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Appendix A: Bremond, Greimas and 'Essences of Narrative'
Much recent work by continental narratologists has effectively been as conservative as Booth's. It has been at least as reductive as his, and quite as devoted to notions of essences and universals. This is particularly true of Propp-inspired attempts to describe a grammar of narrative. If Propp's kinds of method are applied to less orthodox forms of narrative, they simply misrepresent them. Equally, the narratives themselves give us a precise sense of the limits to the usefulness and relevance of the narratological categories. Bremond, for instance- to give a single example from his work- has sought to divide narrative sequences into 'processes of improvement' and 'processes of deterioration', and then sought to subdivide the two groups. 1 The subdivisions, however, are likely to encourage the suspicion that the labels are often basically arbitrary. Why, for instance, should we class a sequence describing 'the creation of an obligation' as a process of deterioration, as Bremond apparently wants us to? George Eliot's novels, for example, will hardly bear out such an association. As Rimmon-Kenan has indicated, Bremond repeatedly seeks to apply neat descriptions to matters that often defy such clear formulation. 2 Furthermore, if realist novels can be used to cast doubts upon the subdivisions, non-realist novels can be used to raise awkward questions about the applicability of the initial categories. In a novel by Kafka or Beckett, for example, it is often not clear whether a given sequence really involves an 'improvement' or a 'deterioration' at all. When Watt leaves Knott's house, for instance, in Beckett's Watt, the event might plausibly seem open to description, in Bremond's terms, as 'the fulfilment of a task', and thus a process of improvement. But to call it that is to ignore the indeterminate significance the sequence actually has. A Beckett novel simply cannot be reduced to the clarity of Bremond's terms. As so often in narrative grammars - as so often in narratology as a whole - the pseudoscientific classification becomes possible only after an interpretation has surreptitiously been performed.
The same is true of Greimas, whose 'actantial analysis' is surely
166
Appendix A 167
equally inappropriate to the less orthodox forms of narrative. Greimas describes narrative in terms of 'actants' (not characters, that is - they are 'acteurs' - but the roles they play). 3 This won't work, however, with The Castle, for example, or The Trial. In Kafka's world, the 'actants' themselves are often not clear. Titorelli in The Trial may be both helping Josef K., and obstructing and bewildering him. For Greimas, this need not matter, because different 'actants' may combine in a single character. But the point is that we cannot really be sure as to whether Titorelli is helping or not. His actantial role is itself unclear. Greimas' s frame of reference is not subtle enough to be applied convincingly to Kafka's work. As Mieke Bal has pointed out, Greimas' s model assumes a teleology of narrative. 4
But Kafka and Beckett's narratives resist teleology. So terms which look useful when applied to folk-tale, and feasible, at least, if applied to realist narrative, simply break down when applied to other forms. We can adopt them only if we simplify or misconstrue the narrative in question. Bal herself has argued that supposedly 'universal models' can be applied to fantastic, absurd or experimental narrative texts. But her argument relies on the assertion that 'readers, intentionally or not, search for a logical line in such a text' (12). In other words, we ourselves can determine the shape of a given narrative, and then define its grammar accordingly. It is not surprising to find that Bal'knows' the plot of Le Voyeur (41); or that she sees Kafka's novels in conventional terms, as about 'the opposition between the individual and the collective, or between the individual and the representatives of power' (37).
Notes
1. Claude Bremond, Logique du Recit (Paris, 1973) p. 162. 2. Slomith Rimmon-Kenan, Narrative Fiction: Contemporary Poetics
(London, 1983) p. 27. 3. Algirdas Julien Greimas, Structural Semantics: An Attempt at a Method,
tr. Daniele McDowell, Ronald Schleifer and Alan Velie, introd. Ronald Schleifer (Lincoln, Nebr., 1983) pp. 196-221, in particular p. 200; see also his Du Sens: Essais Semiotiques (Paris, 1970) pp. 255-57; and 'Les Actants, les Acteurs et Les Figures', in Semiotique Narrative et Textuelle, ed. Claude Chabrol (Paris, 1973) pp. 161-77.
