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AP U.S. Government and politics
FINAL EXAM REVIEW, FALL 2014
CONSTITUTIONAL UNDERPINNINGS: 5-
15%• Considerations that influenced the formation
and adoption of the Constitution
• Separation of powers
• Checks and balances
• Federalism
• Theories of democratic government
Constitutional underpinnings: 5-15%
• Articles of Confederation:• Created the union of the states into the U.S.• Granted Congress the power to authorize the
Revolutionary War• Central Government under the Articles was too
weak• No executive or central executive agencies• No central judiciary• Nine of thirteen states’ approval required for
legislation• Amendments required unanimous consent of
the states• No central tax base
Constitutional underpinnings: 5-15%
• Compromises discussed at the Constitutional Convention• Virginia Plan: bicameral legislature based upon
population• New Jersey Plan: unicameral legislature, with all
states represented equally• Connecticut Plan: bicameral legislature
• House of Representatives: based upon population• Senate: all states represented equally
Constitutional underpinnings: 5-15%
• Separation of Powers• Legislative Branch:
• Checks on the Executive:• May override presidential vetoes by 2/3 vote of both houses
• Power to declare war
• Power to enact taxes and allocate funds
• Senatorial approval of treaties with 2/3 vote
• House has impeachment power
• Senate conducts impeachment trials
• House selects president and Senate selects vice-president if no candidate receives majority of electoral votes
• Senate approves cabinet officials and ambassadors
• President must report annually on the state of the union
• Twenty-fifth Amendment: majority in House and majority in Senate must approve presidential nominee to fill vice-presidency vacancy
Constitutional underpinnings: 5-15%
• Separation of Powers• Legislative Branch:
• Checks on the Judiciary:• Senate approves federal judges
• House has power to impeach federal judges
• Senate has power to deal with impeachment charges and remove judges from office by 2/3 vote
• Power to initiate constitutional amendments
• Power to establish lower courts below the SCOTUS
• Power to set courts’ jurisdiction
• Power to alter size of SCOTUS
Constitutional underpinnings: 5-15%
• Separation of Powers• Legislative Branch:
• Internal checks• Bills must be passed by both houses of Congress
• Neither house may adjourn for more than 3 days without the consent of the other house
• All journals with information on debates and legislation must be published
Constitutional underpinnings: 5-15%
• Separation of Powers• Executive Branch:
• Checks on the Legislature:• Veto power
• Vice president is President of the Senate, but only to break a tie
• Recess appointments can be made without senatorial approval if Congress is not in session
• Emergency power to call one or both houses of Congress into session
• May force adjournment when both houses cannot agree upon adjournment
• Compensation cannot be diminished
Constitutional underpinnings: 5-15%
• Separation of Powers• Executive Branch:
• Checks on the Judiciary:• Power to nominate federal judges
• Pardon power
Constitutional underpinnings: 5-15%
• Separation of Powers• Judicial Branch:
• Checks on the Executive:• Judicial review of actions of president or other
executive officials
• Judicial review of treaties
• Chief Justice presides over Senate during presidential impeachment (but has little power)
Constitutional underpinnings: 5-15%
• Separation of Powers• Judicial Branch:
• Checks on the Legislature:• Judicial review of congressional laws
• Judicial review of treaties
• Judges continue in office on good behavior and can only be removed by impeachment
• Compensation of sitting judges cannot be diminished
Constitutional underpinnings: 5-15%
• Procedures for amending the Constitution:• Amendment proposed by 2/3 vote of House and
Senate; then EITHER:• Amendment ratified by ¾ vote of state
legislatures; OR• Amendment ratified by ¾ vote of state
conventions called to consider amendment
Constitutional underpinnings: 5-15%
• Federalism: power given to and divided between both the federal and the state governments
POLITICAL BELIEFS AND BEHAVIORS: 10-20%
• Beliefs that citizens hold about their government and its leaders
• Processes by which citizens learn about politics
• The nature, sources, and consequences of public opinion
• The ways in which citizens vote and otherwise participate in political life
• Factors that influence citizens to differ from one another in terms of political beliefs and behaviors
POLITICAL BELIEFS AND BEHAVIORS: 10-20%
• Political culture: a distinctive and patterned way of thinking about how political and economic life ought to be carried out; consists of fundamental assumptions about how the political process should operate
