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3AMPLE !0! 2ESEARCH 0APER
3AMPLE 4ITLE 0AGE
2UNNING ON %MPTY
2UNNING ON %MPTY
4HE %FFECTS OF &OOD $EPRIVATION ON
#ONCENTRATION AND 0ERSEVERANCE
4HOMAS $ELANCY AND !DAM 3OLBERG
$ORDT #OLLEGE
0LACEMANUSCRIPT
PAGE HEADERSONEHALFINCH FROMTHE TOP 0UTFIVE SPACESBETWEEN THEPAGE HEADERAND THE PAGE
NUMBER
&ULL TITLEAUTHORS ANDSCHOOL NAMEARE CENTEREDON THE PAGE
TYPED INUPPERCASE ANDLOWERCASE
4HE ABSTRACTSUMMARIZESTHE PROBLEMPARTICIPANTSHYPOTHESESMETHODSUSED
RESULTS ANDCONCLUSIONS
3AMPLE !BSTRACT
2UNNING ON %MPTY
!BSTRACT
4HIS STUDY EXAMINED THE EFFECTS OF SHORTTERM FOOD DEPRIVATION ON TWO
COGNITIVE ABILITIESCONCENTRATION AND PERSEVERANCE 5NDERGRADUATE
STUDENTS . WERE TESTED ON BOTH A CONCENTRATION TASK AND A
PERSEVERANCE TASK AFTER ONE OF THREE LEVELS OF FOOD DEPRIVATION NONE
HOURS OR HOURS 7E PREDICTED THAT FOOD DEPRIVATION WOULD IMPAIR BOTH
CONCENTRATION SCORES AND PERSEVERANCE TIME &OOD DEPRIVATION HAD NO
SIGNIFICANT EFFECT ON CONCENTRATION SCORES WHICH IS CONSISTENT WITH RECENT
RESEARCH ON THE EFFECTS OF FOOD DEPRIVATION 'REEN ET AL 'REEN
ET AL (OWEVER PARTICIPANTS IN THE HOUR DEPRIVATION GROUP
SPENT SIGNIFICANTLY LESS TIME ON THE PERSEVERANCE TASK THAN THOSE IN BOTH
THE CONTROL AND HOUR DEPRIVATION GROUPS SUGGESTING THAT SHORTTERM
DEPRIVATION MAY AFFECT SOME ASPECTS OF COGNITION AND NOT OTHERS
!N !0! 2ESEARCH 0APER -ODEL4HOMAS $ELANCY AND !DAM 3OLBERG WROTE THE FOLLOWING RESEARCH PAPER FOR
A PSYCHOLOGY CLASS !S YOU REVIEW THEIR PAPER READ THE SIDE NOTES AND EXAMINE THEFOLLOWING
L 4HE USE AND DOCUMENTATION OF THEIR NUMEROUS SOURCESL 4HE BACKGROUND THEY PROVIDE BEFORE GETTING INTO THEIR OWN STUDY RESULTSL 4HE SCIENTIFIC LANGUAGE USED WHEN REPORTING THEIR RESULTS
4HEINTRODUCTIONSTATES THETOPIC ANDTHE MAIN
QUESTIONS TOBE EXPLORED
4HERESEARCHERS
SUPPLYBACKGROUNDINFORMATIONBY DISCUSSINGPAST RESEARCHON THE TOPIC
%XTENSIVEREFERENCINGESTABLISHESSUPPORTFOR THE
DISCUSSION
2UNNING ON %MPTY
2UNNING ON %MPTY 4HE %FFECTS OF &OOD $EPRIVATION
ON #ONCENTRATION AND 0ERSEVERANCE
-ANY THINGS INTERRUPT PEOPLES ABILITY TO FOCUS ON A TASK DISTRACTIONS
HEADACHES NOISY ENVIRONMENTS AND EVEN PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS 4O
SOME EXTENT PEOPLE CAN CONTROL THE ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS THAT MAKE IT
DIFFICULT TO FOCUS (OWEVER WHAT ABOUT INTERNAL FACTORS SUCH AS AN EMPTY
STOMACH #AN PEOPLE INCREASE THEIR ABILITY TO FOCUS SIMPLY BY EATING
REGULARLY
