access to municipal waterlenergy records, which may not readily differentiate between users to allow tourist sector use to be isolated.

Same data source as E.

Will require development of standard definition of site. May also need to differentiate clearly between developed sites and undevelopednimited access sites.

Column 4: Comments

See section on compos- itelderived indices above

See section on compos- itelderived indices above

Readily available for officially recognized and managed sites through e.g., UNESCO

Readily available through WWFLUCN for listed sites. Need for standardization of site measures and definitions.

Key definitive variable for hot spots

May need special survey or ~ O N ~ O @ at hot spots - particularly those in energy or water poor areas

May require surveys

Will require on-site survey

APPENDIX 3 - A SECTORAL APPROACH

I. % of site facilities foreign owned

J. Environmental Quality:

a. air quality - % days exceeding standard

b. water quality -potable water on site

c. %of waste h m site serviced by sewage treatment

d. d a ~ of beach clo- sureslexceed limit

e. report in last year of waterborne diseases (e.g. cholera, bilharria)

K. Capacity utilization of infrastructure: . sewage ' water

transportanon (airlroad)

L. Existence of integrated sitelarea management suat- egy with tourisml environmental components

M. Existence of comprehensive environmental review process for new development idaffecting site.

N. Expenditures: a. overall amount spent to maintain site b. amount spent to mitigate damage c. a and b. as % of estimated need to maintain site on sustainable basis.

0.Critical Habitats: are any species of rare or endangered plants or animals known to occupy the site or adjacent areas.

May indicate level of national control or level of foreign impact.

Key indicators of existing stress levels on the key atuibutes of the environment important to tourism - cleanliness, health, aesthetics

lndicator is most meaningful for developed sites, but can also show emerging stresses on key facilities for less developed sites.

Indicator of level of attention being given to environmental concerns as part of tourism development process

With L above - measure of level of attention being given to tourism impact on environment

Indicator of level of impact and of level of response by managers.

Element of sensitivity index.

Available in many nadons from existing municipaVlocal environmental records. May need agreement on common standards.

Direcdy available from local authorities and site managers in most cases.

Directly available from site managersllocal authorities. Quality of policy instrument may vary and this indicator could set standards and cat- egorize typelqualiry.

Directly available from site managersllocal authorities. Quality of policy insmment may vary and this indicator could set standards and cat- egorize nmelquality.

Directly available from site managers for managed sites. May be difficult to obtain for sites not under formal management or access control.

May be protected information - or in some countries subject to freedom of informa- tiodprivacy limits.

Basic element in environmental monitoring and could tie into WMO or UNEP/UNDP measures and initiatives.

Will require on-site survey

Key indicator of whether or not framework is in place to deal with other concerns

Central element in overall environmental policylplanning - but on-site effects may vary.

Will require site to be managed by some body.

Ties into completion of world net on endangered species. Link to WWFllUCN and UNEP activity.

APPENDIX 4

In the text below, primary indicators are marked [I], secondary indicators are marked [2], and tertiary indicators are marked [3].

QUALITY OF LIFE

UNDP has adopted two indexes to measure human development or quality of life: a human development index (HDI) and a human freedom index (HFI).

ensures that uses of renewable resources are sustainable and minimizes the depletion of nonrenewable resources; and

keeps within the carrying capacity of supporting ecosystems.

Conserving lie-support systems and biodiversity

The HDI has three components: 1. Progress in preventing pollution

longevity, measured by life expectancy at birth;

knowledge, or educational attainment, measured by adult literacy and mean years of schooling; and

income, measured by per capita gross domestic product (GDP), adjusted to account for national differences in pur- chasing power (real GDP), and adjusted further to reflect diminishing returns from income.

The HFI is a modification of Charles Humana's World Human Rights Guide, which uses 40 indicators to measure freedom. A "one" is assigned to each right or freedom that is protected and a "zero" to each right or freedom that is violated.

