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AppMapsWohlwend&Rowsell
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AppMaps:EvaluatingChildren'siPadSoftwarefor21stCenturyLiteracyLearning
KarenE.Wohlwend,IndianaUniversity
JenniferRowsell,BrockUniversity
Thisisapreprint,thedefinitiveversionappearsin:Wohlwend,K.E.,&Rowsell,J.(2017).Appmaps:Evaluatingchildren’siPadsoftwarefor21stcenturyliteracylearning.InN.Kucirkova&G.Falloon(Eds.),Apps,technology,andyoungerlearners:Internationalevidenceforteaching.London:Routledge.
Abstract:
Inthischapter,weintroducearubricandamapthatwedevelopedforcomparingearlychildhoodappsonfivedimensionsofparticipatoryliteracies:multiplayer,productive,multimodal,multilinear,andconnected.UsingexemplardatafromourNorthAmericanclassroomstudiesonchildren’stechnologyplaywithiPads,weevaluateandcomparefourappstoillustratehowtherubricandmapcanbeusedtoassesseachapp’spotentialfordevelopingparticipatoryliteracies.Adescriptionofeachappandanethnographicdataexcerptillustrateshowchildrenusedeachapp’sfeaturestoprovideasamplingofthewaysthatyoungchildrenactuallyengagedwiththeappduringclassroomplay.
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AppMaps:EvaluatingChildren'siPadSoftwarefor21stCenturyLiteracyLearning
Three-fourthsofU.S.familieswithyoungchildrennowhavemobiledevicessuchassmartphonesortablets(Rideout,2013).Theseaccessibledigitaltoolsareequippedwithtouchscreensthatrespondinstantlytoafingertipswipeandarejusttherightsizeforyoungchildrentohandle,carry,andoperate.Forexample,atoddlerwithatabletbalancedonherlapislearningthatthetouchscreenisorganizedbyagridofcolorfulsquarishiconsthatrepresentsoftwareapplications,andimportantlywithlittleornoprint.Eachiconopensanappatthetouchofafingerandreadinginvolvesmoretaps…onarrows,“x”,checkmark,trashcan,pencil,plussignsandsoon.Theseiconsarenotarrangedintheorderlyrowsofprintonapagebutarescatteredalongthetop,bottom,orcornersofthescreen.Touchscreensoperatewithanexpandedsetofconventionsforinteractivemodesincludingfingerswipes,iconrecognition,andvoicecontrols;inotherwords“ConceptsBeyondPrint”(Wohlwend,inpress).Today’syoungchildrenarelearningprintlesswaysofreading—onefingerswipeatatime(Rowsell,2014).Witheachtap,ouremergentreadersarelearninginteractiveandflexibleorientationstodigitalreading:recognizingiconsasactivatorsorportals,expectingafingeractiontoproduceascreenchange,andpersistingwhennothinghappens,knowingthatanareaofthescreenmightcontainaninvisibleiconthatmayappearwhenpressed.Furthermore,childrenunderstandthatscreensrequirenewwaysofplaying,collaborating,andsharinginordertoparticipateinourglobaldigitalcultures.Accordinglyinordertobetrulyeducational,thetoolsweselectandprovidetochildren—includingappsandtablets—mustevolvetorecognizeallthatchildrenalreadyknow.
However,theeducationalappsfortheearlychildhoodmarkettendtorelyonanoutdatedandprint-centricmodelofliteracy,apparentintheabundanceofappsfeaturingrotememorytaskssuchasletter-soundmatchingorwordidentification(Shuler,2012).KnobelandWilber(2009)identifiedsuchanapproachas“Literacy1.0”,aprintliteracymodelthatgrosslyunderestimatesboththeyoungchild’sandthetechnologies’capabilitiesformeaningfulliteracylearning,while“Literacy2.0”reflectsparticipatoryliteracies,thenewwaysweread,write,play,andshareideasusingicons,photos,andvideosonsocialmedianetworks.Inthischapter,weintroduceawaytoevaluatethelearningpotentialofappsusingarubricthatcapturesthewaysthat21stcenturylearnersactuallyengageinparticipatoryanddigitalliteracies.