/NE THEORY THAT PROMPTED RESEARCH ON HOW FOOD INTAKE AFFECTS THE
AVERAGE PERSON WAS THE GLUCOSTATIC THEORY 3EVERAL RESEARCHERS IN THE
S AND S SUGGESTED THAT THE BRAIN REGULATES FOOD INTAKE IN ORDER
TO MAINTAIN A BLOODGLUCOSE SET POINT 4HE IDEA WAS THAT PEOPLE BECOME
HUNGRY WHEN THEIR BLOODGLUCOSE LEVELS DROP SIGNIFICANTLY BELOW THEIR SET
POINT AND THAT THEY BECOME SATISFIED AFTER EATING WHEN THEIR BLOODGLUCOSE
LEVELS RETURN TO THAT SET POINT 4HIS THEORY SEEMED LOGICAL BECAUSE GLUCOSE
IS THE BRAINS PRIMARY FUEL 0INEL 4HE EARLIEST INVESTIGATION OF THE
GENERAL EFFECTS OF FOOD DEPRIVATION FOUND THAT LONGTERM FOOD DEPRIVATION
HOURS AND LONGER WAS ASSOCIATED WITH SLUGGISHNESS DEPRESSION
IRRITABILITY REDUCED HEART RATE AND INABILITY TO CONCENTRATE +EYS "ROZEK
(ENSCHEL -ICKELSEN 4AYLOR !NOTHER STUDY FOUND THAT FASTING
FOR SEVERAL DAYS PRODUCED MUSCULAR WEAKNESS IRRITABILITY AND APATHY OR
DEPRESSION +OLLAR 3LATER 0ALMER $OCTER -ANDELL 3INCE THAT TIME
RESEARCH HAS FOCUSED MAINLY ON HOW NUTRITION AFFECTS COGNITION (OWEVER AS
'REEN %LLIMAN AND 2OGERS POINT OUT THE EFFECTS OF FOOD DEPRIVATION
ON COGNITION HAVE RECEIVED COMPARATIVELY LESS ATTENTION IN RECENT YEARS
#ENTER THETITLE ONE INCHFROM THE TOP$OUBLESPACETHROUGHOUT
2UNNING ON %MPTY
4HE RELATIVELY SPARSE RESEARCH ON FOOD DEPRIVATION HAS LEFT ROOM FOR
FURTHER RESEARCH &IRST MUCH OF THE RESEARCH HAS FOCUSED EITHER ON CHRONIC
STARVATION AT ONE END OF THE CONTINUUM OR ON MISSING A SINGLE MEAL AT THE
OTHER END 'REEN ET AL 3ECOND SOME OF THE FINDINGS HAVE BEEN
CONTRADICTORY /NE STUDY FOUND THAT SKIPPING BREAKFAST IMPAIRS CERTAIN
ASPECTS OF COGNITION SUCH AS PROBLEMSOLVING ABILITIES 0OLLITT ,EWIS
'ARZA 3HULMAN (OWEVER OTHER RESEARCH BY - 7 'REEN .
! %LLIMAN AND 0 * 2OGERS HAS FOUND THAT FOOD DEPRIVATION
RANGING FROM MISSING A SINGLE MEAL TO HOURS WITHOUT EATING DOES NOT
SIGNIFICANTLY IMPAIR COGNITION 4HIRD NOT ALL GROUPS OF PEOPLE HAVE BEEN
SUFFICIENTLY STUDIED 3TUDIES HAVE BEEN DONE ON n YEAROLDS 0OLLITT ET
AL OBESE SUBJECTS #RUMPTON 7INE $RENICK COLLEGEAGE
MEN AND WOMEN 'REEN ET AL AND MIDDLEAGE MALES
+OLLAR ET AL &OURTH NOT ALL COGNITIVE ASPECTS HAVE BEEN STUDIED
)N 'REEN %LLIMAN AND 2OGERS STUDIED SUSTAINED ATTENTION SIMPLE
REACTION TIME AND IMMEDIATE MEMORY IN THEY STUDIED ATTENTIONAL
BIAS AND IN THEY STUDIED SIMPLE REACTION TIME TWOFINGER TAPPING
RECOGNITION MEMORY AND FREE RECALL )N ANOTHER STUDY FOCUSED ON
REACTION TIME AND ACCURACY INTELLIGENCE QUOTIENT AND PROBLEM SOLVING
0OLLITT ET AL