• Political efficacy: a citizen’s understanding of his or her capacity to influence political events; indicates a citizen’s belief that he or she can understand and influence political affairs
POLITICAL BELIEFS AND BEHAVIORS: 10-20%
• Political socialization:• for a younger person, family typically influences
his or her party identification• Religion• Educational systems• Media• Peer groups
POLITICAL BELIEFS AND BEHAVIORS: 10-20%
• Public Opinion Polls:• Should leaders pay less attention; lead rather
than follow public opinion?• Could become mechanism for majority tyranny
• Cleavage in public opinion: public is divided in their opinions on various topics• Social class, race, ethnicity, religion
POLITICAL BELIEFS AND BEHAVIORS: 10-20%
• Elections and Voting Behavior• Older people more likely to vote than younger
people• People with more education more likely to vote
than people with less education• Possible reasons for low turnout:
• Rise of partisan politics and weakening of competitiveness between two parties
• Perceived corruption within politics when little changes with each successive election; lack of change
• Onerous voter registration requirements
POLITICAL BELIEFS AND BEHAVIORS: 10-20%
• Political Ideologies:• Conservatives:
• Favor limited-government approach, freedoms for private economic sector
• Generally support military spending, free markets, prayer in school, reduce taxes
• Generally oppose abortion, affirmative action, government spending on social programs
POLITICAL BELIEFS AND BEHAVIORS: 10-20%
• Political Ideologies:• Liberals:
• Generally favor larger government with social and economic responsibilities, more equal distribution of wealth, government spending, additional and restrictive regulation of big business, women’s rights
• Generally opposed to increases in defense spending and military actions, prayer in school, tax breaks for the wealthy
POLITICAL BELIEFS AND BEHAVIORS: 10-20%
• Basic Differences Between Liberals and Conservatives:
Liberal Conservative
Economy: Regulate Hands Off
Social Welfare: More benefits for the poor Less benefits for the poor
Moral Concerns: Differing lifestyles Traditional family values
Civil Rights: Affirmative Action No group rights
National Security: Prudent defense Protect at all costs
U.S.’s role in the world: Mutual engagement Isolationist
Purpose of Government: Help the people Very limited intrusion
Private or public solutions:
Government solutions Private charity causes
Federalism Questions: National solutions State solutions
POLITICAL PARTIES, INTEREST GROUPS, AND MASS MEDIA: 10-
20%
• Political parties and elections• Functions• Organization• Development• Effects on the political process• Electoral laws and systems
POLITICAL PARTIES, INTEREST GROUPS, AND MASS MEDIA: 10-
20%
• Interest groups, including political action committees (PACs)• The range of interests represented• The activities of interest groups• The effects of interest groups on the political
process• The unique characteristics and roles of PACs in
the political process
POLITICAL PARTIES, INTEREST GROUPS, AND MASS MEDIA: 10-
20%
• The mass media• The functions and structures of news media• The impacts of the news media on politics• The news media industry and its consequences
POLITICAL PARTIES, INTEREST GROUPS, AND MASS MEDIA: 10-
20%
• Functions of political parties:• Political recruitment• Running campaigns• Providing political identity• Organizing the government• Implementing policies• Political education• Agenda setting
POLITICAL PARTIES, INTEREST GROUPS, AND MASS MEDIA: 10-
20%
• Party in the electorate: people involved in primaries and caucuses; such people are typically either more conservative or more liberal than the typical voters
• Rational choice: critics of the two-party system often cite rational choice as the reason for the failures of party politics; voters do not have the necessary choices placed before them to effectively choose a government that would follow distinct policies
• Winner-take-all system: awards the first-place winner, regardless of the total number of votes received or the total number of candidates (favors the two-party system)
POLITICAL PARTIES, INTEREST GROUPS, AND MASS MEDIA: 10-
20%
• Third parties:• Ideological: generally believe that major parties
are not conservative enough or liberal enough • One-Issue: focus on a single issue, such as the
environment in the case of the Green Party• Economic Protest: focus on the nation’s
economic situation
POLITICAL PARTIES, INTEREST GROUPS, AND MASS MEDIA: 10-
20%
• Political Action Committees (PACs), 527 organizations, and interest groups, in general, have increased in numbers and in influence since the 1970s
• PACs: Interest groups or divisions of interest groups that can raise money to contribute to campaigns or to spend on ads in support of campaigns. The amount a PAC can receive from each of its donors and the amount it can spend on federal campaigning are strictly limited.