4. Mieke Bal, Narratology: Introduction to the Theory of Narrative, tr. Christine van Boheemen (Toronto, 1985) p. 26. Further references are to this edition, and are given in the text.
Appendix B: Richards, Empson and Lodge
David Lodge's Language of Fiction was fin;t published in 1966. As Lodge said himself, criticism of fiction had lagged behind criticism of poetry, and looked comparatively unsophisticated. Its principal concerns were often moral, and it seldom questioned or even looked outside the representational dimension of novels. As Lodge noted, the result was that critics employed a way of reading 'which would have been scorned by those same critics if applied to Shakespeare or Donne' .1 Commendably, Lodge sought to raise the intellectual standard of novel criticism to that established for the criticism of poetry by Richards, Empson and the New Critics. He insisted on looking at the stuff of fiction- just as the New Critics had examined the stuff of poetry - rather than merely 'looking through it'. For Lodge, language was the stuff of fiction. He wanted, he wrote, 'to go deeper than the basic descriptive terms, such as "character" and "plot", and to examine the "verbal arrangements" in which these are created' (LF, 73).
For all the skill, however, of Lodge's analyses of individual novels, Language of Fiction was ultimately a rather disappointing book. Its limits were partly the limits to Lodge's understanding and use of the principles underlying Richards's, Empson's and the New Critics' work. Richards and Empson, of course, were very much concerned with language in poetry. But their concern with language was also a complex concern with the logic of poetry. Lodge largely ignored the fact. He was clearly reluctant to apply his mind to the logic of narrative, as a properly Empsonian approach would have required him to. Lodge dwelt on Richards's distinction between the scientific and emotive uses of language. But he paid no attention to Richards's insistence on the distinctiveness of poetic logic. Richards argued that poetry makes a different kind of statement, that it subjugates statement 'to emotive purposes'. The qualities of poetic discourse are peculiar to it. The discourse in a given poem, for instance, need have 'logically, nothing to do with the subject under treatment'. It can include irrelevance, logical nonsense, the trivial and silly - all in the interests of the other functions of the poet's language.2 In order to express feeling, a good poet may play a
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Appendix B 169
variety of tricks with sense, frequently dissolving its coherence. There may be a justification for 'flaws or internal inconsistencies' in poems, for cracks in 'the fabric' of their sense, particularly if they all derive from 'some one central liberty taken by the poet' (PC, 193). Such liberty can serve the aim of a poem 'better than fidelity to fact or strict coherence among fictions'. It may lead to the awareness that Richards thought good poetry offers: the shock 'of discovering how alive with new aspects everything whatever is, when contact with reality is restored' (PC, 254). According to Richards, because it involves a different kind of logic, nearly all good poetry disturbs the mind's habits and routines. It challenges stock attitudes and ideas and tests the mind's hold on actuality. Lodge ignored this aspect of Richards's thought. But it is surely relevant to certain kinds of novel, Kafka's not least.
Empson regarded himself as a logician, at least, in Seven Types of Ambiguity. He presented the 'types' themselves partly as stages 'of advancing logical disorder'. 3 Empson's approach to poetry was seldom merely verbal, and to reduce it to the merely verbal is to rob it of much of its richness. It involves an interest in the logic of poetic discourse as dramatising divided, complex or contradictory states of mind or feeling. In early Empson, 'contradiction' and 'ambiguity' are sometimes interchangeable terms. Empson repeatedly hunted out logical contradictions - chiefly those evident in verbal ambiguities, but also as they are implicit in dramatic ironies, dramatic scenes and even narrative sequences. His own analysis, for instance, of narrative ambiguities in Deirdre of the Sorrows reveals much more about the relevance of his approach to the analysis of narrative than Lodge ever does (ST, 39-40). Similarly, Empson's interest in 'complex words' in The Structure of Complex Words insistently manifested itself as a concern with the contradictions built into language, or latent in it. Empson thought that the splits, contradictions and self-resistances in poems were often an important factor in their beauty. He also thought that the complexity of some very good poems involved 'fruitful sorts of muddle' (ST, 154). We ought, of course, to avoid any 'doctrinaire sluttishness', any enthusiasm for the merely muddled or 'the determinedly unintelligible' (ST, 236). But a beautiful sonnet by Shakespeare may after all be 'much more muddled' than one had realised (ST, 57). Empson treats poetry as a strange or alien mode of thought, one much more extraordinary than we commonly suppose, with its own 'mysterious' rules (ST, 243). Lodge was capable of detecting that kind of 'mysteriousness'
170 Appendix B
in novels. But, in Language of Fiction, at least, he was characteristically wary of it. His interest in the language of fiction was an interest in language as it served essentially familiar and predictable purposes.
