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Models of Abnormality

In science, the perspectives used to explain

events are known as models or paradigms Each model spells out basic assumptions, gives order

to the field under study, and sets guidelines forinvestigation

Models influence what investigators observe, the

questions they ask, the information they seek, and how

they interpret this information

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Models of Abnormality

Until recently, clinical scientists of a given place

and time tended to agree on a single model of

abnormality a model greatly influenced by the

beliefs of their culture !oday several models are used to explain and

treat abnormal functioning "ometimes in conflict, each model focuses on one

aspect of human functioning and no single model canexplain all aspects of abnormality

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!he #iological Model

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$ow %o #iological !heorists Explain Abnormal

#ehavior&

#rain anatomy !he brain is composed of '()) billion nerve cells

*called neurons+ and thousands of billions of support

cells *called glia+

ithin the brain, large groups of neurons form distinct

areas called brain regions

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#ehavior&

#rain anatomy and abnormal behavior -linical researchers have discovered connections

between certain psychological disorders and problems

in specific brain areas Example. $untington/s disease and basal ganglia *forebrain+

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#ehavior&

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#ehavior&

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#ehavior&

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#ehavior&

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"ources of #iological Abnormalities 0enetics

Abnormalities in brain anatomy or chemistry are

sometimes the result of genetic inheritance Each cell in the human body contains 12 pairs of

chromosomes, each with numerous genes that controlthe characteristics and traits a person inherits

"tudies suggest that inheritance plays a part in mood

disorders, schi3ophrenia, and other mental disordersAppears that in most cases several genes combine to produce

our actions and reactions

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"ources of #iological Abnormalities 0enetics

0enes that contribute to mental disorders are

viewed as unfortunate occurrences. May be mutations

May be inherited after a mutation in the family line May be the result of normal evolutionary principles

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"ources of #iological Abnormalities Evolution

Evolutionary theorists argue that human reactions

and the genes responsible for them have

survived over the course of time because they

have helped individuals thrive and adapt Example. !he fear response

In today/s world, however, those genes and

reactions may not be so adapative

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"ources of #iological Abnormalities 4iral

Infections

Another possible source of abnormal brain

structure or biochemical dysfunction is viral

infections

Example. "chi3ophrenia and prenatal viral exposure Interest in viral explanations of psychological

disorders has been growing in the past decade Example. Anxiety and mood disorders

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#iological !reatments

#iological practitioners attempt to pinpoint the

physical source of dysfunction to determine the

course of treatment

!hree types of biological treatment. %rug therapy

Electroconvulsive therapy *E-!+

5sychosurgery

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Electroconvulsive therapy *E-!+. Used primarily for depression, particularly when drugs

and other therapies have failed !his treatment is used on tens of thousands of depressed

persons annually

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5sychosurgery *or neurosurgery+. $istorical roots in trephination

(62)s 7 first lobotomy

Much more precise today than in the past -onsidered experimental and used only in extreme

cases

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Assessing the #iological Model

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!he 5sychodynamic Model

8ldest and most famous psychological model #ased on belief that a person/s behavior *whether

normal or abnormal+ is determined largely byunderlying dynamic 9 that is, interacting 9psychological forces of which she or he is notconsciously aware Abnormal symptoms are the result of conflict among

these forces

:ather of psychodynamic theory andpsychoanalytic therapy. "igmund :reud *(;

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$ow %id :reud Explain >ormal and Abnormal

:unctioning&

"haped by three U>-8>"-I8U" forces. Id guided by the 5leasure 5rinciple

Instinctual needs, drives, and impulses

"exual? fueled by libido *sexual energy+

Ego guided by the @eality 5rinciple "eeks gratification, but guides us to know when we can and

cannot express our wishes

Ego defense mechanisms protect us from anxiety

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:unctioning&

-aused by three U>-8>"-I8U" forces. "uperego guided by the Morality 5rinciple

-onscience? unconsciously adopted from our parents

!hese three parts of the personality are often insome degree of conflict A healthy personality is one in which an effective

working relationship exists among the three forces

If the id, ego, and superego are in excessive conflict,the person/s behavior may show signs of dysfunction

