AP PSYCHOLOGY Review for the AP Exam

AP PSYCHOLOGYReview for the AP Exam

Psychology:The science of behavior (what we do) and

mental processes (sensations, perceptions, dreams, thoughts, beliefs,

and feelings….)

At all levels, psychologists examine how we process information--how we

organize, interpret, store, and use it.

SCHOOLS OF PSYCHOLOGY

Prologue

Prologue: Psychology’s Roots

Empiricism Knowledge comes from experience via the senses Science flourishes through observation and experiment

Founding Psychologists:

2) Hermann von Helmholtz: physicist who conducted simple experiments on perception and the nervous system…..the first to measure the speed of a nerve impulse.

1) William Wundt: (1879 Leipzig, Germany) Founded the first formal laboratory devoted to experimental psychology.

4) G. Stanley Hall: first psychology laboratory in US (1883) at John Hopkins Univ…………..first American Psychology Journal (1887)…….first president of American Psychological Association (1892)

3) Herman Ebbinghaus: 1885 published classic studies on memory

6) Francis Cecil Sumner: first African-American PhD in psychology

5) Margaret Floy Washburn: First woman to receive PhD in Psychology (1894)

7) Mary Whiton Calkins: first woman elected president of APA, 1905

Historical SchoolsSTRUCTURALISMSTRUCTURALISM: using introspection, the systematic examination by individuals of their own thoughts and feelings about specific sensory experiences. Emphasized the structure of the mind and behavior.

Edward Titchener: (Cornell University) emphasized the “what” of mental illness rather than “why” or “how” of thinking.

FUNCTIONALISMFUNCTIONALISM: gives primary importance to learned habits that enable organisms to adapt to their environment and to function effectively. “What is the function or purpose of any behavioral act?”

The major opponent to Stucturalism was……

John Dewey: provided impetus for progressive education.

William James: study of consciousness was not limited to elements, contents, and structures. ….the mind haS an ongoing relationship with the environment. He published “Principles of Psychology” 1890

GESTALTISMGESTALTISM: The whole is greater than the sum of its’ parts.

BIOLOGICALBIOLOGICAL: the causes of behavior in the genes, the brain, the nervous system, and endocrine system ………the role of specific brain systems in aggression by stimulating different regions and then recording any destructive actions that are elicited.

B. F. Skinner: radical behaviorism acknowledged that evolution provided each species with a repertory of behaviors.

John B.Watson: observable behavior was important; stated the chief goal of psychology was the prediction and control of behavior.

BEHAVIORISMBEHAVIORISM: emphasizes observable behavior rather than inner mental experiences……… emphasizes the role of environment as the cause of behavior. (From our environment, we learn to do certain behaviors and learn not to do others.) Sometimes called learning theory. ……….use of positive reinforcement rather than punishment

Ivan Pavlov: classical conditioning.

NEUROPHYSIOLOGY: NEUROPHYSIOLOGY: An approach which emphasizes that all actions, feelings, and thoughts are associated with bodily events such as the firing of nerve cells in the brain or the release of hormones

COGNITIVE: COGNITIVE: refers to mental activity including thinking, remembering, learning and using language. Behavior is only partly determined by preceding environmental events and past behavioral consequences. “People act because they think.”“People act because they think.”

Jean Piaget: identified stages of cognitive development.

David Ausubel: attempted to explain meaningful verbal learning as a phenomenon of consciousness rather than of behavior…. Created the “advance organizer.”

Jerome Bruner: developed a learning theory based upon categorization

PSYCHOANALYSISPSYCHOANALYSIS: An approach that emphasizes unconscious motives and conflicts. A psychodynamic psychologist will analyze aggression as a reaction to frustrations caused by barriersfrustrations caused by barriers to pleasure, such as unjust authority. They view aggression as an adult’s displacement of hostility originally felt as a child against his or her parents.

Sigmund Freud: developed from his work with mentally disturbed patients; views a person as being pushed and pulled by complex network of inner and outer forces. Developed stages of life to age 12, claiming that an individual would change little after that point.

Erik Erikson: expanded on Freud’s stages of life to include 8 stages into later adulthood.

Carl Jung: challenged his mentor Freud with the hypothesis that that adulthood, not childhood, represents the most significant phase of adulthood, not childhood, represents the most significant phase of psychology.psychology.

Bernice Neugarten: focused on the difference between chronological age and social age.

HUMANISMHUMANISM: emphasizes personal growth, self-esteem, and the achievement of human potential more than the scientific understanding, prediction, and control of behavior. Human beings are not driven by the powerful, instinctive forces postulated by Freudians or manipulated by environments. ………….look for personal values and social conditions that foster self-limiting, aggressive perspectives instead of growth-enhancing, shared experiences.