Lodge saw Empson's 'ambiguity' (and Brooks's 'irony') as essentially 'concepts offered to define the peculiar qualities of literary language' (LF, 7). He thus ignored the extent to which they also define the nature of poetic logic. He himself considered the language of fiction in isolation from the logic of narrative. He approached novels largely at the level of individual words. But, in so far as the organisation of a novel can actually resemble that of a lyric poem, it is not merely a matter of specific words. Language necessarily functions in different ways in novels and lyric poems. Words in novels characteristically have a more referential function. They cannot therefore immediately serve ends of the same complexity as in poetry. The unit in narrative logic comparable to that of the word in poetic logic is the narrative sequence, or component within a narrative sequence. As Lodge himself later admitted, a poetics based on lyric was thus not 'simply transferable' to narrative. Narrative was itself 'a language, a code of signification' that functioned 'independently of specific verbal formulations' (LF, 272). His approach to narrative in Language of Fiction inevitably led to an emphasis on 'key words' (the 'moral vocabulary' in Mansfield Park}, on patterns of metaphorical language (the imagery in Jane Eyre}, on polemical rhetoric (as in Hard Times). It also led to a divorce- as Lodge himself later noted - between adventurous theory and comparatively humdrum practice.
Lodge later decided that his analyses of individual texts did not reduce the 'categories of plot and character and theme' or 'the criteria of verisimilitude, persuasiveness and insight' to linguistic data 'with the rigour that the theoretical introduction' to the book seemed to require (LF, 276). In fact, rather than using a concern with language as a basis for breaking with old categories, Lodge simply took the old categories for granted. His account - for example - of James's 'partial violation' of 'the linguistic norms' of The Ambassadors was persuasive and subtle (LF, 204). When he discussed the discrepancies between various narrative voices in Tess of the D'Urbervilles, however, he was merely led to misgivings about Hardy's greatness. But he was dealing with a kind of narrative phenomenon that was actually close to the kind of logical disorder in poetry that so fascinated Empson. In Language of Fiction, Lodge was usually quick to dismiss any novel that seemed 'characterized by confusion,
Appendix B 171
contradiction, internal inconsistencies and expectations unfulfilled' (LF, 69). Nothing better demonstrated how little Empsonian his supposedly Empsonian approach really was.
Lodge seems himself to have been dissatisfied with the results of his own approach in Language of Fiction. In The Novelist at the Crossroads (1971), he was largely content to defend and refine the assumptions and methods of the earlier book. 4 But by the time of The Modes of Modern Writing (1977), he was becoming increasingly aware of some of their limitations. Structuralism seemed to offer 'a more comprehensive theory of literary forms' than his own. 5 He began to draw heavily on theories and approaches outside the mainstream of Anglo-Saxon critical tradition, particularly Jakobson's. Beneath the interest in new methodologies, however, Lodge's motivating hunger for order has always remained apparent. Part of the appeal of Jakobson' s theory of literariness, for instance, was clearly that it suggested that 'literary discourse is characterized by symmetry, parallelism, repetition of every kind and on every level'. 6 Lodge seems increasingly to have set aside his original enterprise, to have felt that it had some basic weaknesses. Yet none of his books since Language of Fiction have matched it in sustained insight. Novel criticism still needs to be further weaned away from the assumption that fiction necessarily 'depicts' to a more refined and subtle awareness of how and what it expresses. Examining the language of fiction whilst neglecting the logic of narrative will necessarily impede one's sense of how narratives work. Novels often convey extremely complicated states of mind and feeling. They do so in ways that make them seem closer to lyric poetry than critics have often assumed. Bakhtin, Genette and others have given us some indication of how this might be so. I have tried to use some of their methods for ends that are perhaps rather more Empsonian than their own. Lodge himself might well reply that the novels I have chosen are largely so obviously 'amenable to modern poetics' as to make the effort involved a small one, and scarcely even worthwhile (LF, 29).
