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The Protestant Reformation
Interconnected to the renaissance and spurred on by rise of the merchant/middle class, the growth of individualism, and more activity in Biblical scholarship from original texts.
Urged a return to a stronger and less ritualistic Christian faith
Underlying Causes: Religious
14th – 15th century Church Crises Babylonian Captivity Great Schism Failure of the Conciliar Movement Renaissance Popes “Secularism”
Underlying Causes: Religious
Corruption within the Catholic Church Simony: sale of church offices Pluralism: holding more than one office Absenteeism: an official not present within his
or her benefice Nepotism: favor of family members Immoral behavior of the clergy Clerical Ignorance Sale of indulgences
Underlying Causes: More Religious
Early Catholic Reformation John Wyclif – Lollards, Bible as sole authority John Hus – Vernacular translation of Bible Thomas A Kempis – Imitation of Christ
• Brethren of Common Life (Lay mysticism) Erasmus, In Praise of Folly
• Christian Humanism
Underlying Causes: Intellectual
Renaissance Humanism Liberal arts education could be used to root out
superstition and ignorance Textual criticism of humanist thinkers
undermined Catholic authority
Underlying Causes: Political Many political rulers saw the Church as a
foreign (Italian) imposition on their growing political control and hated the fact that the church had its own courts, owned much land, and was exempt from local taxes.
N. German princes saw religious reform as an excuse to pursue selfish desires to break away from the HRE.
Underlying Causes: Economic
Papal taxes were a hated burden on European nations and the rulers, the merchants, and the peasants all resented the payments. Thought they were getting very little for their
money.
Popes, Cardinals, and bishops lived lavishly at the expense of other Europeans.
Martin Luther & the 95 Theses Pope Leo X authorized Johan Tetzel to sell
indulgences to make money for the new St. Peter’s “As soon as the coin in the coffer rings, the soul
from purgatory springs.” October 31,1517: Martin Luther posted the 95
Theses on the door of the church in Wittenberg Criticized the selling of indulgences and
questioned the pope’s authority to do so! The printing press soon spread his ideas all over
Germany.
Challenging Church and Imperial Authority
Leipzig Debates with Johann Eck in 1520 Denied the infallibility of the pope
Excommunication in 1520 Diet of Worms in 1521
“Here I stand, I can do no other.” Luther outlawed from HRE as a heretic! Protected by Elector Frederick of Saxony
Luther’s Theology of Reform
Salvation through faith alone Good works follow faith, but only faith brings salvation!
Bible was the sole authority! Translation into vernacular
Priesthood of All Believers Rejected monasticism and clerical celibacy
Only two sacraments were valid Baptism and Communion
Consubstantiation, not Transubstantiation Real presence, but not actual transformation of material
Argued for a primitive separation of church from state
Spread and Survival of Lutheranism
North German princes convert to Lutheranism Political motivated
Denmark and Sweden become Lutheran German Peasants Revolts (1524-5)
Used Lutheran teachings to demand an end to serfdom Luther refused to support the Peasants – he was
sympathetic to their complaints but believed in secular obedience
Charles V neglect of the HRE (1521-1530) At war with the Valois in Italy At war with the Turks in Eastern Europe
Religious Warfare
1530: council called at Augsburg by Charles V to reconcile Catholic and Lutheran differences. The Augsburg confession was the Lutheran
position, but it was rejected by the Catholics. Protestants formed the Schmalkaldic League
for protection.
1546: War broke out between N. Protestant states and the Catholic HRE.
The Peace of Augsburg After a series of stalemates, the Peace of
Augsburg was signed in 1555. “cius regio, eius religio” only Lutheranism and Catholicism were
considered to be legal religions provided religious freedom only to the princes:
everyone else was forced to abide by the religion of the ruler.
*** denied Calivinism
Along with the Habsburg-Valois Wars, this prevents Charles V from unifying Germany!