Ecological sustainability

A society is ecologically sustainable when it:

conserves ecological life-support systems and biodiversity;

annual emissions of carbon dioxide, methane, CFCS, sulfur oxides, nitrogen oxides: total, per capita, and per unit of GDP [ 2 ]

river quality: dissolved oxygen; nitrate concentration [ I ]

wastewater treatment: percentage of population served by wastewater treatment plants (primary, secondary, and tertiary) [3]

industrial accidents: number of accidents; number of deaths, per unit of GDP [2]

Progress in restoring and maintaining the integrity of ecosystems

percent of land that is natural, modified, cultivated, built, degraded [I]

percent of land under forest, and percent of forest land that is natural (old growth), modified, planted, degraded [I]

percent of natural and modified ecosys-

APPENDIX 4 - INDICATORS OF SUSTAINABILITY

tems or vegetation types in fragments greater than 10,000 hectares [I]

3. Progress in developing a comprehensive system of protected areas

percent of each ecological region that is covered by protected areas [3]

4. Progress in maintaining species and genetic stocks

number of species, and percent threatened with extinction, percent threatened with extirpation, percent with stable or increasing populations, and percent with significantly declining populations [l]

number of endemic species, and percent threatened with extinction [I], and percent in protected areas [3]

percent of threatened species with viable populations in ex situ facilities [3]

domesticated species diversity index (number of crop and livestock species raised in a region as percent of number grown 10 or 50 years previously) [I]

domesticated varietal index (number of varieties of each crop and breeds of each livestock species raised in a region as percent of number 10 or 50 years previously) [l l

crop and livestock uniformity index (relatedness of crop varieties and livestock breeds) [l]

percent traditional varieties in ex situ collections [3]

genebank status index (percent regener-

ated within past 15 years) [3]

Ensuring uses of renewable resources are sustaingble and minimizingthe depletion of nonrenewable resources

1. Importance of the sector for income (value added) and employment

Determining the total value-added wntrib- uted by a sector provides a basis for calculat- ing the dollar value of changes in the status of the sector's resources and ecological infrastructure.

2. Status of the sector's resources

A sector's resources are the natural assets that it uses directly: trees, in the case of the timber sector; and hydro, oil, natural gas, coal, and wood in the case of the energy sector. Two sets of data are needed: the size of the current stock; and flow data (changes in production, consumption, and the size of the stock).

3. Status of the sector's ecological infrastructure

A sector's ecological infrastructure consists of the ecological processes and biological diversity that support it: for example, soil, water, and the genetic diversity of crops and livestock in the case of the agriculture sector. For living-resource sectors (timber, fisheries and aquaculture, other harvesting, agriculture and horticulture, tourism and recre- ation, and some of the energy sector), measures are needed of the status of the hydrological cycle (quality, quantity, and reliability of water supply); soil structure and fertility; air quality and climate; an4 the ecosystem, species, and within-species diversity required for long-term production. For nonliving-resource sectors (mining and most

T H E CHALLENGE OF SUSTAINABILITY

of the, energy sector), measures are needed of the quality, quantity, and reliability of water supply, and on air quality and changes in the reliability of climate.

4. The sector's compatibilities and conflicts with the sustainability of other sectors

Items 2 and 3 above measure what might be called the sector's internal sustainability. We also need to assess its external sustainability - its impacts on other resource sectors, on the businesses outside the resource sectors, on human health and infrastructure, and on the integrity of the biosphere or planetary ecosystem.

5. Main socioeconomic influences on the sector's sustainability

Several factors make it easier or more difficult for a sector to be sustainable. The chief ones are:

The ratio of benefits to a given stock of resources. One of the ways of achieving sustainability is to increase the benefits from a given stock of resources. Con- versely, a decline in benefits from a stock of resources is a sign of unsustainability. Two benefits that should be looked at are jobs and total income (corporate, personal, municipal, provincial). Indicators include trends in earnings and production, the ratio of jobs and income to production, and changes in value added per unit of resource.

The extent to which the resource users pay the full costs of their decisions. Indicators include the proportions of development and conservation costs paid by the industry, government, and

other parties (including future gener- ations); and the net charge (tax) paid or subsidy received by the sector, once the total amount of taxes has been sub- tracted from the total amount of sub- sidies.

. Effective participation of communities and interest groups in the decisions that most affect them. Do the communities and interests that depend on the sector have an effective say in how the sector's conservation and development are planned and managed?

. adoption of an approach to decision making that tries to foresee and prevent problems. How well are the compatibilities and conflicts with other sectors and interests being anticipated and managed?