Background:NewLiteraciesandConnectedLearning
Participatoryliteraciesreflectnewwaysofthinkingaboutlearningtoreadandwritewithtechnologythatmovesawayfromthemodelofanindividualreadingortypingprintonacomputerscreen.Instead,participatoryliteraciesreflecttheprinciplesofsocialmedialikeTwitter,YouTube,orFacebookorvideogamesandvirtualworlds:globalparticipation,multiplayercollaboration,anddistributedknowledge.Theseprinciplesenableparticipationinvastdigitalnetworksthroughposting,blogging,recording,remixing,uploading,anddownloading.
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Table1.Comparing(Print)LiteracyandParticipatoryLiteraices
(Print)Literacy ParticipatoryLiteracies
Individualreader/writer Multipleplayers/designers
Interpretingandcrafting Negotiatingandproducing
Anoriginalandpersonally-meaningfulnarrativetext
Multimodalandmutually-engaginginteractivecontexts
Mediatedbypeersandteachersinapredictableprocess
Maintainedbygroupsinfluidmultilinearnavigation
Locatedwithinsupportivereading/writingworkshops
Connectedtoparticipatorycultures,onlinenetworks,andmakerplayshops
Evenveryyoungchildrenplayanduseparticipatoryliteracypracticesastheyengagetheworldaroundthem,thatis,theliteracypracticesthathavethemostrelevanceforyoungchildrentodayareparticipatory(Wohlwend,2010).Inthischapter,weexaminepopularappsdesignedforyoungchildrentocomparetheirusefulnessfordevelopingfivedimensionsofparticipatoryliteracies:
1. MULTIPLAYERORDESIGNTEAMSratherthanindividual2. PRODUCTIVE,enablingchildrentoproducetheirownmultimediaratherthansimply
readingorplayingagamesomeoneelsehasmade3. MULTIMODALratherthanprint-centric,usingmultiplemodes(sound,touch,image,
music)tomanageimages,video,oranimation4. MULTILINEAR,usinghypertextthatallowsmultipleanddynamicstorylines5. CONNECTED,sharedondigitalnetworks
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TheThreeStudies
Thefirststudy,LiteracyPlayshop:DesigningCriticalMediaLiteracyCurriculumthroughTeacherStudyGroups(Wohlwend,Buchholz,WesselPowell,Coggin,&Husbye,2013)isinthefifthyearofanongoingstudyofteacher-designedearlychildhoodmedialiteracycurriculumfundedbytheProffittfoundationandIndianaUniversity.Thestudiesareconductedatfoursites:threemulti-agepreschoolclassroomsfor3-to5-year-oldchildreninuniversitychildcarecenters(160children,6teachers)andonekindergarten-firstgrademultiageclassroomfor5-to7-year-oldchildreninapubliccharterschool(approximately150children,3teachers).EachLiteracyPlayshopprojectbeganwithayearofpractitionerinquirysessionstoreadresearchonglobalchildren’smediaandcriticalliteracies,tolearnfilmmakingtechniques,andtodevelopage-appropriatemedialiteracycurriculum.Wohlwendmettwiceamonthwiththeteachingteams,video-recordingthediscussionsandtheiremergenceforyoungchildrenthatcombinescollaboration,play,storying,andmediaproduction.Researchersvisitedeachclassroomtwotofourtimesperweekduringthesecondhalfoftheyear,asteachersimplementedtheircurriculumtovideo-recordclassroomplayandfilmmakingactivitiesandcopychildren’sfilmsandpuppetshows.IntheseLiteracyPlayshops,childrenplayedelaboratestoriesastheymadeanimation,puppetry,orlive-actiondigitalvideoswithhand-heldcamerasortablets.Inthefollowingyears,Wohlwendandcolleaguesconductedfollow-upresearchatthesites,visitingatteachers’invitationsinsubsequentyearstodocumenthowtheteachersrevisedtheLiteracyPlayshopcurriculumovertimetobetterfittheirchildren’sinterestsandschoolgoals.Thesestudiesshowedthatthecombinationofyoungchildren’sfilmmakingwithpopularmediaanddigitaltechnologiesproducesaparticularlypowerfulformofstorytellingthatsparksinventionandcollaborationamongplayers.Inliteracyplayshops,evenveryyoungchildrenachievedandexceededacademicgoalsconsistentwithgovernmentaccountabilitystandardsforliteracy,bytappingintoindividualliteracyproficienciesthatweregroundedintheirpopularmediainterests(Wohlwendetal.,2013).