Abraham Maslow: developed the Hierarchy of Needs, stating that each level of needs must be satisfied before one moves onto the next.

EVOLUTIONARYEVOLUTIONARY: Seeks to connect contemporary psychology to a central idea of the life sciences, Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution by natural selection. Researchers focus on the environmental conditions in which the human brain evolved. Those organisms best suited to their environments will flourish and pass on genes more successfully than those with poorer adaptations.

CULTURALCULTURAL: Study cross-cultural differences in the causes and consequences of behavior. Researchers may compare the prevalence of eating disorders for white Americans vs. African American teenagers within the U.S. Cultural psychologists study the perceptions of the world as affected by culture, the languages one speaks and how it affects ones experience of the world, or how does culture affect the way children develop toward adulthood.

Prologue: Contemporary Psychology

Prologue: Contemporary PsychologyPsychology’s Perspectives

A lot depends on your viewpoint


Psychology’s Subfields Basic Research

Biological psychologists explore the links between brain and mind

Developmental psychologists study changing abilities from womb to tomb

Cognitive psychologists study how we perceive, think, and solve problems

Personality psychologists investigate our persistent traits

Social psychologists explore how we view and affect one another


Psychiatry A branch of medicine dealing with psychological

disorders Practiced by physicians who sometimes use

medical (for example, drug) treatments as well as psychotherapy

PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH

Chapter 1

Psychologists, like all scientists, use the scientific method to construct theories that organize observations and imply testable hypotheses

Five Steps of the Scientific Method:

1) Developing a hypothesis

2) Performing a controlled test

3) Gathering objective data

4) Analyzing the result/Survival of Hypothesis (refine hypothesis and retest)

5) Publishing, criticizing and replicating the results

Components of the Research Process:

1) Developing a research question

2) Surveying the literature

3) Hypothesis

4) Independent variable

5) Dependent variable

6) Extraneous variables

7) Controls

8) Sampling/Subjects (random assignment to groups)

9) Procedure

10) Results/Statistics

11) Discussion

12) New Hypothesis

Types of ResearchExperimental Method

Empirical Investigation*collecting objective information firsthand by making careful measurements based on direct experience.

Theory *an explanation using an integrated set of principles

that organizes and predicts observationsHypothesis

*a testable prediction*often implied by a theory*MUST be defined operationally

Research Strategies--Step 1Developing a Hypothesis

Operational Definition*a statement of procedures (operations) used

to define research variables*REQUIRED to make your suspicion testable*You MUST describe:

independent variablesdependent variablelist of procedures

*Example-*intelligence may be operationally defined

as what an intelligence test measures

Research Strategies--Step 1Developing a Hypothesis

Research Strategies--Step 2Performing a Controlled Test

Independent Variable *the experimental factor that is manipulated*the variable whose effect is being studied

Think of the independent variable as a condition that the experimenter changes

INDEPENDENTLY of all the other controlled experimental conditions.

**the dependent variable must also be given an operational

definition.

Dependent Variable *the experimental factor that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable *in psychology it is usually a behavior or mental process, or test.

Research Strategies--Step 3 Gathering Objective Data

The responses of the participants in an

experiment DEPEND directly on the conditions to

which they have been exposed.

Research Strategies--Step 5

Publishing, Criticizing, Replicating the Results

Critics will look for flaws in the research.

REPLICATION is one way to see if one would get the same results.

Replication*repeating the essence of a research study to see whether the basic finding generalizes to other subjects and circumstances*usually with different subjects in different situations

Types of Psychological Research:

1) Experimental Method

2) Non-Experimental Methods (Descriptive Studies)

3) Correlational Studies

*Survey

*Naturalistic Observation

*Longitudinal Study

*Cross-Sectional Study

*Cohort-Sequential Study

Advantages of Experimental Method

*cause-and-effect

*operationalization of variables

*stresses the control of variables

*can implement double-blind or blind procedures

*high internal validity

*may be replicated

Disadvantages of Experimental Method

*reduce external validity

*difficult to establish adequate control conditions

*statistical probability of bias

Advantages of Case Study

*in-depth, detailed information about the case

*opportunity to study unusual cases

*time, money issues

*ethical considerations

Disadvantages of Case Study

*results cannot be generalized

*prone to inaccurate reporting from source

*cannot be used to establish cause-and-effect relationships

*biased researcher?

Advantages of Correlation Study

*examine, test, reveal, compare or describe relationship between 2 variables

*efficient, collect lots of data

*make predictions

*dispel illusory correlations

*utilize preexisting or archival data

Disadvantages of Correlation Study

*cannot establish cause-and-effect

*prone to inaccurate reporting

*hard to access the impact of additional variables

*do not allow for the active manipulation of variables.