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:unctioning&

%evelopmental stages :reud proposed that at each stage of development new

events and pressures require adustment in the id, ego,

and superego If successful B personal growth

If unsuccessful B fixation at an early developmental stage,

leading to psychological abnormality #ecause parents are the key figures in early life, they are often

seen as the cause of improper development

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:unctioning&

%evelopmental stages

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$ow %o 8ther 5sychodynamic Explanations

%iffer from :reud/s&

Although new theories depart from :reud/s ideas

in important ways, each retains the belief that

human functioning is shaped by dynamic

*interacting+ forces. Ego theorists

Emphasi3e the role of the ego? consider it independent and

powerful

"elf theorists Emphasi3e the unified personality

8bect9relations theorists Emphasi3e the human need for relationships, especially

between children and caregivers

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5sychodynamic !herapies

@ange from :reudian psychoanalysis to modern

therapies

All seek to uncover past trauma and inner

conflicts !herapist acts as a Csubtle guideD

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Utili3e various techniques. :ree association

!herapist interpretation @esistance

!ransference

%ream interpretation

-atharsis

orking through

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-ontemporary trends. "hort9term psychodynamic therapies

@elational psychoanalytic therapy

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Assessing the 5sychodynamic Model

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!he #ehavioral Model

ike psychodynamic theorists, behavioral

theorists believe that our actions are determined

largely by our experiences in life

-oncentrates wholly on behaviors andenvironmental factors

#ases explanations and treatments on principles

of learning

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!he #ehavioral Model

!he model began in laboratories where

conditioning studies were conducted "everal forms of conditioning.

8perant conditioning

Modeling

-lassical conditioning

All may produce normal or abnormal behavior

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$ow %o #ehaviorists Explain Abnormal

:unctioning&

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$ow %o #ehaviorists Explain Abnormal

:unctioning&

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-lassical -onditioning

UR

Salivat

eUR

Salivat

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US

Meat

Tone

CS

Tone

CR

Salivat

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US

Meat

+

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#ehavioral !herapies

Aim to identify the behaviors that are causing

problems and replace them with more appropriate

ones

May use classical conditioning, operant conditioning, ormodeling

!herapist is CteacherD rather than healer

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#ehavioral !herapies

-lassical conditioning treatments may be used tochange abnormal reactions to particular stimuli Example. systematic desensiti3ation for phobia

"tep9by9step procedure earn relaxation skills

-onstruct a fear hierarchy

-onfront feared situations

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Assessing the #ehavioral Model

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!he -ognitive Model

!his model proposes that we can best understandabnormal functioning by looking at cognitive

processes the center of behaviors, thoughts,

and emotions

Argues that clinicians must ask questions about

assumptions, attitudes, and thoughts of a client

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$ow %o -ognitive !heorists Explain Abnormal

:unctioning&

Abnormal functioning can result from severalkinds of cognitive problems. :aulty assumptions and attitudes

Illogical thinking processes Example. overgenerali3ation

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-ognitive !herapies

5eople can overcome their problems bydeveloping new ways of thinking

Main model. #eck/s -ognitive !herapy

!he goal of therapy is to help clients recogni3e andrestructure their thinking !herapists also guide clients to challenge their dysfunctional

thoughts, try out new interpretations, and apply new ways of

thinking in their daily lives

idely used in treating depression

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Assessing the -ognitive Model

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!he $umanistic9Existential Model

-ombination model !he humanist view

Emphasis on people as friendly, cooperative, and constructive?

focus on drive to self9actuali3e through honest recognition of

strengths and weaknesses !he existentialist view

Emphasis on self9determination, choice, and individual

responsibility? focus on authenticity

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@ogers/ $umanistic

!heory and !herapy

#elieves in the basic human need for unconditionalpositive regard If received, leads to unconditional self9regard