The Spread of Protestantism
Anabaptism – Adult Baptism “Left wing” of Protestant Reformation
• Emphasized complete separation of church from state
Seizure and tragic fall of Munster in 1532• Institution of polygamy
Long term impact of Anabaptists Mennonites and Quakers
• Both advocated pacifism
Zwingli (1484 - 1531) Swiss Reformer, who established a theocracy in
Zurich Removed all artwork from churches Ended the veneration of the saints
Similarities with Luther “justification by faith alone” Bible is final authority, not the pope
Break with Luther Colloquy of Marburg
• Rejected “Real Presence” for a symbolic view of Eucharist
John Calvin (1509 - 1564)
Frenchman who was forced into exile in Geneva when his protestant ideas came into conflict with the catholic monarchy in France.
Main ideas were found in his book: Institutes of the Christian Religion.
Founder of Calvinism, the theological foundation of the religious practice of Puritanism.
Major Tenets of Calvinism Bible is the final authority Predestination: God has already decided
who will be saved (“the elect”) and who will not be (“the damned”). The elect will uphold God’s teachings and lead
exemplary lives. Their good works are only an outward sign of their salvation.
People are saved by the grace of God, not by faith and not by good works.
Purely symbolic communion
Theocracy in Geneva
New center of Reformation Europe by 1540 Militant puritanism develops in Geneva
Establishment of Protestant Work Ethic Hard work pleased God, and financial success was an
outward sign of election Church structure is lay-dominated
Consistory – Lay elders fused religious law and secular law Michael Servetus is key example of the fusion of
church and state in Geneva Executed for denying the Trinity
Spread of Calvinism
Calvin’s ideas spread to other locations and became popular in Europe:
France: Huguenots• Sets stage for the French Religious Wars
Scotland: John Knox founded the Presbyterian church• Sets stage for Charles I’s campaign against the Scots in late
1630s England: Puritanism
• Set stage for colonial expansion to New England as well as English Civil War
Holland: Dutch Reformed Church• Set stage for Dutch Revolt as well as Dutch economic success
The English Reformation English humanists and pre-reformers (such
as Huss and Wycliffe) called for an end to the materialism of the church. William Tyndale translates the Bible into
English
Many English nobles strongly resented papal dues and church controls.
England’s remote location gave it more independence in religious matters.
Henry VIII & the Reformation from Above
Henry sends Cardinal Wolsey to get him an annulment from the pope. The pope refused.(Charles V’s troops had sacked Rome in 1527, and the pope was under the control of Charles).
Henry arrested Wolsey for treason and appointed Thomas Cranmer as the new Archbishop of Canterbury. Cranmer annulled the marriage.
Establishment of the Church of England
1534: Act of Supremacy: king replaces the pope as head of the English church and monasteries dissolved. Church lands were confiscated
1534: Act of Succession: Guaranteed the ability of Anne Boleyn’s offspring to succeed Henry as legitimate heirs to the throne
1539: Statute of the Six Articles Anglican Church was Catholic in practice but not in
name!!!
English Reformation Continued
Edward I Church becomes more protestant in practice
• Many Lutheran theological tenets are adopted in the new Book of Common Prayer written by Cranmer
Mary I – “Bloody Mary” Revoked the legislation of Henry and Edward Attempted to re-impose Catholicism
• Execution of hundreds of Protestants
“Elizabethan Settlement”
Elizabeth I – Politique 1559 – Act of Supremacy
• Recognizes Elizabeth as head of the church 1563 – Thirty-Nine Articles
• Established a middle ground between Catholics and Protestants within the Church of England
– All citizens required to attend church– Outward obedience required; inner conscience could not
be regulated
The Catholic Counter-Reformation
The Council of Trent (1545 - 1563): Established by Pope Paul III Response to the gains of Protestantism as well
as the critics within the Church
Unsuccessful in stopping the reformation, but it is utilized to improve church discipline through a reaffirmation of existing doctrine
Components of Trent Confirmation of:
Equal validity of scripture, tradition, and writings of Church fathers
Faith and good works were both necessary for salvation Seven sacraments – including transubstantiation Monasticism, clerical celibacy, and purgatory
Established the Index of Forbidden Books Reforms:
Ended sale of indulgences Ended simony Reformed bishoprics Seminaries established to end ignorance
Formation of the Jesuits Ignatius Loyola
Absolute and militant obedience to Catholic doctrine and beliefs, but combined these ideas with the need for humanist education.