Illusory Correlation

*the perception of a relationship where none exists

Conceive Do not conceive

Adopt

Do notadopt

disconfirming evidence

confirming evidence

disconfirming evidence

confirming evidence

Research StrategiesThree Possible Cause-Effect Relationships

(1)Low self-esteem

Depression

(2)Depression

Low self-esteem

Low self-esteem

Depression

(3)Distressing events

or biologicalpredisposition

could cause

could cause

could cause

or

or

and

BIOLOGICAL (Neurophysiological)

Chapter 2

Neural Communication Neuron

a nerve cell Dendrite

the bushy, branching extensions of a neuron that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body

Axon the extension of a neuron, ending in branching terminal

fibers, through which messages are sent to other neurons or to muscles or glands

Myelin [MY-uh-lin] Sheath a layer of fatty cells segmentally encasing the fibers of many

neurons enables vastly greater transmission speed of neutral impulses

Neural Communication

Neural Communication Action Potential

a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon generated by the movement of positively charged atoms in and out of

channels in the axon’s membrane Threshold

the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse

Cell body end of axon

Direction of neural impulse: toward axon terminals

Neural Communication Synapse [SIN-aps]

junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron (synaptic gap)

Neurotransmitters chemical messengers that traverse the synaptic gaps between neurons when released by the sending neuron, neuro-transmitters travel across

the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing whether it will generate a neural impulse

Serotonin Pathways Dopamine Pathways

Neural Communication Acetylcholine [ah-seat-el-KO-leen]

a neurotransmitter that, among its functions, triggers muscle contraction

Endorphins [en-DOR-fins] “morphine within” natural, opiatelike neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure

Neural CommunicationNeurotransmitter molecule

Receiving cellmembrane

Receptor site onreceiving neuron

Agonist mimicsneurotransmitter

AntagonistblocksneurotransmitterEXAMPLES:

Neurotransmitters:

dopamine, serotonin

Agonists

cocaine (increases dopamine in synapse)

Antagonist (blocks reuptake)

curare

SSRI

PROBLEMS:

1)Serotonin Syndrome: potentially life-threatening

*two drugs increase the level of serotonin at the same time. (ie) migraine medication (triptans) and antidepressants with SSRI (selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors)

*examples: SSRI = Celexa, Zoloft, Prozac, Zoloft, Paxil, and Lexapro. SNRI's include Cymbalta and Effexor

*examples: Triptans = mitrex, Zomig, Frova, Maxalt, Axert, Amerge, and Relpax

Drugs of abuse, such as ecstasy and LSD have also been associated with serotonin syndrome.

The ENDOCRINE

SYTEM

The Endocrine System

Endocrine System the body’s “slow” chemical

communication system a set of glands that secrete

hormones into the bloodstream

The Endocrine System is made up of tissues or organs called endocrine glands, which secrete chemicals directly into the bloodstream. The chemical messengers are called HORMONES.

THYROID GLAND (TYROSINE, CALCITONIN)THYMUS ( thymosins )

*Two lobes consists--outer CORTEX and a central MEDULLA.

PARATHYROID GLANDS ( PARATHORMONE )ADRENAL GLANDS (CORTICOSTEROIDS, EPINEPHRINE (adrenaline), NOREPINEPHRINE (noradrenaline))

*Lie along the superior borders of the kidneys.PANCREAS (GLUCAGON., INSULIN)GONADS (TESTOSTERONE. ESTROGEN, PROGESTERONE)

HYPOTHALAMUS (ADH and OXYTOCIN—Secretes REGULATORY HORMONES)

*Primary link between Endocrine and Nervous systems.PINEAL GLAND (MELATONIN)PITUITARY GLAND

*Secretes seven important hormones which REGULATE GROWTH

The NERVOUS SYSTEM

The Nervous System Central Nervous System (CNS)

the brain and spinal cord Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

the sensory and motor neurons that connect CNS to the rest of the body

Nerves neural “cables” containing many axons part of the PNS connect the CNS with muscles, glands, and sense organs

Sensory Neurons neurons that carry incoming information from the sense

receptors to the CNS

The Nervous System

Interneurons CNS neurons that internally communicate and intervene

between the sensory inputs and motor outputs Motor Neurons

carry outgoing information from the CNS to muscles and glands

Somatic Nervous System the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls

the body’s skeletal muscles

The Nervous System Autonomic Nervous System

the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs (such as the heart)