POLITICAL PARTIES, INTEREST GROUPS, AND MASS MEDIA: 10-
20%
• 527 organization: A tax-exempt group formed primarily to influence elections through voter mobilization efforts and to issue ads that do not directly endorse or oppose a candidate. Unlike PACs, 527s are not subject to contribution limits and spending caps.
• 501(c)(3) organization: A tax code classification that applies to most interest groups; this designation makes donations to the group tax-deductible but limits the group’s political activities.
POLITICAL PARTIES, INTEREST GROUPS, AND MASS MEDIA: 10-
20%
• SuperPACs: Citizens United case authorized unlimited independent spending by corporations and labor unions in federal elections. The “super” label reflects the fact that these groups take in and spend much more money than the typical PAC.
• 501(c)(4) organizations: not required to disclose contributions.
POLITICAL PARTIES, INTEREST GROUPS, AND MASS MEDIA: 10-
20%
• Political Action Committees (PACs) and interest groups have increased since 1970s
• Theories of Interest Group Politics:• Pluralist theory: interest group activity brings
representation to everyone in society as groups compete with and counterbalance one another; aids democracy by allowing people to organize themselves to try to change policies; people can be more effective as a group than as isolated individuals
POLITICAL PARTIES, INTEREST GROUPS, AND MASS MEDIA: 10-
20%
• Theories of Interest Group Politics:• Elite theory: decisions of society’s elite are more
important than the views of the mass population; upper-class elite will always have disproportionate power in the political system; thus, only a few select interest groups have any real power
• Hyperpluralism theory: interest groups are so numerous and have such varied competing interest interests that effective coalitions of groups are difficult to form, and, consequently, gridlock will result, and no legislation will get passed
POLITICAL PARTIES, INTEREST GROUPS, AND MASS MEDIA: 10-
20%
• Activities of Interest Groups:• Lobbying: efforts to persuade elected
politicians or bureaucrats to support the position of the interest group
• Electioneering: endorsing candidates who support the group’s objectives and working to get said candidates elected
• Litigation to challenge policies; drafting amicus curiae briefs
• Influencing public opinion
POLITICAL PARTIES, INTEREST GROUPS, AND MASS MEDIA: 10-
20%
• Impact of Media on Politics• News organizations have some ability to select
the issues that they will present and that they desire the public to become aware of; assigning importance to certain issues
INSTITUTIONS OF NATIONAL GOVERNMENT: THE CONGRESS, THE PRESIDENCY, THE
BUREAUCRACY, AND THE FEDERAL COURTS: 35-45%
• The major formal and informal institutional arrangements of power
• Relationships among these four institutions and varying balances of power
• Linkages between institutions and the following:• Public opinion and voters• Interest groups• Political parties• The media• State and local governments
INSTITUTIONS OF NATIONAL GOVERNMENT: THE CONGRESS, THE PRESIDENCY, THE
BUREAUCRACY, AND THE FEDERAL COURTS: 35-45%
• Congress – House of Representatives: • Minimum 25 years of age, citizen for at least 7
years, resident of the state to be represented• 435 members• 2 year terms• Reapportionment every 10 years, after the census• Tax legislation must originate in the House• Impeachment proceedings must originate in the
House• Due to its size, has more formal rules than the
Senate
INSTITUTIONS OF NATIONAL GOVERNMENT: THE CONGRESS, THE PRESIDENCY, THE
BUREAUCRACY, AND THE FEDERAL COURTS: 35-45%
• Congress – Senate: • Minimum 30 years of age, citizen for at least 9
years, resident of the state to be represented• 100 members• 6 year terms (1/3 of Senate up for election every 2
years)• Reapportionment every 10 years, after the census• Approves treaties by 2/3 vote• Cabinet-level positions, federal judges/justices,
foreign ambassadors must be approved by majority vote
• Tries impeachment cases (2/3 vote to remove)
INSTITUTIONS OF NATIONAL GOVERNMENT: THE CONGRESS, THE PRESIDENCY, THE
BUREAUCRACY, AND THE FEDERAL COURTS: 35-45%
• Congress – Senate: • Filibuster: principle of “unlimited debate”
• Cloture: Debate may be limited if 60% of Senate votes to limit debate. Then, each senator has only 1 more hour to debate before a vote can be taken.