Goals Reform the church through education Spread gospel through missionary activity Defeat Protestantism
Achievements Oversaw the Spanish and Italian Inquisitions Contained Protestantism to Northern Europe Introduced Christianity to East Asia
Spain’s Catholic Crusade
Philip II (1556-98) Philip inherited a nation blessed with great wealth
in the form of gold and silver from the New World.
Goal: Reestablish Christendom! Result: He squandered his inheritance by:
spending huge amounts of resources by fighting religious wars to try to halt the spread of the Reformation;
purchasing luxury items from other nations to keep the Spanish nobility happy.
Spain’s “Golden Age”
El Escorial Philip’s new royal palace symbolized Spain’s
political dominance and commitment to Catholicism
Battle of Lepanto (1571) Spanish vessels defeated the Turkish navy off
the coast of Greece Ended the Ottoman threat in the Mediterranean
The Dutch Revolt
Under the leadership of William of Orange (William the Silent), the Calvinist Dutch provinces united with the Catholic Dutch provinces to assert their independence from Spanish control Pacification of Ghent (1579)
Causes: The Calvinist provinces resented the Inquisition and all of the provinces resented the payment of taxes to Spain and high grain prices.
The Dutch, continued Philip, a intense and determined man, sent the
Duke of Alva to stop the revolt. His actions included the Council of Blood and the
sacking of Antwerp under Alexander Farnese. Following the sacking of Antwerp, the
Catholic provinces left the Dutch alliance and joined with the Spanish. The Catholic provinces eventually became
Belgium, while the Calvinist ones became the United Provinces of the Netherlands (Dutch Republic).
Spain vs England (Late 1500s)
Relations between the two nations had been deteriorating since the death of Mary I Elizabeth reversed Mary’s Catholic policies and refused
Philip’s hand in marriage Great rivalry existed between Spain and England over
control of the seas and control of new world wealth (Francis Drake and the Sea Dogs)
Execution of Mary Queen of Scots after several attempts failed to overthrow Elizabeth
Elizabeth supported the Dutch Republic! Philip decided to attack England in an attempt to
restore Catholicism to the nation in 1588.
The Spanish Armada (1588)
The English decisively defeated the Spanish Armada in 1588, thus preventing any Spanish acquisition of England. Navy lay in ruins due to the Protestant Wind
Results: This defeat forever weakened Spain and led to
its decline in the next century. Signaled the rise of England as a world naval
power
The Dutch Republic
Secured de facto independence from Spain by the late 1500’s. This was made official in 1648 with the Treaty of Westphalia.
Golden Age of the Dutch Republic: early 1600’s due to political stability, economic prosperity, and cultural achievements.
THE FRENCH CIVIL WARS
Although France had only a small minority of Huguenots (approx. 9% in 1560), they had far more power than their numbers, because most protestants were upper middle class persons or members of the nobility. Many of these Huguenots became Calvinist as
an excuse to take a stand against the power of the Valois family.
Result: A resurgence of feudal disorder!
Francis I and Henry II Both of these kings were concerned about the
growing Protestant minority and actively persecuted the Calvinists.
Unfortunately, Henry II died while his sons were quite young, leaving Catherine de Medici as the queen mother. Catherine had a difficult time dealing with the various political and religious factions in France and her religious policies were disastrous for the nation.
Political and Religious Problems in France
Three political factions were competing to control France by 1560: Bourbons (Protestants) Guises (Catholics) Chatellions (Protestants)
Religious war broke out in 1562. Catherine would switch sides, for a time supporting the Protestants, then the Catholics, etc.
St. Bartholomew’s Day Massacre
Cause: Marriage of Valois princess to Henry of Navarre Designed to reconcile differences between Catholic
government and Protestant nobles
St. Bartholomew’s Day massacre in 1572 Coligny (Prot. advisor) and several thousand Parisian
Protestants were killed by members of the Guise family at the orders of Catherine
This again ignited more warfare and led France into the “War of the Three Henry’s.”