Sympathetic Nervous System division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the

body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations Parasympathetic Nervous System

division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy

The Nervous System Reflex

a simple, automatic, inborn response to a sensory stimulus

Neural Networks interconnected neural

cells with experience, networks

can learn, as feedback strengthens or inhibits connections that produce certain results

computer simulations of neural networks show analogous learning

Inputs Outputs

Neurons in the brain connect with one

another to form networks

The brain learns by modifyingcertain connections in response to feedback

The BRAIN

Brain Structures and their Functions

Lesion tissue destruction in the brain a brain lesion is a naturally or experimentally

caused destruction of brain tissue

Electroencephalogram (EEG) an amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity

across the brain’s surface these waves are measured by electrodes placed on the

scalp

The Brain

CT (computed tomography) Scan a series of x-ray photographs taken from different angles and

combined by computer into a composite representation of a slice through the body; also called CAT scan

PET (positron emission tomography) Scan a visual display of brain activity that detects where a

radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task

MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to

produce computer-generated images that distinguish among different types of soft tissue; allows us to see structures within the brain

MRI Scan

Normal patient Schizophrenic patient

The Brain Brainstem

the oldest part and central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull

responsible for automatic survival functions Medulla [muh-DUL-uh]

base of the brainstem controls heartbeat and breathing

The Brain Reticular Formation

a nerve network in the brainstem that plays an important role in controlling arousal

Thalamus [THAL-uh-muss] the brain’s sensory switchboard, located on top of

the brainstem it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in

the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla

Cerebellum [sehr-uh-BELL-um] the “little brain” attached to the rear of the

brainstem it helps coordinate voluntary movement and

balance

The Brain Limbic System

a doughnut-shaped system of neural structures at the border of the brainstem and cerebral hemispheres

associated with emotions such as fear and aggression and drives such as those for food and sex

includes the hippocampus, amygdala, and hypothalamus.

Amygdala [ah-MIG-dah-la] two almond-shaped neural clusters that are

components of the limbic system and are linked to emotion

Hypothalamus neural structure lying below (hypo) the

thalamus; directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature, sexual behavior)

The Cerebral Cortex Cerebral Cortex

the intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells that covers the cerebral hemispheres

the body’s ultimate control and information processing center

Glial Cells cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and

protect neurons

The Cerebral Cortex Frontal Lobes

involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgments

Parietal Lobes includes the sensory cortex

Occipital Lobes include the visual areas, which

receive visual information from the opposite visual field

Temporal Lobes include the auditory areas

The Cerebral Cortex Motor Cortex

area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements

Sensory Cortex area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and

processes body sensations

Association Areas More intelligent animals have increased

“uncommitted” or association areas of the cortex

The Cerebral Cortex Aphasia

impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage either to Broca’s area (impairing speaking) or to Wernicke’s area (impairing understanding)

Broca’s Area an area of the left frontal lobe

that directs the muscle movements involved in speech

Wernicke’s Area an area of the left temporal lobe

involved in language comprehension and expression

Specialization and Integration

Brain activity when hearing, seeing, and speaking words

Plasticity the brain’s capacity for modification, as evident in brain

reorganization following damage (especially in children) and in experiments on the effects of experience on brain development

Corpus callosum Corpus Callosum large band of

neural fibers connects the

two brain hemispheres

carries messages between the hemispheres

Split Brain

a condition in which the two hemispheres of the brain are isolated by cutting the connecting fibers (mainly those of the corpus callosum) between them

Right Brain vs. Left BrainPerception Speaking

Spatial-relations Calculations

Abstract thought Speech

Intuitive thought Songs

Writing

Logic

Analysis

Whole picture vs. Details

Emotion vs. Content

NATURE v. NURTURE

Chapter 3

Genes: Our Biological Blueprint• Chromosomes

– threadlike structures made of DNA that contain the genes

All human cells contain the diploid number of chromosomes (46) consisting of 23 pairs of homologous chromosomes

Two of this set are X and Y (the sex chromosomes) and the other 22 pairs are autosomes that guide the expression of other traits.

KARYOTYPEKARYOTYPE of a male: The human haploid genome contains 3,000,000,000 DNA nucleotide pairs, divided among twenty two (22) pairs of autosomes and one pair of sex chromosomes.

Genes: Our Biological BlueprintDNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)

– complex molecule containing the genetic information that makes up the chromosomes

– has two strands-forming a “double helix”- held together by bonds between pairs of nucleotides

DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) Four major varieties of nitrogen-containing bases can contribute to nucleotide structure:

• Adenine• Guanine• Cytosine• Thymine

Genetics and BehaviorGenes

biochemical units of heredity that make up the chromosomesa segment of DNA capable of synthesizing a protein

Genome*the complete instructions for making an organismconsisting of all the genetic material in its chromosomes*Represents two sets of genetic instructions--one from the egg and one from the sperm

Evolutionary Psychology

• Natural Selection– the principle that, among the range of inherited trait

variations, those contributing to survival will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations

• Mutations– random errors in gene replication that lead to a change in

the sequence of nucleotides– the source of all genetic diversity

Behavior Genetics • Identical Twins– develop from a single zygote (fertilized

egg) that splits in two, creating two genetic replicas

• Fraternal Twins – develop from separate zygotes– genetically no closer than brothers and

sisters, but they share the fetal environment

Identicaltwins

Fraternaltwins

Samesex only

Same oropposite sex

Two placental arrangements in identical twins

Identical twins may have separate

placentas and blood flow,

just like fraternal

twins.a) Splits early, about 5th day b) Splits between 5th and 12th

day, greater mortality, greater abnormalities

Eggs that split after the 12th day results in conjoined twins.