!CCORDING TO SOME RESEARCHERS MOST OF THE RESULTS SO FAR INDICATE THAT
COGNITIVE FUNCTION IS NOT AFFECTED SIGNIFICANTLY BY SHORTTERM FASTING 'REEN
ET AL P (OWEVER THIS CONCLUSION SEEMS PREMATURE DUE TO THE
RELATIVE LACK OF RESEARCH ON COGNITIVE FUNCTIONS SUCH AS CONCENTRATION AND
PERSEVERANCE 4O DATE NO STUDY HAS TESTED PERSEVERANCE DESPITE ITS
IMPORTANCE IN COGNITIVE FUNCTIONING )N FACT PERSEVERANCE MAY BE A BETTER
INDICATOR THAN ACHIEVEMENT TESTS IN ASSESSING GROWTH IN LEARNING AND
THINKING ABILITIES AS PERSEVERANCE HELPS IN SOLVING COMPLEX PROBLEMS
#OSTA !NOTHER STUDY ALSO RECOGNIZED THAT PERSEVERANCE BETTER
LEARNING TECHNIQUES AND EFFORT ARE COGNITIONS WORTH STUDYING $!GOSTINO
4ESTING AS MANY ASPECTS OF COGNITION AS POSSIBLE IS KEY BECAUSE THE
NATURE OF THE TASK IS IMPORTANT WHEN INTERPRETING THE LINK BETWEEN FOOD
DEPRIVATION AND COGNITIVE PERFORMANCE 3MITH +ENDRICK
#LEARTRANSITIONS
GUIDE READERSTHROUGH THERESEARCHERSREASONING
4HERESEARCHERSEXPLAIN HOWTHEIR STUDYWILL ADD TO
PAST RESEARCHON THE TOPIC
4HERESEARCHERSSUPPORT THEIRDECISION TOFOCUS ON
CONCENTRATIONAND
PERSEVERANCE
2UNNING ON %MPTY
4HEREFORE THE CURRENT STUDY HELPS US UNDERSTAND HOW SHORTTERM FOOD
DEPRIVATION AFFECTS CONCENTRATION ON AND PERSEVERANCE WITH A DIFFICULT TASK
3PECIFICALLY PARTICIPANTS DEPRIVED OF FOOD FOR HOURS WERE EXPECTED TO
PERFORM WORSE ON A CONCENTRATION TEST AND A PERSEVERANCE TASK THAN THOSE
DEPRIVED FOR HOURS WHO IN TURN WERE PREDICTED TO PERFORM WORSE THAN
THOSE WHO WERE NOT DEPRIVED OF FOOD
-ETHOD
0ARTICIPANTS
0ARTICIPANTS INCLUDED UNDERGRADUATESTUDENT VOLUNTEERS
FEMALES MALES SOME OF WHOM RECEIVED A SMALL AMOUNT OF EXTRA CREDIT
IN A COLLEGE COURSE 4HE MEAN COLLEGE GRADE POINT AVERAGE '0! WAS
0OTENTIAL PARTICIPANTS WERE EXCLUDED IF THEY WERE DIETING MENSTRUATING
OR TAKING SPECIAL MEDICATION 4HOSE WHO WERE STRUGGLING WITH OR HAD
STRUGGLED WITH AN EATING DISORDER WERE EXCLUDED AS WERE POTENTIAL
PARTICIPANTS ADDICTED TO NICOTINE OR CAFFEINE
-ATERIALS
#ONCENTRATION SPEED AND ACCURACY WERE MEASURED USING AN ONLINE
NUMBERSMATCHING TEST WWWPSYCHTESTSCOMTESTSIQCONCENTRATIONHTML
THAT CONSISTED OF LINES OF NUMBERS EACH )N MINUTES PARTICIPANTS
WERE REQUIRED TO FIND PAIRS OF NUMBERS IN EACH LINE THAT ADDED UP TO
3CORES WERE CALCULATED AS THE PERCENTAGE OF CORRECTLY IDENTIFIED PAIRS OUT OF
A POSSIBLE 0ERSEVERANCE WAS MEASURED WITH A PUZZLE THAT CONTAINED
FIVE OCTAGONSEACH OF WHICH INCLUDED A STENCIL OF A SPECIFIC OBJECT SUCH
AS AN ANIMAL OR A FLOWER 4HE OCTAGONS WERE TO BE PLACED ON TOP OF