Notes
1. David Lodge, Language of Fiction: Essays in Criticism and Verbal Analysis of the English Novel, 2nd edn (London, 1984) p. 277. Further references
172 Appendix B
are to this edition, and are given in the text, designated by the abbreviation LF.
2. I. A. Richards, Practical Criticism: A Study of Literary Judgment (London, 1956) p. 187. Further references are to this edition, and are given in the text, designated by the abbreviation PC.
3. William Empson, Seven Types of Ambiguity (Harmondsworth, Middx, 1965) p. 48. Further references are to this edition, and are given in the text, designated by the abbreviation ST.
4. David Lodge, The Novelist at the Crossroads and Other Essays on Fiction and Criticism (London, 1971); see, in particular, ch. 3.
5. David Lodge, The Modes of Modern Writing: Metaphor, Metonymy and the Typology of Modern Writing (London, 1977) p. xii.
6. David Lodge, Working with Structuralism: Essays and Reviews on Nineteenth- and Twentieth-Century Literature (London, 1981) p. 55.
Index
Abbott, H. Porter 20, 161, 162, 164 Acton, Harold 134, 138
Carnelian 135 Humdrum 135
Adorno, Theodor 107, 115 Allais, Alphonse
Un Drame Bien Parisien 12 Alter, Robert 38, 39 Arendt, Hannah 116 Aristotle 2-3 Auden, W. H. 3, 134 Auerbach, Erich 26 Austen, Jane 63, 126
Mansfield Park 63, 170 Pride and Prejudice 128
Bair, Deirdre 162 Bakhtin, Mikhail 8-11, 13, 19, 23,
129, 139, 171 Bal, Mieke 167 Balzac, Honore de 3, 95, 101, 141 Barnard, G. C. 164 Barthes, Roland 5-6, 11, 14-15,54,
59, 103 Beckett, Samuel 11, 14, 15, 36
prose works by 2, 3, 5, 8, 9, 13, 17, 18, 36, 140-65, 166, 167
Beissner, Friedrich 102 Bembo, Pietro
Gli Asolani 37 Benveniste, Emile 162 Bernal, Olga 20, 152, 161 Blanchot, Maurice 116 Boccaccio, Giovanni
The Decameron 148 Booth, Wayne C. 4-5, 18, 20, 23,
60 Bremond, Claude 5, 166-7 Brissenden, R. F. 57 Brod, Max 98, 107, 108 Bronte, Charlotte
Jane Eyre 170 Brooke-Rose, Christine 23 Brooks, Cleanth 170
Brophy, Elizabeth B. 57 Bruns, Gerald, L. 94 Byron, Robert 134
carnival 23, 129 Carnochan, W. B. 76-7 Cash, Arthur H. 77 Castle, Terry 58 Castro, America 38, 39 Celine, Louis-Ferdinand 119 Cervantes Saavedra, Miguel de
11, 14, 159 Don Quixote 2, 3, 8, 9, 11, 13, 17,
22,26-40,92-3,128 Chalker, John 161 Cicero 10 Cohn, Ruby 161, 162 Coleridge, Samuel Taylor 54, 59,
74 Connolly, Cyril 134, 138 Conrad, Joseph 2, 16-17 Conrad, Peter 76, 77
D' Antmnzio, Gabriele 155 Dante Alighieri
The Divine Comedy 3, 147, 148, 149, 156, 163
Defoe, Daniel 56 Deleuze, Gilles 108, 116 Dentan, Michel 115, 116 Dickens, Charles 95, 126, 129
Hard Times 170 Martin Chuzzlewit 68
Diderot, Denis 41 Docherty, Thomas 19 Doody, Margaret A. 48 Dostoyevsky, Fyodor 8-9, 11