• Other differences between House and Senate:• Workload for average Senator greater than that of
average representative• Senators serve on 2-3 committees, while
representatives usually serve on 1 (and, at most, 2) committees
• Senators represent far more citizens than do representatives
INSTITUTIONS OF NATIONAL GOVERNMENT: THE CONGRESS, THE PRESIDENCY, THE
BUREAUCRACY, AND THE FEDERAL COURTS: 35-45%
• Congress:• At beginning of each congressional term, individual
parties meet in caucus to elect their respective party leaders (Speaker of the House, majority party leader, minority party leader, majority and minority whips)
• Committees and Subcommittees:• Standing committees: permanent committees handling
specific policy areas, such as agriculture, finance, energy, and commerce; normally divided into subcommittees
• Joint committees: both House and Senate assign members
• Select committee: created when necessary to handle specific issues; disbanded after their work has been completed
INSTITUTIONS OF NATIONAL GOVERNMENT: THE CONGRESS, THE PRESIDENCY, THE
BUREAUCRACY, AND THE FEDERAL COURTS: 35-45%
• Important Congressional Committees:• House Rules Committee: controls how legislation
proceeds on the floor of the House – e.g., time for debate; reviews all bills submitted by all committees before they’re assigned time for floor debate
• House Ways and Means Committee: chief tax-writing committee
• Senate Finance Committee: similar to House Ways and Means
• Senate Foreign Relations Committee: foreign policy
INSTITUTIONS OF NATIONAL GOVERNMENT: THE CONGRESS, THE PRESIDENCY, THE
BUREAUCRACY, AND THE FEDERAL COURTS: 35-45%
• Getting elected to Congress:• Incumbents win approximately 90% of the time• Incumbency advantages:
• Incumbents have a record to which to refer
• Incumbents’ knowledge of bureaucracy
• Incumbents have already proven that they can win
• Incumbents’ name-recognition
• Incumbents’ franking privilege: allows them to mail information at government expense to their constituents
INSTITUTIONS OF NATIONAL GOVERNMENT: THE CONGRESS, THE PRESIDENCY, THE
BUREAUCRACY, AND THE FEDERAL COURTS: 35-45%
• Voting in Congress:• Logrolling: vote trading (cooperation among
members of Congress in order to get legislation passed)
• Pork barrel legislation: legislation containing special projects that benefit a select district
• Legislators often vote on party lines
INSTITUTIONS OF NATIONAL GOVERNMENT: THE CONGRESS, THE PRESIDENCY, THE
BUREAUCRACY, AND THE FEDERAL COURTS: 35-45%
• How a Bill Becomes a Law:• Introduction• Referral to the Committee • Committee Action• Subcommittee Review• Mark-Up• Committee Action to Report a Bill• Publication of a Written Report• Scheduling Floor Action• Debate• Voting• Referral to other Chamber• Conference Committee Action• Final Actions• Overriding a Veto
INSTITUTIONS OF NATIONAL GOVERNMENT: THE CONGRESS, THE PRESIDENCY, THE
BUREAUCRACY, AND THE FEDERAL COURTS: 35-45%
• The Presidency• Eligibility requirements:
• Natural-born U.S. citizen; 35 years of age, resident within the U.S. for at least 14 years
• Presidential Powers:• Pardon• Military’s Commander-in-Chief
• War Powers Act: attempt to restrict ability of president to involved U.S. in long-term conflict without a Congressional declaration of war; not particularly effective
INSTITUTIONS OF NATIONAL GOVERNMENT: THE CONGRESS, THE PRESIDENCY, THE
BUREAUCRACY, AND THE FEDERAL COURTS: 35-45%
• Presidential Powers:• Diplomacy
• Power to negotiate executive agreements with heads of government of other countries (don’t require Congressional approval)
• Administering programs• Executive Orders: have the force of law; subject to
judicial review• Presidential commissions: study situations and
make recommendations
INSTITUTIONS OF NATIONAL GOVERNMENT: THE CONGRESS, THE PRESIDENCY, THE
BUREAUCRACY, AND THE FEDERAL COURTS: 35-45%
• Presidential Powers vis-à-vis Congress:• Veto• State of the Union Address• Executive privilege: resist subpoenas (not
mentioned in Constitution, but SCOTUS confirmed that a qualified privilege exists)
• Impoundment: withhold some or all fund appropriated by Congress from federal departments or agencies
• Call Congress into session
INSTITUTIONS OF NATIONAL GOVERNMENT: THE CONGRESS, THE PRESIDENCY, THE
BUREAUCRACY, AND THE FEDERAL COURTS: 35-45%