Thoracopagus

Parapagus

Parapagus

Parasite

Pygopagus

A little known (and very rare) genetic situation results in the

TETRAGAMETIC CHIMERISM. . . someone who has at least two different genotypes which each arose from an individual zygote and eventually fused, when normally they would have developed separately as twins.

Behavior Genetics• Temperament

– a person’s characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity• Heritability

– the proportion of variation among individuals that we can attribute to genes

– may vary, depending on the range of populations and environments studied

• Interaction– the effect of one factor (such as environment) depends on

another factor (such as heredity)• Molecular Genetics

– the subfield of biology that studies the molecular structure and function of genes

Environmental Influence

• Experience affects brain development

Impoverishedenvironment

Rat braincell

Rat braincell

Enrichedenvironment

In 14 to 16 repetitions of this basic experiment, the rats placed in the enriched environment developed significantly more cerebral cortex.

Environmental InfluenceCulture

– the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, and traditions shared by a large group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next

Norm– an understood rule for accepted and expected behavior

Personal Space– the buffer zone we like to maintain around our bodies

Memes– self-replicating ideas, fashions, and innovation passed from

person to person

The Nature and Nurture of Gender

• X Chromosome– the sex chromosome found in both men and women– females have two; males have one– an X chromosome from each parent produces a female

• Y Chromosome– the sex chromosome found only in men – when paired with an X chromosome from the mother, it

produces a male child


Testosterone– the most important of the male sex hormones– both males and females have it– additional testosterone in males stimulates

• growth of male sex organs in the fetus• development of male sex characteristics during puberty

Role– a set of expectations (norms) about a social position– defining how those in the position ought to behave


Social Learning Theory– theory that we learn social behavior by observing and

imitating and by being rewarded or punishedGender Schema Theory

– theory that children learn from their cultures a concept of what it means to be male and female and that they adjust their behavior accordingly

Gender Role– a set of expected behaviors for males and females

Gender Identity– one’s sense of being male or female

Gender-typing– the acquisition of a traditional masculine or feminine role


Two theories of gender typing

DEVELOPMENT

Chapter 4

• Developmental Psychology – a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive and

social change throughout the life span

• Zygote– the fertilized egg– enters a 2 week period of rapid cell division– develops into an embryo

• Embryo– the developing human organism from 2 weeks through

2nd month• Fetus

– the developing human organism from 9 weeks after conception to birth

• Teratogens– agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the

embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm (nuclear fallout, food allergies, medicine taken by mother during pregnancy, alcohol, drugs, et.al.)

• Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS)– physical and cognitive abnormalities in children caused by

a pregnant woman’s heavy drinking.– symptoms include facial misproportions

The Newborn• Rooting Reflex

– tendency to open mouth, and search for nipple when touched on the cheek

• Preferences– human voices and faces

• facelike images-->– smell and sound of mother

• Babinsky Reflex– tendency to grasp an object when

when placed into their hands and lift them up by their clasped fists

Newborn Reflexes

*rooting reflex

*sucking reflex

*grasping reflex

*swallowing reflex

*startle (moro) reflex

*babinsky reflex

The Newborn• Habituation

– decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation– newborns become bored with a repeated stimulus, but

renew their attention to a slightly different stimulus

• Maturation– biological growth processes

that enable orderly changes in behavior

– relatively uninfluenced by experience

– sets the course for development while experience adjusts it At birth 3 months 15 months

Cortical Neurons

Infancy and Childhood

• Babies only 3 months old can learn that kicking moves a mobile- and can retain that learning for a month (Rovee-Collier, 1989).