EACH OTHER IN A SPECIFIC WAY TO MAKE THE SILHOUETTE OF A RABBIT (OWEVER
THREE OF THE SHAPES WERE SLIGHTLY ALTERED SO THAT THE TASK WAS IMPOSSIBLE
0ERSEVERANCE SCORES WERE CALCULATED AS THE NUMBER OF MINUTES THAT A
PARTICIPANT SPENT ON THE PUZZLE TASK BEFORE GIVING UP
0ROCEDURE
!T AN INITIAL MEETING PARTICIPANTS GAVE INFORMED CONSENT %ACH
CONSENT FORM CONTAINED AN ASSIGNED IDENTIFICATION NUMBER AND REQUESTED
THE PARTICIPANTS '0! 3TUDENTS WERE THEN INFORMED THAT THEY WOULD BE
NOTIFIED BY EMAIL AND TELEPHONE ABOUT THEIR ASSIGNMENT TO ONE OF THE
4HERESEARCHERSSTATE THEIR
INITIALHYPOTHESES
(EADINGS ANDSUBHEADINGSSHOW THEPAPERS
ORGANIZATION
4HEEXPERIMENTSMETHOD ISDESCRIBEDUSING THETERMS ANDACRONYMS OFTHE DISCIPLINE
0ASSIVE VOICEIS USED TOEMPHASIZE
THEEXPERIMENTNOT THE
RESEARCHERSOTHERWISEACTIVE VOICEIS USED
2UNNING ON %MPTY
THREE EXPERIMENTAL GROUPS .EXT STUDENTS WERE GIVEN AN INSTRUCTION
SHEET 4HESE WRITTEN INSTRUCTIONS WHICH WE ALSO READ ALOUD EXPLAINED
THE EXPERIMENTAL CONDITIONS CLARIFIED GUIDELINES FOR THE FOOD DEPRIVATION
PERIOD AND SPECIFIED THE TIME AND LOCATION OF TESTING
0ARTICIPANTS WERE RANDOMLY ASSIGNED TO ONE OF THESE CONDITIONS
USING A MATCHEDTRIPLETS DESIGN BASED ON THE '0!S COLLECTED AT THE
INITIAL MEETING 4HIS DESIGN WAS USED TO CONTROL INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES
IN COGNITIVE ABILITY 4WO DAYS AFTER THE INITIAL MEETING PARTICIPANTS WERE
INFORMED OF THEIR GROUP ASSIGNMENT AND ITS CONDITION AND REMINDED THAT
IF THEY WERE IN A FOODDEPRIVED GROUP THEY SHOULD NOT EAT ANYTHING AFTER
AM THE NEXT DAY 0ARTICIPANTS FROM THE CONTROL GROUP WERE TESTED AT
PM IN A DESIGNATED COMPUTER LAB ON THE DAY THE DEPRIVATION STARTED
4HOSE IN THE HOUR GROUP WERE TESTED AT PM ON THAT SAME DAY
4HOSE IN THE HOUR GROUP WERE TESTED AT AM ON THE FOLLOWING DAY
!T THEIR ASSIGNED TIME PARTICIPANTS ARRIVED AT A COMPUTER LAB
FOR TESTING %ACH PARTICIPANT WAS GIVEN WRITTEN TESTING INSTRUCTIONS
WHICH WERE ALSO READ ALOUD 4HE ONLINE CONCENTRATION TEST HAD ALREADY
BEEN LOADED ON THE COMPUTERS FOR PARTICIPANTS BEFORE THEY ARRIVED FOR
TESTING SO SHORTLY AFTER THEY ARRIVED THEY PROCEEDED TO COMPLETE THE
TEST )MMEDIATELY AFTER ALL PARTICIPANTS HAD COMPLETED THE TEST AND THEIR
SCORES WERE RECORDED PARTICIPANTS WERE EACH GIVEN THE SILHOUETTE PUZZLE
AND INSTRUCTED HOW TO PROCEED )N ADDITION THEY WERE TOLD THAT THEY
WOULD HAVE AN UNLIMITED AMOUNT OF TIME TO COMPLETE THE TASK AND
THEY WERE NOT TO TELL ANY OTHER PARTICIPANT WHETHER THEY HAD COMPLETED