Crime and Punishment 10 Ducasse, Isidore see Lautreamont,
Comte de
Eagleton, Terry 58-9 Eaves, Thomas C. D. 58 Eco, Umberto 23
173
174 Index
einsinnigkeit in Kafka's novels 102-3
Eisner, Pavel 116 Eliot, George 16--17, 166
Adam Bede 22 Middlemarch 3, 22, 146
Ellmann, Richard 93 Empson, William 20, 169-72 epistolary narrative 45-6, 48 Erasmus
and the novel 36, 39-40
Faulkner, William 2, 97, 107, 119, 125, 126
As I Lay Dying 42 The Sound and the Fury 128
Federman, Raymond 163 Fiedler, Leslie 57 Fielding, Henry 54, 56, 59
Tomfones 11 Firbank, Ronald 2, 136
Caprice 135 Valmouth 135
Flaubert, Gustave 5, 10, 16, 17, 19, 36, 95,96, 102,127,153-4
Bouvard and Pecuchet 11 Madame Bovary 8, 22 Sentimental Education 17
Fletcher, John 140, 157, 162 Fluchere, Henri 77 Flynn, Carol H. 42, 58 Ford, Ford Madox 2 Forster, E. M. 11, 18, 75-6 Foucault, Michel 14-15, 29, 32 Franklin, Benjamin 65 French, Marilyn 93 Freud, Sigmund 15, 119
Genette, Gerard 15-16, 17-18, 25, 33, 39, 122-3, 137, 144, 171
Geulincx, Arnoldus 148, 151, 158, 163, 164
Girard, Rene 24 Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von 70
Faust 7, 92 Goldberg, Rita 43 Goldberg, S. L. 78, 93 Goldmann, Lucien 24 Gray, Ronald 115
Greimas, Algirdas Julien 166--7 Green, Henry (pseudonym of
Henry Vincent Yorke) novels by 2, 118-39 Pack My Bag 118-19, 123
Green, Martin 133, 139 Greenberg, Martin 117 Groussac, Paul 38 Guattari, Felix 115, 116
Hardy, Barbara 20, 22, 164 Hardy, Thomas 129
Tess of the D'Urbervilles 170 Harvey, W. J. 20, 22 Hazlitt, William 41 Heath, Stephen 19, 23 Heller, Erich 116 Heller, Peter 116 Hemingway, Ernest
The Killers 22 Henel, Ingeborg 116 Heraclitus 7 Herring, Phillip F. 93 Hesla, David H. 163 Hill, Christopher 58 Hoffmann, E. T. A.
Princess Brambilla 12 Holmesland, Oddvar 136--7 Homer 13, 54
The Odyssey 78, 93 Howard, Brian 134 Hume, David 63 Hutcheon, Linda 19
imitative form 79 implied reader, the 64-5, 66--7, 85,
106, 116, 125, 154-5 intertextuality 14-15 Iser, Wolfgang 20-1 Isherwood, Christopher 136
Jakobson, Roman 170 James, Henry 2, 3, 12, 18, 24, 63,
102, 130 The Ambassadors 8, 170 The Aspern Papers 4 'The Figure in the Carpet' 12 The Turn of the Screw 12 What Maisie Knew 22
Index 175
Janouch, Gustav 114 Janvier, Ludovic 161 Jefferson, D. W. 77 Johnson, Samuel 41 Joyce, James 5, 14, 15, 18, 36, 37,
107, 119, 138 Dubliners 84 Finnegans Wake 3, 5, 12, 36, 126,
141, 145 Ulysses 2, 3, 11, 13, 17, 80, 83, 84,
85, 87, 90, 107, 126, 148, 153, 159; the 'Eumaeus' episode in 78-94
Joyce, Stanislaus 88, 89, 94 Juvenal 56
Kafka, Franz 11, 13, 122-3, 128, 166, 169
'The Burrow' 97 The Castle 2, 9, 95-117, 128, 159,
167 'In the Penal Colony' 103
The Trial 2, 3, 18, 95-117, 159, 167 see also einsinnigkeit