• Presidents and Public Opinion• Presidents’ public approval ratings very
important to how much they can accomplish• Presidents can command media coverage
INSTITUTIONS OF NATIONAL GOVERNMENT: THE CONGRESS, THE PRESIDENCY, THE
BUREAUCRACY, AND THE FEDERAL COURTS: 35-45%
• The Executive Branch• Cabinet is composed of heads of executive
branch departments (currently, 15 major departments) – secretaries must be confirmed by Senate
• Independent Regulatory Commissions: regulate some aspect of the economy (SEC, FCC, etc.)
• Executive Office of the President: White House Office, National Security Council, OMB, etc.
INSTITUTIONS OF NATIONAL GOVERNMENT: THE CONGRESS, THE PRESIDENCY, THE
BUREAUCRACY, AND THE FEDERAL COURTS: 35-45%
• The Federal Judiciary
• Early influential cases:• Marbury v. Madison (1803): principle of judicial
review• McCullough v. Maryland: necessary and proper,
or implied powers, of Congress are broad (states may not tax the national bank)
INSTITUTIONS OF NATIONAL GOVERNMENT: THE CONGRESS, THE PRESIDENCY, THE
BUREAUCRACY, AND THE FEDERAL COURTS: 35-45%
• Federal Courts’ Jurisdiction and Cases• Cases involving federal questions• Cases involving diversity of citizenship
• The Politics of Judicial Selection• Senatorial courtesy: senators from the
president’s party review appointees for federal district court positions from their home states and may “blue-slip,” or prevent the nomination from proceeding
• “Litmus tests”: tests of ideological purity
INSTITUTIONS OF NATIONAL GOVERNMENT: THE CONGRESS, THE PRESIDENCY, THE
BUREAUCRACY, AND THE FEDERAL COURTS: 35-45%
• The Courts as Policymakers• Interpretation of the Constitution and laws;
extension of the reach of existing laws• Designing remedies that involve judges in the
administration or in continuing legal oversight of previous decisions
• Stare decisis: let the previous rulings stand (rule based upon precedent)
PUBLIC POLICY: 5-15%
• Policymaking in a federal system
• The formation of policy agendas
• The role of institutions in the enactment of policy
• The role of the bureaucracy and the courts in policy implementation and interpretation
PUBLIC POLICY: 5-15%
• Linkages between policy processes and the following:• Political institutions and federalism• Political parties• Interest groups• Public opinion• Elections• Policy networks
PUBLIC POLICY: 5-15%
• Areas of Economic Policy• Fiscal policy: running a surplus or a deficit• Monetary policy: set by Federal Reserve Board
(the Fed)• Regulate supply of money in circulation and
through reserve rates (the price of money in the form of interest rates and inflation rates)
• Maintain employment• Keep prices stable• Regulate interest rates
PUBLIC POLICY: 5-15%
• Social Welfare Policy• Entitlement programs: guarantee access to
benefits based on established rights or by legislation (Social Security, Medicare, Veterans’ programs, unemployment)
• Means-tested programs: require determination of whether or not an individual or family is eligible for governmental assistance (proof of income)
PUBLIC POLICY: 5-15%
• Tax Policy• Progressive tax: takes larger percentage from
income of high-income earners than from low-income individuals (e.g., U.S. income tax)
• Regressive tax: imposes greater burden (relative to resources) on the poor than on the rich (e.g., property taxes; sales taxes)
CIVIL RIGHTS AND CIVIL LIBERTIES: 5-15%
• The development of civil liberties and civil rights by judicial interpretation
• Knowledge of the substantive rights and liberties
• The impact of the Fourteenth Amendment on the constitutional development of rights and liberties
CIVIL RIGHTS AND CIVIL LIBERTIES: 5-15%
• Civil liberties: rights and freedoms provided by the government (Bill of Rights)
• Civil rights: protect individuals from discrimination and guarantee their freedoms from unwarranted infringement by governments and private organizations
CIVIL RIGHTS AND CIVIL LIBERTIES: 5-15%
• Civil Liberties: Freedom of the Press (First Amendment)• Prior restraint: prohibits the government from
banning expression of ideas prior to their publication
• Civil Liberties: Freedom of Speech (First Amendment)• What standard applies? (e.g., strict scrutiny,
intermediate scrutiny, rational basis test) Depends upon what type of speech involved (e.g., political speech, advertising, etc.)