THE PUZZLE OR SIMPLY GIVEN UP 4HIS PROCEDURE WAS FOLLOWED TO PREVENT
THE GROUP INFLUENCE OF SOME PARTICIPANTS SEEING OTHERS GIVE UP !NY
PARTICIPANT STILL WORKING ON THE PUZZLE AFTER MINUTES WAS STOPPED TO
KEEP THE TIME OF THE STUDY MANAGEABLE )MMEDIATELY AFTER EACH PARTICIPANT
STOPPED WORKING ON THE PUZZLE HESHE GAVE DEMOGRAPHIC INFORMATION
AND COMPLETED A FEW MANIPULATIONCHECK ITEMS 7E THEN DEBRIEFED AND
DISMISSED EACH PARTICIPANT OUTSIDE OF THE LAB
!TTENTION ISSHOWN TOTHE CONTROLFEATURES
4HEEXPERIMENT ISLAID OUT STEP
BY STEPWITH TIMETRANSITIONSLIKE hTHENvAND hNEXTv
2UNNING ON %MPTY
2ESULTS
0ERSEVERANCE DATA FROM ONE CONTROLGROUP PARTICIPANT WERE
ELIMINATED BECAUSE SHE HAD TO LEAVE THE SESSION EARLY #ONCENTRATION DATA
FROM ANOTHER CONTROLGROUP PARTICIPANT WERE DROPPED BECAUSE HE DID NOT
COMPLETE THE TEST CORRECTLY 4HREE MANIPULATIONCHECK QUESTIONS INDICATED
THAT EACH PARTICIPANT CORRECTLY PERCEIVED HIS OR HER DEPRIVATION CONDITION
AND HAD FOLLOWED THE RULES FOR IT 4HE AVERAGE CONCENTRATION SCORE WAS
3$ WHICH WAS VERY GOOD CONSIDERING THAT ANYTHING OVER
PERCENT IS LABELED hGOODv OR hABOVE AVERAGEv 4HE AVERAGE TIME SPENT
ON THE PUZZLE WAS MINUTES 3$ WITH A MAXIMUM OF
MINUTES ALLOWED
7E PREDICTED THAT PARTICIPANTS IN THE HOUR DEPRIVATION GROUP
WOULD PERFORM WORSE ON THE CONCENTRATION TEST AND THE PERSEVERANCE TASK
THAN THOSE IN THE HOUR GROUP WHO IN TURN WOULD PERFORM WORSE THAN
THOSE IN THE CONTROL GROUP ! ONEWAY ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE !./6!
SHOWED NO SIGNIFICANT EFFECT OF DEPRIVATION CONDITION ON CONCENTRATION
& P SEE &IGURE !NOTHER ONEWAY !./6! INDICATED
&IGURE
.O DEPRIVATION HOUR DEPRIVATION HOUR DEPRIVATION
$EPRIVATION #ONDITION
-EANSCOREONCONCENTRATIONTEST
4HE WRITERSSUMMARIZE
THEIR FINDINGSINCLUDINGPROBLEMS
ENCOUNTERED
h3EE &IGUREv SENDS
READERS TO AFIGURE GRAPHPHOTOGRAPHCHART ORDRAWING
CONTAINED INTHE PAPER
!LL FIGURESAND
ILLUSTRATIONSOTHER THANTABLES ARENUMBEREDIN THE ORDERTHAT THEYARE FIRST
MENTIONED INTHE TEXT
2UNNING ON %MPTY
A SIGNIFICANT EFFECT OF DEPRIVATION CONDITION ON PERSEVERANCE TIME
& P 0OSTHOC 4UKEY TESTS INDICATED THAT THE HOUR
DEPRIVATION GROUP - 3$ SPENT SIGNIFICANTLY LESS TIME
ON THE PERSEVERANCE TASK THAN EITHER THE CONTROL GROUP - 3$
OR THE HOUR GROUP - 3$ WITH NO SIGNIFICANT
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE LATTER TWO GROUPS SEE &IGURE .O SIGNIFICANT
EFFECT WAS FOUND FOR GENDER EITHER GENERALLY OR WITH SPECIFIC DEPRIVATION