Forthesecondstudy,aresearchteam(Harwood,Rowsell,Winters,Voloshyn,&Bajovic,2013)conductedafederallyfundedresearchstudyentitled,CrayonsandiPads:BreakingBoundariesinYoungChildren’sLiteracyMeaningMaking,whichfocusedonobservationsofthenaturalisticexperienceswithinfiveearlyyearsclassrooms:twocommunity-basedearlychildhoodeducationnot-for-profitprograms(forchildren3-5yearsolds),andthreefull-daykindergartenschool-basedclassrooms.Theresearchteamobserved,documentedandassessedthewaysinwhichyoungchildrenconstructedmeaningwithinthesevariedsocial/culturalsettings.Researchersvisitedeachclassroombi-monthlyfora7-monthperiod,observingbeforeandafteriPadswereintroducedintoeachlearningcontext.Theteamthenrecorded120hoursofclassroominteractions,2000photographs,200videorecordings,and500sampleartifactsfromchildren.Seventeacherparticipantsandco-researcherswereinvolvedintheobservationphaseoftheproject.DrivenbyadesiretocapturetheimpactandsocialpracticesthatensuedwheniPadsenteredtheearlyyearsspace,theresearchteamfocusedonchildren’severydaypracticeswithtraditionalearlyyearsobjectsandartifactssuchasasandtable,coupledwithparticipatoryliteracypracticessuchasplayingasandtableapp.TheresearchersanalyzedhowtheintroductionofiPadsacrossthesedifferentearlyyearscontextsshiftedtheclassroomcultures.Researchersobservediftherewasashiftinchildren’sinteractions,positioning,andpracticeswheniPadsenteredtheclassroomspaceandifso,howdidtheculture,socialpractices,andspaceshiftwhentheyarrived?Whatwascentraltotheresearchwascapturingatacitmovementbetweenvirtualandphysicalspaces(Burnett,2015;Burnettetal.,2014)andwhatthesemovementsimpliedintermsofredefiningorrethinkingmeaningmakingintheearlyyears.Todoso,theCrayonsandiPadsTeam
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documentedsuchaspectsofdailyclassroomlifeas:classroomcultures;teachertalk;children’smeaning-makingpractices;dailyroutines;spatialarrangementsandtheirrelationshipstopedagogicalapproaches.
Forthethirdresearchstudy,TutoringbyDesign,Rowsell,Colquhoun,Maues(inprogress)supervisedatutoringprogrameveryeveningduringtheschoolyearwhereteachereducationstudentstutorchildren,adolescentsandteenagersinthecommunityinliteracyskills.Oneeveningaweekoverninemonths,theresearchteamofferediPadtutoringsessionswithafocusonparticipatoryliteraciespedagogyfeaturingmultimodalactivities;multiplayerpractices;productiveworkthatismultilinearandconnected.Focusingondifferentapps,games,andiBooks(Rowsell,2014),tuteesworkedcloselywithtutorsondigitaltextsthattheyusesignificantlyoutsideofschoolanddocumentedpractices,problem-solving,thinkingprocessesenactedoverthecourseoftutoringsessions.Throughfieldnotes,Rowsell’sresearcherteamnotedtheparticularnatureofthinkingthroughiPads,butalsovisualizedtheprocessasseeninFigure1.DatacollectioncomprisedobservationalfieldnotestakenduringtutoringsessionswherebyRowsell,ColquhounandMauesseparatelysatbesidetutorsastheyworkedwithtuteesoverthecourseofanhour;interviewswithtuteesafterthestudy;visualfootageintheformofphotographsandfilmedfootage;and,aresearchblogtowhichallofthetutorsandresearcherscontributed.
Figure1.VisualizingthinkingwithiPads
InFigure1,wehaveusedcolor-codedsquarestomarkanhouroftutoringworkinwhatwethinkofasmultimodallogicormodallearning(Rowsell,2013)whichconnectsstronglywithparticipatoryliteracies.Startinginthegreensquare,PeterandCalvinreadabouthowswordsaremadeonawebsite,thenCalvinplayedwithagameappcalledMinecraftwhilePeterresearchedanappcalledMythology(yellowsquare);thenintheblueandpurplesquares,CalvinandPeterreadtheMythologyappandconcludedthehourintheblueboxwithCalvinandPeterworkingonawritingpieceaboutMinecraftandmythology.ThisfigureillustrateshowTutoringbyDesignworks.Researchersinvolvedinthestudyfocusedonvisualizingpracticesandinterpretinghapticplaytodevelopalanguagetodescribe
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competenciesandthinkingprocessesinparticipatoryliteracies.Aswell,tutorsandresearcherscontributedtoablogtoshareandreflectontheproject.