If not, leads to Cconditions of worthD Incapable of self9actuali3ation because of distortion do not know

what they really need, etcF

@ogers/ Cclient9centeredD therapy !herapist creates a supportive climate

Unconditional positive regard Accurate empathy

0enuineness

ittle research support but positive impact on clinical practice

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0estalt !heory and !herapy

$umanistic approach %eveloped by :rit3 5erls

0oal is to guide clients toward self9recognition through

challenge and frustration

!echniques. "killful frustration

@ole playing

@ules, including C$ere and >owD and CID language

ittle research support

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"piritual 4iews and Interventions

:or most of the twentieth century, clinicalscientists viewed religion as a negativeGor at

best neutralGfactor in mental health

!his historical alienation between the clinical fieldand religion seems to be ending

@esearchers have learned that spirituality can, in

fact, be of psychological benefit to people

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Existential !heories and !herapy

#elief that psychological dysfunction is caused byself9deception? people hide from life/s

responsibilities and fail to recogni3e that it is up to

them to give meaning to their lives

In therapy, people are encouraged to accept

personal responsibility for their problems 0oals more important than technique

0reat emphasis placed on client9therapist relationship

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Existential !heories and !herapy

Existential therapists do not believe thatexperimental methods can adequately test the

effectiveness of their treatments? as a result, little

controlled research has been conducted

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Assessing the $umanistic9Existential Model

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!he "ociocultural Models

Argue that abnormal behavior is best understoodin light of the social and cultural forces that

influence an individual Address norms and roles in society

-omprised of two maor perspectives. :amily9"ocial perspective

Multicultural perspective

$ % : il " i l !h i t E l i

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$ow %o :amily9"ocial !heorists Explain

Abnormal :unctioning&

5roponents of this model argue that theoristsshould concentrate on forces that operate directly

on an individual, including. "ocial labels and roles

%iagnostic labels *example. @osenhan study+

"ocial connections and supports

$ % : il " i l !h i t E l i

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$ow %o :amily9"ocial !heorists Explain

Abnormal :unctioning&

:ocus on. :amily structure and communication

:amily systems theory argues that abnormal functioning within a

family leads to abnormal behavior *insane behavior becomes

sane in an insane environment+ Examples. enmeshed, disengaged structures

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:amily9"ocial !reatments

!his perspective has helped spur the growth ofseveral treatment approaches, including. 0roup therapy

:amily therapy

-ouple therapy

-ommunity treatment Includes prevention work

$ % M lti lt l !h i t E l i Ab l

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$ow %o Multicultural !heorists Explain Abnormal

:unctioning&

-ulture refers to the set of values, attitudes,beliefs, history, and behaviors shared by a group

of people and communicated from one generation

to the next !he multicultural, or culturally diverse, perspective has

emerged as a growing field of study

Multicultural psychologists seek to understand how

culture, race, ethnicity, gender, and similar factors affect

behavior and thought, as well as how people of different

cultures, races, and genders differ psychologically


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:unctioning&

!he model holds that an individual/s behavior isbest understood when examined in the light of

that individual/s unique cultural context

!hey also have noticed that the preudice anddiscrimination faced by many minority groups

may contribute to certain forms of abnormal

functioning

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Multicultural !reatments

"tudies have found that members of ethnic andracial minority groups tend to show less

improvement in clinical treatment than members

of maority groups !wo features of treatment can increase a therapist/s

effectiveness with minority clients. 0reater sensitivity to cultural issues

Inclusion of cultural models in treatment, especially in therapies

for children and adolescents

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Assessing the "ociocultural Models

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-omparing the Models

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Integration of the Models

A growing number of clinicians favor explanationsof abnormal behavior that consider more than

one cause at a time !hese are sometimes called biopsychosocial theories

Abnormality results from the interaction of genetic, biological,

developmental, emotional, behavioral, cognitive, social, and

societal influences

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Integration of the Models

"ome biopsychosocial theorists favor a diathesis9stress approach

%iathesis 7 predisposition *bio, psycho, or social+

Integrative therapists are often called CeclecticD taking

the strengths from each model and using them incombination

!heoretical 8rientations of !oday/s -linical

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!heoretical 8rientations of !oday s -linical

5sychologists

Documents

AP8 Lecture 3