CONDITIONS &S 5NEXPECTEDLY FOOD DEPRIVATION HAD NO SIGNIFICANT
EFFECT ON CONCENTRATION SCORES /VERALL WE FOUND SUPPORT FOR OUR
HYPOTHESIS THAT HOURS OF FOOD DEPRIVATION WOULD SIGNIFICANTLY IMPAIR
PERSEVERANCE WHEN COMPARED TO NO DEPRIVATION 5NEXPECTEDLY HOURS
OF FOOD DEPRIVATION DID NOT SIGNIFICANTLY AFFECT PERSEVERANCE RELATIVE TO THE
CONTROL GROUP !LSO UNEXPECTEDLY FOOD DEPRIVATION DID NOT SIGNIFICANTLY
AFFECT CONCENTRATION SCORES
$ISCUSSION
4HE PURPOSE OF THIS STUDY WAS TO TEST HOW DIFFERENT LEVELS OF FOOD
DEPRIVATION AFFECT CONCENTRATION ON AND PERSEVERANCE WITH DIFFICULT TASKS
-EANSCOREONPERSEVERANCETEST
&IGURE
.O DEPRIVATION HOUR DEPRIVATION HOUR DEPRIVATION
$EPRIVATION #ONDITION
4HERESEARCHERSRESTATE THEIRHYPOTHESESAND THE
RESULTS ANDGO ON TOINTERPRET
THOSE RESULTS
2UNNING ON %MPTY
7E PREDICTED THAT THE LONGER PEOPLE HAD BEEN DEPRIVED OF FOOD THE LOWER
THEY WOULD SCORE ON THE CONCENTRATION TASK AND THE LESS TIME THEY WOULD
SPEND ON THE PERSEVERANCE TASK )N THIS STUDY THOSE DEPRIVED OF FOOD DID
GIVE UP MORE QUICKLY ON THE PUZZLE BUT ONLY IN THE HOUR GROUP 4HUS
THE HYPOTHESIS WAS PARTIALLY SUPPORTED FOR THE PERSEVERANCE TASK (OWEVER
CONCENTRATION WAS FOUND TO BE UNAFFECTED BY FOOD DEPRIVATION AND THUS
THE HYPOTHESIS WAS NOT SUPPORTED FOR THAT TASK
4HE FINDINGS OF THIS STUDY ARE CONSISTENT WITH THOSE OF 'REEN ET AL
WHERE SHORTTERM FOOD DEPRIVATION DID NOT AFFECT SOME ASPECTS
OF COGNITION INCLUDING ATTENTIONAL FOCUS 4AKEN TOGETHER THESE FINDINGS
SUGGEST THAT CONCENTRATION IS NOT SIGNIFICANTLY IMPAIRED BY SHORTTERM
FOOD DEPRIVATION 4HE FINDINGS ON PERSEVERANCE HOWEVER ARE NOT AS EASILY
EXPLAINED 7E SURMISE THAT THE PARTICIPANTS IN THE HOUR GROUP GAVE UP
MORE QUICKLY ON THE PERSEVERANCE TASK BECAUSE OF THEIR HUNGER PRODUCED
BY THE FOOD DEPRIVATION "UT WHY THEN DID THOSE IN THE HOUR GROUP
FAIL TO YIELD THE SAME EFFECT 7E POSTULATE THAT THIS RESULT CAN BE EXPLAINED
BY THE CONCEPT OF hLEARNED INDUSTRIOUSNESSv WHEREIN PARTICIPANTS WHO
PERFORM ONE DIFFICULT TASK DO BETTER ON A SUBSEQUENT TASK THAN THE
PARTICIPANTS WHO NEVER TOOK THE INITIAL TASK %ISENBERGER ,EONARD
(ICKMAN 3TROMME ,IPPMAN "ECAUSE PARTICIPANTS
HAD SUCCESSFULLY COMPLETED HOURS OF FASTING ALREADY THEIR TENDENCY
TO PERSEVERE HAD ALREADY BEEN INCREASED IF ONLY TEMPORARILY !NOTHER
POSSIBLE EXPLANATION IS THAT THE MOTIVATIONAL STATE OF A PARTICIPANT MAY BE
A SIGNIFICANT DETERMINANT OF BEHAVIOR UNDER TESTING 3AUGSTAD 4HIS
IDEA MAY ALSO EXPLAIN THE SHORT PERSEVERANCE TIMES IN THE HOUR GROUP