LiteracyAppsandAppMaps
Ourintentinthechapterhasbeentobuildonstudiesofappusebyyoungchildren(Chiong&Shuler,2010;Shuler,2012)torecalibrateappevaluationtoolsforparticipatoryliteracies.Inthissection,weintroducearubricandamapforcomparingearlychildhoodappsaccordingtothesefiveelementsofparticipatoryliteracies(Table2).Inthefollowingsections,wefeaturefourappsusedinthreeclassroomstudiesofearlychildhoodtechnologytoillustratehowtherubricandmapcanbeusedtoassessthesoftware’spotentialforparticipatoryliteracies.Foreachapp,anappdescriptionandanexcerptofclassroomplayprovideasampleofthewaysthatyoungchildrenactuallyengagedwiththefoureducationalapps.Weanalyzetheseanecdotesaccordingtotherubricandthencomparetheextentthateachappsupportedkeyelementsofparticipatoryliteracies:multimodal,multiplayer,productive,multilinear,orconnected.(Wenoteherethatappschangefrequentlywithincreasedcapabilitiesandfeaturesaddedordroppedwithoutnotice,sothattheappmapsandrubricscoresreflectthedatawegatheredayearormorepriortopublication,atthetimeeachstudywasconducted).
Table2.ParticipatoryLiteraciesRubricandBenchmarks
High Medium LowMultiplayer Accommodates3ormore
playersAccommodates2players
Accommodates1player
Productive Enablescreativeoriginalcontentadditionsratherthanpre-setcomponents(e.g.,makeorimportowncontent)
Enablessomeoriginalcontent;choicesamongpre-setimagesortexts(e.g.,rangeofavatarclothingandfeatures,originalstoryaction)
Limitedoriginalcontent,pre-setpersonalizationelement(e.g.,insert1elementtopersonalize;minimalchoicesforavatardesign)
Multimodal Enhancesmeaningthroughcombinationsof4ormoremodes:music,image,soundeffects,animation;inspiresplaywithrealworldmaterials
Enablesmanipulationandcombinationsofseveralmodes:image,paint,movement(animation),speech,music
Primarilyprintwordprocessingtools,supplementedwithstampingorbasicpainttools
Multilinear Open-endedstorytellingwithmanytangents(e.g.,hypertext,portalsasinvideogames)
Enablesanalternateending;supportsrevisionstoinsertadditionalevents
Enablesasinglestorylineinanunvaryingsequencethatproceedsfrombeginningtoend
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Connected Savingandfacilitatedsharingonvideosharingsites(e.g.,youtube)
Opportunitiestoexportfilmsforsavingandexternalemailingorposting
Internalnetworksharingonlyorproprietaryformatsthatrequirewebsiteregistrationtoview
AppExamplesandLiteracyAnecdotes
Toontastic
ToofferanexampleofhowparticipatoryliteraciescanbeenactedintheappToontastic,RowsellprovidesexcerptsofdatafromtheTutoringbyDesignstudy.Asdiscussedearlier,tuteesworkedwithtutorsoverthecourseofanhourandfocusedonappsasthemainstayofthetutoringmaterial.ManyoftheparticipantslikedToontasticbecausetheycouldplaywithmovietropesandtheconceptofmemes(Knobel&Lankshear,2007).Forinstance,Alice,seeninFigure2,createdalovestoryaboutapirateandayoungmaidenwhofallinlove,andthenthemaideniskidnappedbyanevilgreencowwhoputsherinadungeoninacastleuntilherpirateloverescuesher.