Cognitive Development• Cognition

– mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, and remembering

• Schema– a concept or framework that organizes and interprets

information

Typical Age Range

Description of Stage

Developmental Phenomena

Birth to nearly 2 years SensorimotorExperiencing the world through senses and actions (looking, touching, mouthing)

•Object permanence•Stranger anxiety

About 2 to 6 years

About 7 to 11 years

About 12 through adulthood

PreoperationalRepresenting things with words and images but lacking logical reasoning

•Pretend play•Egocentrism•Language development

Concrete operationalThinking logically about concrete events; grasping concrete analogies and performing arithmetical operations

•Conservation •Mathematical transformations

Formal operationalAbstract reasoning

•Abstract logic•Potential for moral reasoning

Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development

Handout 4-4 and 4-11

Jean Piaget (1896-1980)

Infancy and Childhood: Cognitive Development

Object Permanence the awareness that things continue to exist

even when not perceived (Piaget: Sensorimotor)

Conservation the principle that properties such as mass,

volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects (Piaget: Concrete Operational)

Cognitive Development• Baby Mathematics

– Shown a numerically impossible outcome, infants stare longer (Wynn, 1992)

• Egocentrism– the inability of the preoperational child to take another’s

point of view (Piaget: Preoperational)• Theory of Mind

– people’s ideas about their own and others’ mental states- about their feelings, perceptions, and thoughts and the behavior these might predict (Piaget: Preoperational)

Autism a disorder that appears in childhood Marked by deficient communication, social interaction and

understanding of others’ states of mind

Lev S. Vygotsky (1896-1934)

*humans use various symbols and items that help us to develop cultures

*we change, interact and go through development within our cultures

*higher ﾊ thinking skills depend on the internalization of the items we used to develop within our culture and communicate.

*used blocks to distinguish children's mastery of the concept from simple memorization

**His work was suppressed by Marxist Russian authorities for over 20 years after his death.

Born in Russia (Jewish)

Law degree Unive of Moscow

PhD Literature & Linguistics

SocioCultural Theory of Development

FACETS (not stages)

1) Private Speech: talking to oneself

2) Proximal Development: is the level of development immediately above a person's present level to achieve maximum learning

3) Scaffolding: using hints and pointers from teachers, parents, and peers who have already grasped the desired concept, children are able to form their own path toward a solution

Vygotsky v. Piaget

Both Piaget and Vygotsky viewed pre-school children in problem solving situations talking to themselves. When Piaget labeled the self directed behavior as egocentric and believed it only minimum relevant to children’s cognitive growth, Vygotsky referred to it as a private speech. He argued that private speech grows out of the children’s interaction with parents and other adults and through such interactions, they begin to use their parent’s instructional comments to direct their own behavior.

REF: http://starfsfolk.khi.is/solrunb/vygotsky.htm

Abnormal Development

PHENYLKETONURIA (PKU): a metabolic disorder that, left untreated, results in mental retardation and other problems.

**inability of the body to utilize the essential amino acid, phenylalanine. Amino acids are the building blocks for body proteins. We get amino acids from food. In “classic PKU” the enzyme that breaks down this amino acid is completely deficient causing phenylalanine to accumulate in the blood and body tissues.

**high levels of phenylalanine can cause significant brain problems.

**symptoms include; vomiting, irritability, rash, mousy odor to the urine, nervous problems, increased muscle tone, more active muscle tendon reflexes.

Later, severe brain problems occur, mental retardation and seizures. Other features include: microcephaly (small head), prominent cheek and upper jaw bones with widely spaced teeth, poor development of tooth enamel and decreased body growth.

Resource; http://depts.washington.edu/pku/diet.html

PKU DIET

Abnormal DevelopmentTAY-SACH’s DISEASE: deterioration of the brain of a one-year old child due to accumulation of fat on the brain, caused by insufficient activity of an enzyme called beta-hexosaminidase A that catalyzes the biodegradation of acidic fatty materials known as gangliosides.

*this child will usually die before age 4

*infants with this disease appear to develop normally for first few months of iife.

*symptoms: deterioration of mental & physical abilities, blindness, deafness, inability to swallow, seizures, dementia, increased startle reflex, muscles atrophy and paralysis sets in.

MONOSOMY X (TURNER SYNDROME): the only known viable human monosomy (missing one chromosome)

** 1 in 5000 births

**XO phenotype female; sex organs do not mature at adolescence, and secondary sex characteristics fail to develop

**sterile and short

**no mental deficiency

Abnormal DevelopmentANDROGYNY: having both female and male characteristics; HERMAPHRODITIC

**may be raised as one sex or another as genetalia is ambiguous

**failure to develop breasts, milk-glands, child-bearing hips, no menses, sterility, beard growth, male vocal chords,

TOURETTE’S SYNDROME: neurological disorder which becomes evident in early childhood or adolescence before the age of 18 years.

*multiple motor and vocal tics lasting for more than a year.

*symptoms include: involuntary movements of the face, arms, limbs, or trunk……frequent, repetitive and rapid…..such as eye blink, nose twitch, grimace.

*causal evidence points to abnormal metabolism of at least one brain neurotransmitter, dopamine.