BECAUSE THESE PARTICIPANTS TOOK THE TESTS AT PM A PRIME TIME OF THE
NIGHT FOR CONDUCTING BUSINESS AND SOCIALIZING ON A COLLEGE CAMPUS THEY
MAY HAVE BEEN LESS MOTIVATED TO TAKE THE TIME TO WORK ON THE PUZZLE
2ESEARCH ON FOOD DEPRIVATION AND COGNITION COULD CONTINUE IN SEVERAL
DIRECTIONS &IRST OTHER ASPECTS OF COGNITION MAY BE AFFECTED BY SHORTTERM
FOOD DEPRIVATION SUCH AS READING COMPREHENSION OR MOTIVATION 7ITH
RESPECT TO THIS LATTER TOPIC SOME STUDENTS IN THIS STUDY REPORTED DECREASED
MOTIVATION TO COMPLETE THE TASKS BECAUSE OF A DESIRE TO EAT IMMEDIATELY
4HE WRITERSSPECULATEON POSSIBLEEXPLANATIONS
FOR THEUNEXPECTEDRESULTS
2UNNING ON %MPTY
AFTER THE TESTING )N ADDITION THE TIME OF DAY WHEN THE RESPECTIVE GROUPS
TOOK THE TESTS MAY HAVE INFLUENCED THE RESULTS THOSE IN THE HOUR
GROUP TOOK THE TESTS IN THE MORNING AND MAY HAVE BEEN FRESHER AND MORE
RELAXED THAN THOSE IN THE HOUR GROUP WHO TOOK THE TESTS AT NIGHT
0ERHAPS THEN THE MOTIVATION LEVEL OF FOODDEPRIVED PARTICIPANTS COULD
BE EFFECTIVELY TESTED 3ECOND LONGERTERM FOOD DEPRIVATION PERIODS SUCH
AS THOSE EXPERIENCED BY PEOPLE FASTING FOR RELIGIOUS REASONS COULD BE
EXPLORED )T IS POSSIBLE THAT COGNITIVE FUNCTION FLUCTUATES OVER THE DURATION
OF DEPRIVATION 3TUDIES COULD ASK HOW LONG A PERSON CAN REMAIN FOCUSED
DESPITE A LACK OF NUTRITION 4HIRD AND PERHAPS MOST FASCINATING STUDIES
COULD EXPLORE HOW FOOD DEPRIVATION AFFECTS LEARNED INDUSTRIOUSNESS !S
STATED ABOVE ONE POSSIBLE EXPLANATION FOR THE BETTER PERSEVERANCE TIMES
IN THE HOUR GROUP COULD BE THAT THEY SPONTANEOUSLY IMPROVED THEIR
PERSEVERANCE FACULTIES BY SIMPLY FORCING THEMSELVES NOT TO EAT FOR
HOURS 4HEREFORE RESEARCH COULD STUDY HOW FOOD DEPRIVATION AFFECTS THE
ACQUISITION OF PERSEVERANCE
)N CONCLUSION THE RESULTS OF THIS STUDY PROVIDE SOME FASCINATING
INSIGHTS INTO THE COGNITIVE AND PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF SKIPPING MEALS
#ONTRARY TO WHAT WE PREDICTED A PERSON MAY INDEED BE VERY CAPABLE OF
CONCENTRATING AFTER NOT EATING FOR MANY HOURS /N THE OTHER HAND IF ONE
IS TAKING A LONG TEST OR WORKING LONG HOURS AT A TEDIOUS TASK THAT REQUIRES
PERSEVERANCE ONE MAY BE HINDERED BY NOT EATING FOR A SHORT TIME AS
SHOWN BY THE HOUR GROUPS PERFORMANCE ON THE PERSEVERANCE TASK
-ANY PEOPLESTUDENTS WORKING MOTHERS AND THOSE INTERESTED IN FASTING
TO MENTION A FEWHAVE TO DEAL WITH SHORTTERM FOOD DEPRIVATION
INTENTIONAL OR UNINTENTIONAL 4HIS RESEARCH AND OTHER RESEARCH TO FOLLOW
WILL CONTRIBUTE TO KNOWLEDGE OF THE DISADVANTAGESAND POSSIBLE