Figure2.Alicecreatingalovestory
TheformatofToontasticisfairlyconstrainedbythestoryarcthatfollowsconsecutively:anintroduction,conflict,resolution,andconclusion.Playershavetostaywithinthisstorystructureandthereareaseriesofdifferenttemplatestochoosefromtoconstructagivenstory,or,thereistheoptiontocreateyourownstorytemplate.Aswell,playerscanaddmusicandanimationsifdesired.Whatwasinterestingaboutdifferentreaderswashowtheystrayedfromtypicalstorylinesandinfusedtheirownintertextualelements.Forinstance,inAlice’sshortlovestory,shechangedthecolouroftheevilcow.Inthefirstscene,thecowwasbrowninlinewiththetemplate,butinthenextthreescenes,Alicechangedthecolourpaletteandmadethecowgreenandthemaiden’sdresspink.Aswell,ratherthanthepiratebeingapowerfulherowhosavestheday,insteadhedeferredtothemaidenonwhattodooncehefreedherfromthecastle.Finally,Aliceinjectedbitsofpopularculturesuchasthelinethatshegavethepiratewhenheconfrontedthecow:“Heycow,sayhellotomylittlefriend”whichreferencestheiconiclinefromScarfacewhenAlPacinofacesagroupofdrugrunnerswithamachinegunandusesthissameline.Inthisway,theproductiveelementsofappplaywithToontasticemergedfromincludingmimesisormemesintostorylinestomakingthecontentmoreedgy,interesting,andconnectedtoothertexts.
InWohlwend’sLiteracyPlayshopstudy,easilyrecognizablecharactersetsandscenes(e.g.,pirates,sharks,andships,astronautsandspaceships;witchesandcaldrons)alsoinspiredmemesandfacilitatedcollaborationamongplayers,asplayerscouldquicklyagreeonsimplestoryactions.Childrenalsofrequentlyselectedtheblankcanvasandpaintpalettetocreatetheirowncharactersandbackdrops,althoughsomechildrenbecamesoengrossedinpaintingtheyspentfarlesstimeonusingthecharacterintheanimationsequence.
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IntheToontasticAppMap(Figure3)below,thehighestscoresareformultimodalpotentialandproductivecapacityastheappenablesmanywaysforplayerstocreateoriginalcontent.Multiplayerplayissomewhatenabledastwochildrencancollaborateonastorybuttoomanyfingerscausedfreeze-ups.Mostconstrainingistheconnectivitywhichlimitsvideo-sharingtothein-appToontubenetwork,andthemultilinearityofasingle,sequentialstandardizedstoryarc.
Figure3.ToontasticAppMap
Grandma’sKitchen
Figures4and5:ParallelPlayinVirtualandPhysicalWorlds
DuringRowsell’sCrayonsandiPadsproject,researchersdocumentedappsthatchildrenplayedalongsideanyparallelswithsimilarphysical/materialworlds,withineachcontext.ApopularappwasGrandma’sKitchen,whichisanappwherechildrencancookandbakewithananimatedgrandmacharacter.Therewereseveralinstanceswhenresearchersobservedhowchildrenmovedacrossadigitizedversionofcookingandbakingpracticesandemulatedthesesamepracticesintheirkitchenspaceintheclassroomsite:
Inthehousedramaticplaycenter,4kindergartenagechildrenwereplayingatypeofcookinggame.TheyfoundtheGrandma’sKitchenapp(onthetablet)andstartedplayingittoo.Theywerewatchingthevideosintheappandthenmakingthefoodin
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theirpretendplay(thatwaspicturedintheapp).Forexample,thevideoshowedcrackingeggsandthechildrenwerepretendingtobreakeggsforbaking.Whentheappsaid,“giveGrandmaakiss”,oneofthechildrenactuallykissedthetablet!Asthechildrenplayedthis‘bakinggame’theydriftedbackandforthbetweentheappandconcretetoys(seeFigures4and5).Childrenwouldtakeinformationfromtheappandtrialthatknowledgewithconcretetoys.Similarly,playthemesthathadstartedwithintheconcreteworld(e.g.,bakingacake)wouldbeenhancedandextendedusingtheapp’scontent(e.g.,usingmeasuringspoonsforingredients).Thechildrenthenblendedthisconvergedexperienceandknowledgetowriteamenuwithastyluspenonthetablet.Couldthechildrenhaveachievedtheirplayaimswitheithertheconcretetoysorthetablet?
Inrelationtoourrubricandbenchmark,children’snaturalizedmovementsfromGrandma’sKitchenhadthehighestscoresforbeingmultilinearandmultimodal.Childrendisplayedtremendousflexibilitymovingacrossphysicalandvirtualspacesand,equally,theymademeaningfluidlyandwithafluencyofthoughtandcreativityacrossavarietyofmodes(virtualandnon-virtualmodes).Wherechildrenshowedlesspotentialandproductivityintermsoftheappwasintheareaofconnectedness–therewasverylittlefilmingandsharingofevents.Rather,childrenwerefocusedontasksat-handandfulfillingasetofpractices(fig.6).