Keeping within the canying capacity of suppolting ecosystems

The following indicators would measure the effectiveness of action to reduce consumption and stabilize population:

per capita consumption of food, water, timber, and minerals; per capita use of energy; energy use per unit of GDP; generation of municipal waste, per capita, and per unit of GDP; generation of industrial waste, per capita, and per unit of GDP; generation of nuclear waste, per capita, per unit of GDP, and per unit of energy; population trend; total fertility rate; and population density.

Modified fmmluC~/UNEP/ww~, Caringfor the Earth: A Strategy for Sustainable Living(Cland, Switzerland: IUCN/UNEP~VWF, 1991). p. 21 H with permission.

APPENDIX 5

Environmental assessment reports should be concise, limited to significant environmental issues, and aimed at project designers and decision makers, and the financier's decision makers. The level of detail should be com- mensurate with the size of potential impacts.

The report should include the following sections.

1. Executive summary. A concise dis- cussion of significant findings and recommended actions.

2. Environmental regulations. The policy, legal, and administrative framework within which the environmental assessment is prepared. This is especially important in the case of co-financed projects, in which the requirements of many organizations must be accommo- dated.

3. Project description A detailed description of the activity, including its technical, geographic, ecological, economic, social, and temporal context. This will also cover any off-site investments that may be required as part of the project, for example, dedicated pipelines, access roads, power plants, water supply, hous- ing raw materials, andlor storage facilities.

4. Baseline data. The study area's dimen- sions and a description of relevant physical, biological, and socioeconomic conditions, including any changes anticipated before the project commences. This section takes into account current and

proposed development activities (not directly connected to the project) within the project area.

5 . Analysis of alternatives. Alternatives to the proposed project, including the "no action" option. This section examines the potential environmental impacts, capital and recurrent costs, suitability under local conditions, institutional capacities, training and monitoring requirements for all proposed design, site, technology, and operational alternatives.

6. Environmental impacts. The positive and negative impacts likely to result from the proposed project, and compari- son with alternatives. This section reviews the extent and quality of available data, identifies key gaps in data, estimates uncertainties associated with predictions, and specifies topics that do not require further attention.

Mitigation plan. Proposed feasible, cost- effective mitigation measures that may reduce significant adverse impacts on the environment to acceptable levels. This section analyzes all proposed measures in terms of their potential impact, capital and recurrent costs, feasibility, and institutional and training requirements. The plan should describe work programs and schedules to ensure that proposed environmental actions are in phase with engineering activities throughout preparation. It should also consider compensatory measures if miti-


gation measures cannot be implemented effectively.

8. Monitoring plan. This section recom- mends a monitoring plan and specifies how it will be implemented and by whom, together with a cost estimate and other necessary inputs, such as training.

9. Appendixes.

c List of preparers. Personnel and organizations involved in preparing the environmental assessment.

List of persons contacted. Individuals and organizations contacted, including their addresses and telephone numbers.

References. Written materials used in study preparation. This is especially important given the large amount of unpublished documentation often used.

Record of interagencylforum meetings. This includes lists of both those invited and those that actually attended, as well as a summary of the discussions.

After World Bank, Environmental Arrersmenl.OD 4-00. Annex Z. Washington, D.C.: World Bank). Reprinted by permission of The World Bank.

APPENDIX 6

REFERENCE CHECKLIST FOR THE EIA PROCESS

A better understanding of the different ities in detail, especially those that need functions that are to be performed in the EIA to be reconciled! process can be obtained by answering a series of questions, given below, on the various 6. Is there a summary and conclusion of aspects of EIA. the study, including:

Overall w

1. Who originates or requires the environmental assessment!

b

2. Who pays for the assessment!

3. Who reviews the assessment report! b

4. Who uses the assessment?

a review of gains versus losses in environmental resources and values, and the overall net gains;

an explanation of how adverse effects have been minimized or offset and com- pensated for;

an explanation of the use of any irre- placeable resources;

Assessment b provisions for follow-up surveillance and monitoring; and

1. What is the likely future condition of the natural systems with and without proposal for additional detailed studies the proposed project! deemed necessary!

2. Who cares about these conditions (e.g., Review what persons are affected positively and adversely) ! 1. What is the purpose of the EIA!