ADVANTAGESOF SKIPPING MEALS 4HE MIXED RESULTS OF THIS STUDY SUGGEST
THAT WE HAVE MUCH MORE TO LEARN ABOUT SHORTTERM FOOD DEPRIVATION
4HECONCLUSIONSUMMARIZES
THEOUTCOMESSTRESSES THEEXPERIMENTSVALUE ANDANTICIPATESFURTHER
ADVANCES ONTHE TOPIC
2UNNING ON %MPTY
2EFERENCES
#OSTA ! , 4HINKING (OW DO WE KNOW STUDENTS ARE GETTING BETTER
AT IT 2OEPER 2EVIEW n
#RUMPTON % 7INE $ " $RENICK % * 3TARVATION 3TRESS
OR SATISFACTION *OURNAL OF THE !MERICAN -EDICAL !SSOCIATION
n
$!GOSTINO # ! & 4ESTING A SOCIALCOGNITIVE MODEL OF
ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION$ISSERTATION !BSTRACTS )NTERNATIONAL 3ECTION
! (UMANITIES 3OCIAL 3CIENCES
%ISENBERGER 2 ,EONARD * - %FFECTS OF CONCEPTUAL TASK
DIFFICULTY ON GENERALIZED PERSISTENCE !MERICAN *OURNAL OF 0SYCHOLOGY
n
'REEN - 7 %LLIMAN . ! 2OGERS 0 * ,ACK OF EFFECT OF
SHORTTERM FASTING ON COGNITIVE FUNCTION *OURNAL OF 0SYCHIATRIC
2ESEARCH n
'REEN - 7 %LLIMAN . ! 2OGERS 0 * (UNGER CALORIC
PRELOADING AND THE SELECTIVE PROCESSING OF FOOD AND BODY SHAPE
WORDS "RITISH *OURNAL OF #LINICAL 0SYCHOLOGY n
'REEN - 7 %LLIMAN . ! 2OGERS 0 * 4HE STUDY EFFECTS OF
FOOD DEPRIVATION AND INCENTIVE MOTIVATION ON BLOOD GLUCOSE LEVELS
AND COGNITIVE FUNCTION 0SYCHOPHARMACOLOGY n
(ICKMAN + , 3TROMME # ,IPPMAN , ' ,EARNED
INDUSTRIOUSNESS 2EPLICATION IN PRINCIPLE *OURNAL OF 'ENERAL
0SYCHOLOGY n
+EYS ! "ROZEK * (ENSCHEL ! -ICKELSEN / 4AYLOR ( ,
4HE BIOLOGY OF HUMAN STARVATION 6OL -INNEAPOLIS 5NIVERSITY OF
-INNESOTA 0RESS
+OLLAR % * 3LATER ' 2 0ALMER * / $OCTER 2 & -ANDELL ! *
-EASUREMENT OF STRESS IN FASTING MAN !RCHIVES OF 'ENERAL
0SYCHOLOGY n
0INEL * 0 "IOPSYCHOLOGY TH ED "OSTON !LLYN AND "ACON
!LL WORKSREFERRED TOIN THE PAPERAPPEAR ON
THE REFERENCEPAGE LISTEDALPHABETICALLYBY AUTHOROR TITLE
%ACH ENTRYFOLLOWS !0!GUIDELINESFOR LISTINGAUTHORSDATES
TITLES ANDPUBLISHINGINFORMATION
#APITALIZATIONPUNCTUATIONAND HANGINGINDENTATION
ARE CONSISTENTWITH !0!FORMAT
2UNNING ON %MPTY
0OLLITT % ,EWIS . , 'ARZA # 3HULMAN 2 * n &ASTING
AND COGNITIVE FUNCTION *OURNAL OF 0SYCHIATRIC 2ESEARCH n
3AUGSTAD 0 %FFECT OF FOOD DEPRIVATION ON PERCEPTIONCOGNITION
! COMMENT ;#OMMENT ON THE ARTICLE BY $AVID , 7OLITZKY=
0SYCHOLOGICAL "ULLETIN n
3MITH ! 0 +ENDRICK ! - -EALS AND PERFORMANCE )N ! 0
3MITH $ - *ONES %DS (ANDBOOK OF HUMAN PERFORMANCE 6OL
(EALTH AND PERFORMANCE PP n 3AN $IEGO !CADEMIC 0RESS
3MITH ! 0 +ENDRICK ! - -ABEN ! , %FFECTS OF BREAKFAST
AND CAFFEINE ON PERFORMANCE AND MOOD IN THE LATE MORNING AND
AFTER LUNCH .EUROPSYCHOBIOLOGY n