Figure6.Grandma’sKitchenAppMap
PuppetPals
In theLiteracyPlayshopproject, researchersdocumentedclassroomactivityandchild-madevideosaschildren used several iPad apps to create animated stories. In the app PuppetPals (Polished Play),childrencouldchoosecharacters,asetting,andthenanimateastory inreal-timebymanuallymovingcharacters onscreen with their fingertips while simultaneously narrating the story (or speakingdialogue),capturedbytheiPad’sinternalmicrophone.Instantplaybackwascrucialinhelpingpreschoolchildren seewhatwas actually onscreen after filming, including the visual,movement, and the audiomodes.Afewoftheonscreenactionsarelabeledandrequirewordidentification(e.g.,the“back”and“next”iconsfornavigatingbetweenscreens);otherelementsuseicons(arrows,redbuttonforsignalingthe beginning and ending of the recording process). Other navigation tools are not labeled andcontrolledbytouchandtaps(e.g.,tracingaroundphotostocreatecharactercutouts;swipingtoscrollthroughbackdropsandcharacters,dragginganddroppingtoselectcharacters;pinchingandspreading
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fingerstoresizecharactersandobjects;andmovingcharacterstoenter,enact,andexittheanimationsequencebydraganddrop).
Inthecombinedkindergarten/gradeoneclassroom,agroupofsix-andseven-year-oldchildrenhuddledaroundtheiPadatoneendofalowtable.ThegirlsweredraggingcharactersonandoffstageinthePuppetPalsapp,usingthefreebasicsetoffairytalecharactersandcastlebackdrop.Sixhandsjockeyedforroomonthesmallrectangularscreen,squeezingintodrag,drop,resize,orrotatethecutoutsofaprincess,knight,dragon,chipmunk,andcrow.Suddenly,Alliedraggedtheprincess character rapidlybackand forthacross the castle, “Getyourbootyoutofhere!”Sierraquicklydecidedthisdemandwasdirectedtowardherchipmunkcharacterandresizeditsbody,creatingagiantchipmunktochallengetheattackingprincess.Giggling, thegirlsbeginafightscenebymovingandrotatingtheircharactersonandoffstage,theirmovespunctuatedbygrowlsandshrieks.
While limitingchildren’sability tocreatenewplotsandoriginalcontent, thepresetcartooncharactersets did afford easy recognition of familiar roles and storylines (e.g., princess, dragon, castle) whichenhancedmultiplayercollaborationaschildrencouldquicklyjoinaplayscenarioinprogress.AsinAllieand Sierra’s play, the app’s inclusion of seemingly unrelated characters like the chipmunk and crowopenednewpossibilitiesforstorylinesthatthechildrenfoundhumorousandengaging.Additionalsetswereavailableforpurchaseanda“director’spass”upgradeintheprogramenabledchildrentousetheiPad camera to import photos and trace a cutout feature that allowed children to create their ownpuppetsortocreatecustombackdrops.Childrenspenttimegatheringtoysandclassroommaterialstotakepictures toadd to their films.Theyalso tookphotosofoneanother toputa friend in the story.Unlike Toontastic, there was no paint program to enable modifying the photo or to draw originalcharacters.
ThePuppetPals AppMap (Figure 7) below reflects the high potential formultiplayer collaboration asseveral children could manipulate characters, which was limited only by the size of the tablettouchscreen, as well as high production capacity for original content that inspired children tophotographclassroomtoysandimportthemintotheirfilms.Mediumlevelsofconnectivityreflectthefact that films could be saved for sharing on external sites.Multimodalmanipulation was limited toanimationandaudiorecordingastherearenoin-appdrawing,paint,ormusictools.Thelowestscoreismultilinearity:theapp’ssimpledesignimmediatelyoverwritesanyunsavedrecording;althoughitdoesnotimposeatemplateforalinearstoryarc,italsodoesnotenablemultiplerecordingsorrevisions.