The War of the Three Henry’s In this war, England helped the Protestant
forces, and Spain helped the Catholics. King Henry III (Cath.) and Henry of
Navarre (Prot.) vs. Henry Guise (Cath.) Henry III was killed, and Henry of Navarre
won a series of military victories which established him as King Henry IV and created a new ruling dynasty in France--the Bourbons.
King Henry IV (1589 - 1610) When he took over, France was in a state of
religious and political disorder, and the central government was severely weakened.
Henry rebuilt a devastated France with the help of his advisor, the Duke of Sully.
The Politique 1593: Henry became Catholic (“Paris is worth a
mass”).
Achievements of Henry IV
1598: Edict of Nantes: granted religious toleration to Protestants (1st legal recognition of Calvinism in any nation). Catholicism was still the national religion (The
religion of most Frenchmen) Protestants were given a number of liberties:
• Free to worship privately (in select cities)• Access to university and public office• Right to maintain fortified towns
More Achievements of Henry
Strengthened the power of the monarch by weakening the power of the nobility. Put France on a gradual course towards
absolutism
Began an extensive program for economic improvements--repairing and constructing roads, bridges and harbors, reclaiming marsh lands, fostering agriculture, and repairing the bankrupt government.
The Thirty Years’ War (1618 - 1648)
Forever weakened the HRE and paved the way for French continental supremacy.
Approx. 1/3 of the population died and approx. 1/2 of the wealth of the German states was depleted. This decimation set the stage for the long-term
fragmentation of central Europe.
Underlying Cause: The Failure of the Peace of Augsburg!!
The Bohemian Phase (1618 - 1625)
Cause: Defenestration of Prague Protestant, Frederick V of Bohemia demanded
more autonomy for Bohemia from Ferdinand II (HRE)
Catholic officials thrown out a window in response to greater restrictions placed on Protestant Bohemia
The Protestant forces were decisively defeated at the Battle of White Mountain and Frederick was deposed. Protestantism was eliminated in Bohemia
The Danish Phase (1625 - 1629) Danish King Christian IV stepped up to lead
the Protestants who were nearly wiped out after phase I.
The protestant forces experienced more losses at the hands of Albrecht von Wallenstein.
The Edict of Restitution forced protestants to restore to the Catholic church all lands that had been taken from it since 1552. This was a major defeat for the Protestants.
The Swedish Phase (1630 - 1635)
Swedish King Gustavus Adolphus and his army landed in Germany, starting phase III of the war. Liberated Protestant territory lost during the Danish
phase of the war Cardinal Richelieu of Catholic France supported
Gustavus and the Protestant forces in an attempt to control the power of the Hapsburgs. Result: Successful! Ended any real hope of the
Habsburgs imposing Catholicism on the HRE
Swedish Phase, continued
Many early protestant victories, but Gustavus was killed in the battle of Luetzen in 1632.
Ferdinand had Wallenstein assassinated in 1634.
Thus, this phase of the war was a costly one for both sides. But with the death of Adolphus, France feared a
Catholic revival during the next stage of the war!
The French, or International, Phase (1635 - 1648) France sent troops to support the Protestant
princes of the HRE Just as in the Habsburg-Valois Wars
Cath. France + Prot. Sweden vs. Cath. HRE + Prot. Denmark + Cath. Spain As one can see, this was no longer a religious
war…it was purely political!!!!
1645: Denmark surrendered 1648: Germans called for a truce.
Treaty of Westphalia (1648)
E – End of Wars of Religion F – France emerges as #1 in Europe C – Calvinism added to Peace of Augsburg H – HRE made irrelevant I – Independence of Dutch and Swiss P – Prussia emerges as a new power
The Final Phase (1648 - 1659) Although the German states were no longer
involved as combatants in the war, Spain and France continued to war over their differences, fighting on German soil.
Both nations looted and pillaged the German lands, and the devastated Germans were helpless in stopping them.
This phase ended with the Treaty of the Pyranees.