Social Development

• Stranger Anxiety– fear of strangers that infants commonly display– beginning by about 8 months of age

• Attachment– an emotional tie with another person– shown in young children by seeking closeness to the caregiver

and showing distress on separation

Mary Ainsworth (1979) observed mother-infant pairs at home during their first 6 months. Later, she observed 1 year old infants in strange situations without their mothers.

Sensitive-responsive mothers had infants who exhibited SECURE ATTACHMENT.

Insensitive-unresponsive mothers--those who ignored their children at times--had children who exhibited INSECURE ATTACHMENT.

She is known for her work in the development of ATTACHMENT THEORYATTACHMENT THEORY.

Placed in a strange situation, 60% of infants display SECURE ATTACHMENT. They play comfortably and explore their new environment.

Others show INSECURE ATTACHMENT. These infants cling to their mother and are slow to explore their surroundings.

Social Development• Monkeys raised by

artificial mothers were terror-stricken when placed in strange situations without their surrogate mothers.

Konrad Lorenz (1903-1989)From his initial analysis of imprinting, Lorenz went on to identify the essential components of innate behavior and developed the central constructs of releasers and fixed action patterns which serve as the foundation of the study of animal behavior.

Critical Period– an optimal period shortly after birth when an organism’s

exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces proper development

Imprinting– the process by which certain animals form attachments

during a critical period very early in lifeTemperament

– a person’s characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity

Social DevelopmentBasic Trust (Erik Erikson)

– a sense that the world is predictable and trustworthy– said to be formed during infancy by appropriate experiences with

responsive caregiversSelf-Concept

– a sense of one’s identity and personal worth

Social Development- Child-Rearing Practices

Studies by Stanley CoopersmithCoopersmith (1967), Diana Baumrind Baumrind (1996) and John BuriBuri (1988) reveal that children with the highest self-esteem, self-reliance, and social competence usually have warm, concerned, AUTHORITATIVE parents.

Although most studies are done with white middle-class families, studies in other cultures with other races in more than 200 cultures worldwide confirm these findings.

Authoritarian – parents impose rules and expect

obedience– “Don’t interrupt”– “Why? Because I said so.”

Authoritative– parents are both demanding and

responsive – set rules, but explain reasons– encourage discussion

Permissivesubmit to children’s desiresmake few demandsuse little punishment

Rejecting-neglectingdisengagedexpect littleinvest little

Social Development- Child-Rearing PracticesAuthoritarian

ADVANTAGE: little timeDISADVANTAGE: frail obedient children who may feel hopeless; children may become rebellious and grow to have an insecure outlook on life.

AuthoritativeADVANTAGE: children who talk and discuss, incorporate understanding;

children grow to be confident and trusting of the world.DISADVANTAGE: takes time to explain and discuss

• Three explanations for correlation between authoritative parenting and social competence

High education, ample income, harmonious marriage, common genes

(3) Some third factor may be influencing both parents and child.

(1) Parent’s behavior may be influencing child.

Authoritative parents

(2) Child’s behavior may be influencing parents.

Self-reliant,Socially competentchild





Adolescence• Adolescence

– the transition period from childhood to adulthood– extending from puberty to independence

• Puberty– the period of sexual maturation– when one first becomes capable of reproduction

• Primary Sex Characteristics– body structures that make sexual reproduction possible

• ovaries- female• testes- male• external genitalia

• Secondary Sex Characteristics– nonreproductive sexual characteristics

• female- enlarged breasts, hips• male- voice quality, body hair

• Menarche (meh-NAR-key)– first menstrual period

In a county in Europe, a poor man named Valjean could find no work, nor could his sister and brother. Without money, he stole food and medicine that they needed. He was captured and sentenced to prison for 6 years. After a couple of years, he escaped from the prison and went to live in another part of the country under a new name. He saved money and slowly built up a factory. He gave his workers the highest wages and used most of his profits to build a hospital for people who couldn’t afford good medical care. Twenty years had passed when a tailor recognized the factory owner as being Valjean, the escaped convict whom the police had been looking for back in his hometown.

Should the tailor report Valjean to the police?

Why or why not?

The Heinz Dilemma

Kohlberg’s Moral LadderAs moral development progresses, the focus of concern moves from the

self to the wider social world.

Morality of abstractprinciples: to affirmagreed-upon rights andpersonal ethical principles

Morality of law andsocial rules: to gainapproval or avoiddisapproval

Morality of self-interest:to avoid punishmentor gain concrete rewards

Postconventionallevel

Conventional level

Preconventional level

1. “The tailor will be in trouble if he doesn’t tell the police.” (avoid punishment)

2. “The tailor may get a reward for turning in a criminal.” (gains/rewards)

3. “If you don’t report him, everyone will think you are just as much a criminal” (gains approval/avoids disapproval)

4. “There has to be respect for the law” (duty to society/avoids dishonor or guilt)

5. “Although turning Valjean in may not be perfectly just, leaving such decisions up to each person’s judgment would result in greater injustice” (Affirms agreed-upon rights)

At one time Kohlberg proposed a Stage

7, which reflected a cosmic orientation

in which one is motivated to be true to

universal principles and feels oneself

part of a cosmic direction transcending

social norms.