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Figure7.PuppetPalsAppMap
JibJabJr.Books
Incontrasttothepuppetryanimationapps,anebookapphadlittlestayingpowerwithchildrenintheLiteracyPlayshopproject.TheylostinterestrelativelyquicklyintheJibJabJr.Books(2011)personalizedebookprograminwhichachildcantakeaself-portraitwiththeiPadcamera,tracearoundone’shead,and import thecut-outtopaste itonacartoonbodytocreateacartoonchef. Inthehighly-animatedmusicalstorybook,thechildcanviewthepagesasthepersonalizedchefcharacterhumorouslymakesapizza across the course of the book. Amy, one childwhoworkedwith the app on several days, wascontent to tapon thescreentopage throughthebook, repeatedlyshowing it to friendsat the table.However,herinterestfadedaftertwodaysastheappdidnotallowhertovarythetextcontentorthesequenceofeventsortoaddspeechormusic.ThebookcouldnotbesharedonlineandcouldonlybeviewedonaniPadwiththeapp.
TheJibJabAppMap(Figure8)belowshowsanoveralllowscorefordigitalliteracies.Theendproductofapersonalizedebookwasquitepolishedbutwithlittlepossibilityformultiplayercollaboration,originalcontent,multimodalmanipulation,storylineflexibility,orsharingamongplayers.
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Figure8.JibJabJr.BooksAppMap
ComparisonofApps
Acomparisonofallfourappsrevealsthattheprogramsvariedwidelyintheircapacityforsupportingparticipatoryliteracies,butingeneral,therewerelowerlevelsforconnectivityandmultilinearity,andhigherlevelsforproductivity,multiplayercollaboration,andmultimodalcreativity.Someofthelimitationsappeartechnologicalandrelatedtodesignfeatureswhileothersappeardiscursiveandrelatedtoideologicalbeliefsaboutchildren’sabilitiesorthenatureofliteracy.Forexample,lowconnectivityseemsrelatedtosafetyconcernsforlimitingchildren’scontactwithonlineothersandproprietaryinterestsforgeneratingmoreusersthroughinternalsharingnetworks.Multi-linearityisenabledbymoreopen-endedappsanduserinterfacesthatprovidehtmlnavigationbutlimitedbystructuredstorytemplatesorvideoproductionthatresultsinalinearfilm.Productivityappearstobeoneofthemosteasilyenableddimensionsthrougharecordingoptionthatmakesuseofthetablet’sinternalcameraandmicrophone.Higherlevelsofmultimodalityrequiremoredesignfeatures,suchaspaintorphotographyprogramsorpre-loadedlibrariesofmusicandsoundeffectoptions.Multiplayercollaborationissometimeslimitedbythesizeofthetablettouchscreensorbyuserinterfacesthateitherlimitorbecomeoverwhelmedbymultiplesimultaneoususertouches.
Table3.ComparingAppsacrossFiveDimensionsofParticipatoryLiteracies
DigitalStorytellingApps Multi-player
Product-ive
Multi-modal
Multi-linear
Connected
JibJabPersonalizede-book LOW LOW LOW LOW LOW
PuppetPals*CartoonorPhotoAnimation HIGH HIGH MEDIUM LOW MEDIUM
Toontastic*CartoonorPhotoAnimation MEDIUM HIGH HIGH LOW LOW
Grandma’sKitchenProducingormakingthingsandinteractionwithavatars
MEDIUM MEDIUM MEDIUM/HIGH HIGH LOW
*basiclevelsofthefreeversionoftheapplimitsoriginalcontenttolowestlevel;purchaseofupgraderequiredtoenableoriginalcontent
Discussion:AppsandParticipatoryLiteracies
Comparingfourpopularappsmakesclearthedisparateadoptionsofparticipatoryliteraciesandcompetencies.Thereisanopen,participatory,anddesignfeeltoappsthatalignwithnewdigitallogics.Regardingthelogicofparticipatoryliteracies,notallappsofferedthecapacitytomakemeaningacrossa
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varietyofmodeswithpeersinanunpredictable,multilinearway,andthentodocumentthesepracticesinsomewaysuchasfilmingastoryorremixingfamiliarandnovelcharacterstocreateanoriginalfilmthatcanbesharedwithdistantothers.Instead,appsfeaturedinthechapterexhibitedoneortwoofeachbenchmarks.Thereisaskillsdeliveryfocusinsomeapps,oran‘oldwineinnewbottles’(Lankshear&Knobel,2003)feelthat,inourexperience,childrenseethroughrightaway.Giventhepopularityofthefourappsfeaturedinthechapter,ithasbeentellingtointerprethowmuchappsactuallyalignwithnewwaysofthinkingandcommunicatingandthesecomparisonspointtolargerissuesandimplicationsintermsofwherewearepresentlyinunderstandingandrealizingparticipatoryliteracieswithineverydaytechnologies.Insomeways,wearestillconstrainedbywhatwethinkofasautonomousviewsofliteracylearning.