Kearney, Anthony 58 Kellogg, Robert 1, 19 Kenner, Hugh 94, 140, 160, 162,
163 Kermode, Frank 2, 4, 18, 137, 139 Kettle, Arnold 58 Kimpel, Ben 58 Kinkead-Weekes, ~ark 55 Kristeva, Julia 14, 24 Kudszus, Winfried 98 Kuna, Franz 98
Laclos, Choderlos de Les Liaisons Dangereuses 56
Lanham, Richard A. 19, 76 Lautreamont, Comte de 36 Lawrence, D. H. 14
Women in Love 8 Lawrence, Karen 93, 94 Leavis, F. R. 16--17, 24, 76 Leech, Geoffrey N. 20 Leopold, Keith 116 Levin, Harry 26 Levy, Eric P. 151 Litz, A. Walton 94
Locke, John 61,65-6,74 An Essay Concerning Human
Understanding 65, 76 Lodge, David 11, 23, 168-72 Lubbock, Percy 22 Lukacs, Georg 24, 38-9 Lyons, F. S. L. 94
~achiavelli, Niccolo 7 ~ackenzie, Henry
The Man of Feeling 42 ~adariaga, Salvador de 39 ~ann, Thomas
The Magic Mountain 42 ~authner, Fritz 160, 165 ~elchiori, Giorgio 124 ~endilow, A. A. 77 ~engham, Rod 137-8 metalepsis 144 micro-narratives 33, 47, 9Q-2, 100,
104-6, 131, 146 ~ilton, John 124, 138 mimesis 1-3, 8, 26 ~oglen, Helene 75 monstrosity 13, 19, 25, 153--5 ~oorjani, Angela B. 161 ~orrissette, Bruce 19 ~urray, Lindley 88
Nabokov, Vladimir 13, 26 narrative discourse
ambiguous modes of 2, 3, 5-6, 12-13, 18-19, 48-51, 97-8, 101, 103-4, 119, 142-3, 159-60, 162
blurring of distinctions in 23, 32-3, 67-70, 82-3, 89, 120-3, 124-7, 128-9, 144, 151-2
comedy in 35-6, 61, 62, 79, 90, 105, 116, 145-9
contradiction in 1Q-11, 32-5, 36, 62, 64, 72-3, 74, 101, 136, 142, 147-8, 162
deliberate lapses in 13-14, 33-6, 60-4, 79-83, 98-100, 119-20, 130, 145--8
deviations from conventions in 5, 15-16, 60, 85-6, 120; from conventions of characterisation in 42-5, 51-3, 60, 10Q-1,
176 Index
narrative discourse - continued 119-20,121-2,143-4, 150-1;of plot in 41, 53-5, 73-4, 100, 105-6,143-4,146, 156;of representation in 41, 50, 69, 97-101, 103-4, 129, 145-7; of sequence in 61, 66-7, 98, 100, 142, 155-7;ofstoryin 42,104-6, 143
'dialogue' in 8-10, 22, 33-5, 41-2,50-1,68,82,108-10,123-8
disunities in 4, 6-7, 8, 35, 60, 78-9, 82-3, 108-11, 129-33, 140-2
expressiveness of 15-18, 37, 56-7, 63-6, 70-5, 85-8, 92-3, 111-14, 136, 144, 153-4, 156-60
irony in 17, 36-7, 62-3, 74, 85, 103, 105-6, 148-50
levels of 11, 23, 27, 33, 35-6, 39, 67-9, 89, 108, 126, 144
logics of 1, 11-12, 23, 27-30, 33, 42, 55, 96-7, 105-6, 142, 168-71
movement in 6-7, 10, 20-1, 35, 41-2,56,61,64,82,108-10,129-33, 141, 152-3, 155-6
repetition in 54, 56-7, 68, 120-3, 137-8, 146-7
structuralist approaches to 4-5, 12, 15-16, 17-18, 166-7
Neider, Charles 115 neo-Aristotelianism 2-4, 6, 20, 21,
26, 39, 60-1, 75, 97-8, 139, 140, 160-1
Nerval, Gerard de Aurelia 12
new criticism 3, 8, 168-70 New, Melvyn 70, 77 Newman, John Henry 3 Nietzsche, Friedrich 4, 5-6, 15, 21,