CIVIL RIGHTS AND CIVIL LIBERTIES: 5-15%
• Civil Liberties: Freedom of Assembly (First Amendment)• Subject to time, place and manner restrictions
• Civil Liberties: Freedom of Religion (First Amendment)• Establishment Clause: no government-
sponsored religion• Lemon v. Kurtzman: overturned subsidies for
parochial schools; set standard for consideration of Establishment Clauses cases (“Lemon test”)
• Free Exercise Clause
CIVIL RIGHTS AND CIVIL LIBERTIES: 5-15%
• Civil Liberties: Rights of the Accused• Gideon v. Wainwright (1963): right to court-
appointed counsel for felonies• Miranda v. Arizona (1966): law enforcement has
obligation to notify person in custody of certain rights (right to counsel, right to remain silent)
• Fourth Amendment: protection from unreasonable searches and seizures. Generally, need probable cause before search warrant issued.
• Fifth Amendment: protection against self-incrimination; due process clause; no double jeopardy
CIVIL RIGHTS AND CIVIL LIBERTIES: 5-15%
• Civil Liberties: Rights of the Accused• Mapp v. Ohio (1960): exclusionary rule applied
to states• Sixth Amendment: right to counsel; speedy and
public trial by impartial jury; one’s right to confront witnesses against one
CIVIL RIGHTS AND CIVIL LIBERTIES: 5-15%
• Civil Liberties: Right to Privacy• Griswold v. Connecticut (1964): right to privacy
prevents states from prohibiting organizations from providing information about contraceptives to married couples
• Roe v. Wade (1973): right to privacy prevents government from prohibiting first-trimester abortions
• Planned Parenthood of Southeastern Pennsylvania v. Casey (1992): restricted the Roe case’s holding to make abortions somewhat easier to regulate
CIVIL RIGHTS AND CIVIL LIBERTIES: 5-15%
• Civil Liberties: Right to Bear Arms – Second Amendment• Has been incorporated to the states
• Civil Liberties: Fourteenth Amendment• Due process clause; equal protection clause• Used to incorporate some protections from the
Bill of Rights to the states – selective incorporation
CIVIL RIGHTS AND CIVIL LIBERTIES: 5-15%
• Civil Rights• Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas
(1954): overruled Plessy v. Ferguson (1986) and the doctrine of separate but equal facilities (segregation) – “separate but equal is inherently unequal”
• De jure segregation: legally required; as a matter of law
• De facto segregation: happens as a matter of fact
CIVIL RIGHTS AND CIVIL LIBERTIES: 5-15%
• Civil Rights Legislation:• 1964 Civil Rights Act: prohibited discrimination based
on race, color, religion, or national origin; provided federal government with enforcement powers
• 1965 Voting Rights Act: provided opportunities for federal agencies to ensure that black Americans were able to vote
• Affirmative Action:• Bakke v. Board of Regents of the University of
California (1978): strict racial quota systems unconstitutional, but universities and colleges may take diversity into account