Thereisagroundedmobilityfromthephysicaltothevirtualacrossalloftheappsthatweanalyzed.Burnett’sresearchhasexaminedhowchildrenmoveacrossphysicalandvirtualspacesandmanifestimmaterialliteracies(Burnett,2015)whentheydoso.Importanttotheconceptofparticipatoryliteracies,thisproductivityandconnectednessbetweenmaterialandvirtualworldsinvitesmultimodalsense-makingaschildrenuseanensembleofresourcesthroughtheirimaginativeengagements.Previousnotionsofliteracypracticesintext-orientedparadigmsmaintaina“boundedness”tomeaning-making.Forexample,withintheCrayonsandiPadsresearchnotonlydidchildrenplayacrossvirtualandphysicalworlds,theyalsowouldproducetextsasaresultofthisim/materialmovementandmobility.TheresearchteamobservedthatwhenchildrenplayedtheGrandma’sKitchenapp,theywouldexperimentwithactionsthattheycompletedintheappsuchascrackinganegg,thentheywouldapplythatknowledgetothephysicaltoyegginthepretendkitchen.Extendingthisphysicalplay,theywouldmovetoastoryanddrawingcentreandsketchoutstoriesfrompropertieswithinthevirtualandphysicalplay–beingwithGrandmaorafamilymemberandbakingsomething.Tocompletethisproductivework,theywoulduseastyluspenontheiPadorcrayonsandpaper.The“converged”worldofthechildren’splayacrossthesecontextsofferedgreaterandmoredynamicopportunitiestocombineanddevelopparticipatoryliteracies.
BuildingontheworkofBrianStreetandhiscontentionthatpolicyhasatendencytoframeliteracyasanautonomousskillthatweacquirefromformalized,school-basedapproachestoliteracylearningandthatwecognitivelydevelopandcarrywithus(Street,1984),wesimilarlypositthatmanycommercialappsstillworkwithinaprint-centric,autonomousmodelofliteracythatexistswithinoldermodelsofliteracylearning.Thatis,suchappsneedtoteachaskill,beusedinasolitaryway,andfollowalinearpath.Forinstance,Toontasticdoesnotallowplayerstostrayfromconventionalstorylinesandtrajectoriesfromanintroduction,denouement,conflict,resolution,andconclusionanditisnotaformatthatisconducivetobefilmed,converged,andsharedwithapeergroup.Withinthesetstructuresoftheseapps,thereisnottheopennessthatallowsforproblem-solvingandexperimentation.Forexample,JibJabdoesnotincludeamultiplayerplatform,doesnotinviteproductivityandsharing,andthereisnotmuchevidenceofmultimodality.Inotherwords,print-boundapps,althoughattimesengaging,donotinviteandfosterthekindsofpracticesandthinkingprocessesparticipatoryliteraciesmakepossible.
Ourearlythinkingaboutalackofalignmentbetweenappsandparticipatoryliteraciesisthatthereisagreaterneedforanideologicalapproachtoappliteracies.ThinkingaboutStreet’swritingaboutideologicalmodelsofliteracy(Street,1995),itstartsfromabeliefthatknowledgeissociallyconstructedandepistemologicalframingsoftextsaresocially-constructedandmediated.RelatingStreet’sdifferentiationbetweenautonomousandideologicalapproachestoliteracy,appsthatencouragemoreofanautonomousmodelcomefromonedominantassumption,acquiringpredominantlylanguageskills
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throughafunplatformthatencouragesomeplay,butultimatelywithapedagogicendandoftenplayedinasolitaryway.Incontrast,appsthatencouragemoreofanideologicalmodelprovideopennesstoitsdesign,withpotentialformultipleplayers’participationandproductiveplaywhereyoucanmakeyourowncontentanduseavarietyofmodestodoso.
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