3. Why do they care (i.e., what human uses are affected, now and in the future)!

4. Does the EIA present a reasonably complete picture of both human and quality of life gains to result from the project and of utilization, alteration, and impair- ment of the natural resources affected by the project! Can the national agency use the EIA to make a fair evaluation of the net worth of the project!

5. Does it discuss conflicts and conform-

2. Does the EIA identify all purposes of the project!

3. Is each purpose described in detail!

4. Are there any criteria established for measuring achievement of each purpose!

5. Is the extent to which each purpose achieved quantified!

6. Does the EN relate each project activity to the project's purposes!


7. Is there an identification of the project and the project proponent?

8. Is there a brief description of the nature, size, and location of the project and its importance to both the region and the country?

9. What is the extent of the EM study?

10. Is there a description of the scope of the study, magnitude of effort, person or agency performing the study, and acknowledgements!

11. Is there a brief outline of the contents of the Em, including mention of any special techniques or methods used?

12. Does the EIA identify and list all project activities?

13. Are all the project activities described clearly and in the degree or detail comparable to that obtained for the feasibility study?

14. Where is the project located!

15. Is there a base map, on an appropriate scale, of the project area of influence!

16. Are there maps and sketches showing the project site layout?

17. What is the project scale?

18. What is the schedule of implementation of each project function?

19. Does the report provide detailed engineering plans and drawings!

20. Does it describe structures to be built and the area to be covered by each structure?

21. Does it provide preliminary construction details on timing, materials flow, equipment use, construction monitoring plans, labor needs, services required, pollution abatement procedures, or hardware?

22. What are the baseline conditions of environmental resources and values?

23. How can such measurements be made!

24. Does the EM describe measurement procedures, techniques, or models adequately!

25. Does the EM assess and the relative importance of environmental values?

26. Are the existing guidelines in force included in the Terms of Reference (TOR) addressed!

27. Are the data and their interpretation in the EIA reliable? If not, why!

28. Does the reviewer agree with the results of impact assessment in the EIA? If not, why?

29. If there are significant impacts, how can they be reduced!

Mitigation, Enhancement, and Monitoring Measures

1. Are the proposed mitigation measures appropriate and effective!

2. Why are mitigation measures for other impact categories indicated?

APPENDIX 6 - REFERENCE CHECKLIST FOR THE EIA PROCESS

3. Does the EIA assess, evaluate, and docu- ment the mitigation measures?

4. Is the proposed monitoring appropriate?

5. Will it establish the effectiveness of the mitigation measures?

6 . What degree of impacts will remain after applying mitigation measures?

7. Where adverse impacts are indicated, does the EM explore measures for mini- mizing andlor offsetting these, and opportunities for enhancing natural environmental resources and values?

8. Is an appropriate plan developed and described for monitoring the effectiveness of mitigation measures and pro- jected impacts?

Alternatives

1. Do the alternatives make sense?

2. Does the EM identify a set of possible alternatives in terms of:

b location; equipment; operation procedure; and engineering design?

3. Does it quantify costs and benefits of each altemative, including consideration of environmental effects?

4. Does it compare the benefits and costs of these alternatives?

5. Does it develop a set of criteria for selecting the best altemative?

6 . What is a selected set of feasible alternatives?

Uncertainties

1. What is known, and with what degree of certainty?

2. What is not known, and why (e.g., experimental difficulties, lack of theory) ?

3. What could be known, with reasonable additional investments of labor, facilities, and money?

4. What should be known (i.e., not every- thing possible to know is necessary for prudent progress) ?

After ESCAP, Envimnmental Impact Assessment: Guidelines for Planners and Decision Makers(Bangk0k: United Nations, 1985). Reprinted with prmission.

p.235.pdfp.237.pdfp.238.pdfp.239.pdfp.240.pdfp.241.pdfp.242.pdfp.243.pdfp.244.pdfp.245.pdfp.246.pdfp.247.pdfp.248.pdfp.249.pdfp.250.pdfp.251.pdfp.252.pdfp.253.pdfp.254.pdfp.255.pdfp.256.pdfp.257.pdfp.258.pdfp.259.pdf

Documents

APPENDIX - tspace.library.utoronto.ca€¦ · databases. The basic principle of databases that differ in format and operating parame- ters, but can nevertheless be interrogated via