Lawrence Kohlberg 1927-1987 Harvard University

NOTE: the authors gave no Stage 6 response. This is partly because none of the answers reflected Stage 6 responses. Kohlberg and Colby conclude that, “the question of whether Stage 6 should be included as a natural psychological stage will remain unresolved until research is conducted with a special sample of people likely to have developed beyond Stage 6.”

Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development

Approximateage Stage Description of Task

Infancy Trust vs. mistrust If needs are dependably met, infants(1st year) develop a sense of basic trust.

Toddler Autonomy vs. shame Toddlers learn to exercise will and (2nd year) and doubt do things for themselves, or they

doubt their abilities.

Preschooler Initiative vs. guilt Preschoolers learn to initiate tasks(3-5 years) and carry out plans, or they feel

guilty about efforts to be independent.

Elementary Competence vs. Children learn the pleasure of applying(6 years- inferiority themselves to tasks, or they feel puberty) inferior.

Erik Erikson Freudian ego-psychologist

1902-1994

Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development

Approximateage Stage Description of Task

Adolescence Identity vs. role Teenagers work at refining a sense of self by(teens into confusion testing roles and then integrating them to 20’s) form a single identity, or they become

confused about who they are.

Young Adult Intimacy vs. Young adults struggle to form close relation- (20’s to early isolation ships and to gain the capacity for intimate 40’s) love, or they feel socially isolated.

Middle Adult Generativity vs. The middle-aged discover a sense of contri-(40’s to 60’s) stagnation buting to the world, usually through family

and work, or they may feel a lack of purpose.

Late Adult Integrity vs. When reflecting on his or her life, the older(late 60’s and despair adult may feel a sense of satisfaction orup) failure.

In each stage, conflict arises between newly emerging personality needs and social demands and culminates in a crisis, not in the sense of a catastrophe but rather represents a turning point in development.

Erikson noted, however, that all the personality components develop to some extent throughout life, even before their critical stages.

To some extent, they may develop in parallel and are interdependent even before the relevant crises are resolved.

Social Development

• Identity– one’s sense of self– the adolescent’s task is to solidify a sense of self by testing and

integrating various roles• Intimacy

– the ability to form close, loving relationships– a primary developmental task in late adolescence and early

adulthood

“Consider, friend, as you pass by, as you are now, so once was I. As I am now, you too shall be. Prepare, therefore, to follow me.”

--Scottish tombstone epitaph

ADULTHOOD

Adulthood- Physical Changes• Menopause

– the time of natural cessation of menstruation– also refers to the biological changes a woman experiences as her

ability to reproduce declines• Alzheimer’s Disease

– a progressive and irreversible brain disorder– characterized by a gradual deterioration of memory, reasoning,

language, and finally, physical functioning

Adulthood- Cognitive Changes

• Cross-Sectional Study– a study in which

people of different ages are compared with one another

• Longitudinal Study– a study in which the

same people are restudied and retested over a long period

25 32 39 46 53 60 7467 8135

40

45

50

55

60

Age in years

Reasoningabilityscore

Cross-sectional method

Longitudinal method

Cross-sectional methodsuggests decline

Longitudinal methodsuggests more stability


• Verbal intelligence scores hold steady with age, while nonverbal intelligence scores decline (adapted from Kaufman & others, 1989).

20 35 55 7025 45 6575

80

85

90

95

100

105

Intelligence(IQ) score

Age group

Nonverbal scoresdecline with age

Verbal scores arestable with age

Verbal scoresNonverbal scores


• Crystallized Intelligence– one’s accumulated knowledge and verbal skills– tends to increase with age

• Fluid Intelligence– ones ability to reason speedily and abstractly– tends to decrease during late adulthood

Many people have tried to explain what grief is; some have even identified certain stages of grief.Probably the most well-known of these might be from

Elizabeth Kubler-Ross' book, "On Death and Dying."

The stages Kubler-Ross identified are:

• DDenial (this isn't enial (this isn't happeninghappening to me!) to me!)

• • AAnger (why is this happening to nger (why is this happening to meme?)?)

• • BBargaining (I promise I'll be a better person argaining (I promise I'll be a better person ifif...)...)

• • DDepression (I don't epression (I don't carecare anymore) anymore)

• • AAcceptance (cceptance (I'm readyI'm ready for whatever comes) for whatever comes)

Many people believe that these stages of grief are also experienced by people who have lost a loved one.

Documents

AP PSYCHOLOGY Review for the AP Exam