149-50, 151 North, Michael 134, 137, 138, 139 nouveau roman, the 1, 12, 36, 96,
167 Nuttall, A. D. 66
omniscient narration 22, 24, 64, 102-3, 126
Ortega y Gasset, Jose 36, 38, 39 Orwell, George 134
Down and Out in Paris and London 134
Parnell, Charles Stewart 85, 91-2 pastoral 26, 27, 32 Pawel, Ernst 116 Peake, Charles 161 Petronius 7 Pilling, John 160 point of view 42, 102-3, 106 Politzer, Heinz 117 Potocki, Count Jan
The Saragossa Manuscript 12 Pound, Ezra
The Cantos 5 Powell, Anthony 118, 119, 120,
134, 135 The Acceptance World 139
Praz, Mario 138 Preston, John 44, 67 Price, Martin 75 Prince, Gerald 22 proletarian novel, the 2 Propp, Vladimir 166 Proust, Marcel 15-16, 17, 122-3,
133, 152, 154, 156, 158 Remembrance of Things Past 15,
17-18, 141, 150
Rabelais, Fran<;ois 14, 23 Rabinovitz, Rubin 161 Ramm, Klaus 115 Rawson, Claude 77 realist novel, the 1, 2, 8, 26-8, 30,
35, 48, 64, 95-7, 111, 126, 141 Richards, I. A. 19, 168-9 Richardson, Samuel
Clarissa 3, 11, 13, 17, 18, 41-59, 159
Ricks, Christopher 63 Riley, E. C. 38, 39 Rimmon-Kenan, Slomith 166, 167 Robbe-Grillet, Alain 5, 14, 20, 36,
96 In the Labyrinth 1 The Voyeur 167
Robert, Marthe 29, 32, 96, 98 Robinson, Michael 161 Rosenblat, Angel 39, 40
Index 177
Russell, John 137, 138 Thackeray, William Makepeace 76
Sade, Donatien Alphonse Fran~ois, Thorlby, Anthony 114 Todorov, Tzvetan 12, 19 Tolstoy, Leo 22
Marquis de 41 Saussure, Ferdinand de 160 Scholes, Robert 1, 19 Schopenhauer, Arthur
The World as Will and Idea 157, 164
Schorer, Mark 24 sentimentalism 41, 63, 75 Shakespeare, William 7, 169 Sheppard, Richard W. 116 Sherzer, Dina 162 Short, Michael H. 20 Sitwell, Osbert 133
Left Hand, Right Hand! 136 Triple Fugue 135
Sitwell, Sacheverell 133 Southern Baroque Art 136, 139 Splendours and Miseries 136
Smollett, Tobias 56 Sokel, Walter H. 98, 102, 117 Sollers, Philippe 19
Une Curieuse Solitude 129 Spitzer, Leo 39 Stael, Madame de 41 Stanzel, F. K. 20, 21-2 Stedmond, John M. 60 Sterne, Laurence 5, 7, 11, 14, 36,
39 Tristram Shandy 2, 4, 8, 9, 13,
60-77, 159 Stevens, Wallace 158-9 Stokes, Edward 125, 138, 139 stream of consciousness 43, 48,
119-20, 130, 132, 153 style indirecte libre 127
War and Peace 8, 10 Traugott, John 63, 76
Unamuno, Miguel de 38 Uyttersprot, Herman 108, 116
Van Ghent, Dorothy 59 van Velde, Bram 143, 145 van Velde, Geer 141, 143, 157, 162 Vilar, Jean 39 Virgil
The Aeneid 79, 89
Wagner, Richard Die Meistersinger 7
Walser, Martin 101, 102 Watt, Ian 58 Waugh, Evelyn 134, 135 Weatherhead, A. Kingsley 123 Weiss, Ernst
Die Galeere 96 Wilde, Oscar 2, 135 Wolff, Cynthia G. 58 Woolf, Virginia 2, 97, 119, 130, 138 Worth, Katharine 23, 161
Yorke, Henry Vincent see Green, Henry
Zola, Emile 26
