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1/73

1991PUBL 2028Flame Arresters in Piping Systems

Flame Arresters in

Piping Systems

API PUBLICATION 2028SECOND EDITION, DECEMBER 1991

American Petroleum Institute1220 L Street, NorthwestWashington, D.C. 20005

Flame Arresters inPiping Systems

Safety and Fire Protection Department

API PUBLICATION 2028SECOND EDITION, DECEMBER 1991

AmericanPetroleumInstitute

SPECIAL NOTES

1. API PUBLICATIONS NECESSARILY ADDRESS PROBLEMS OF AGENERAL NATURE. WITH RESPECT TO PARTICULAR CIRCUMSTANCES,LOCAL, STATE, AND FEDERAL LAWS AND REGULATIONS SHOULD BEREVIEWED.

2. API IS NOT UNDERTAKING TO MEET THE DUTIES OF EMPLOYERS,

MANUFACTURERS, OR SUPPLIERS TO WARN AND PROPERLY TRAIN ANDEQUIP THEIR EMPLOYEES, AND OTHERS EXPOSED, CONCERNINGHEALTH AND SAFETY RISKS AND PRECAUTIONS, NOR UNDERTAKINGTHEIR OBLIGATIONS UNDER LOCAL, STATE, OR FEDERAL LAWS.

3. INFORMATION CONCERNING SAFETY AND HEALTH RISKS ANDPROPER PRECAUTIONS WITH RESPECT TO PARTICULAR MATERIALSAND CONDITIONS SHOULD BE OBTAINED FROM THE EMPLOYER, THE


2/73

MANUFACTURER OR SUPPLIER OF THAT MATERIAL, OR THE MATERIALSAFETY DATA SHEET.

4. NOTHING CONTAINED IN ANY API PUBLICATION IS TO BECONSTRUED AS GRANTING ANY RIGHT, BY IMPLICATION OR

OTHERWISE, FOR THE MANUFACTURE, SALE, OR USE OF ANY METHOD,APPARATUS, OR PRODUCT COVERED BY LETTERS PATENT. NEITHERSHOULD ANYTHING CONTAINED IN THE PUBLICATION BE CONSTRUEDAS INSURING ANYONE AGAINST LIABILITY FOR INFRINGEMENT OFLETTERS PATENT.

5. GENERALLY, API STANDARDS ARE REVIEWED AND REVISED,REAFFIRMED, OR WITHDRAWN AT LEAST EVERY FIVE YEARS.SOMETIMES A ONETIME EXTENSION OF UP TO TWO YEARS WILL BEADDED TO THIS REVIEW CYCLE. THIS PUBLICATION WILL NO LONGERBE IN EFFECT FIVE YEARS AFTER ITS PUBLICATION DATE AS AN

OPERATIVE API STANDARD OR, WHERE AN EXTENSION HAS BEENGRANTED, UPON REPUBLICATION. STATUS OF THE PUBLICATION CANBE ASCERTAINED FROM THE API AUTHORING DEPARTMENT[TELEPHONE (202) 682-8000]. A CATALOG OF API PUBLICATIONS ANDMATERIALS IS PUBLISHED ANNUALLY AND UPDATED QUARTERLY BYAPI, 1220 L STREET, N.W., WASHINGTON, D.C. 20005.

Copyright 1994 American Petroleum Institute

FOREWORD

Thispubl

ication

is

intende

d to

alertindu

stry

tothelimi

tatio

nsof

flam

e


3/73

arre

sters

.Fla

me

arresters

are

usually

teste

d inconf

igur

atio

ns

thatprod

ucelow

flam

espee

ds

only

.The

highlyvari

able

conditio

ns

surroun

ding

arre

sterappl

icati

onsmay

resu

lt inhigh


4/73

flam

e

speeds

that

could

rend

erthe

arre

stersinef

fecti

ve.

API

publicati

onsmay

be

usedby

any

one

desiring

todoso.

Eve

ryeffo

rt

has

been

mad

e bythe

Insti

tuteto

assu

rethe


5/73

accu

racy

andrelia

bilit

y ofthe

data

containe

d in

them;

how

ever

, the

Institute

makes

no

represen

tatio

n,

warranty

, orguarante

e in

connect

ion

withthis

publ

icati

onand

here

byexpr

essl

ydisc


6/73

laim

s

anyliabi

lity

orresp

onsi

bility

for

lossor

dam

age

resu

ltingfro

mits

use

orfor

the

viol

ation of

anyfederal,

state

, ormun

icip

alregu

latio

n

withwhi

ch

thispubl

icati

onmay


7/73

conf

lict.

Suggest

ed

revision

s are

invited

and

sho

uldbe

sub

mitt

edto

thedire

ctor

ofthe

Safe

ty

andFire

Protection

Dep

artment,

Am

eric

anPetr

oleu

mInsti

tute,

1220 L

Stre

et,N.


8/73

W.,

Was

hington,

D.C

.200

05.

SECTION 1 - GENERAL

1.1 Purpose

Theavai

labil

ityof

com

mer

cialflam

e

arresters

liste

d by

national

lyreco

gniz

ed

testing

labo

ratories

hasfrequent

ly

led

tothe

inst


9/73

allat

ion

ofthes

e

arresters

in

piping

syst

ems;

how

ever

, the

actual

conditio

ns

under

whi

ch

these

arresterswill

oper

atemay

be

fardiff

eren

t

from

the

conditio

ns

under


10/73

whi

ch

thearre

sters

were

teste

dand

liste

d bythe

testi

ng

labo

ratories.

Listed

arre

stersare

nor

mall

yteste

dunder

nonf

lowing

con

ditions

and

with

ignition

at

theope

n

endsof


11/73

pipe

s

attache

d to

thearre

sters

.The

testi

ngis

con

duct

ed

withlimi

tedleng

ths

ofthe

atta

che

dpipe

s.Flames

prop

agating

thro

ughpipi

ng

syst

emscont

inuo

uslyacce

lerat

eand


12/73

can

reac

hvelo

citie

sthat

are

much

high

erthan

thos

e at

whi

chthe

arresters

wer

eteste

d.

As a

result,

flamearre

sters

,whe

ther

listed or

not,

may

notbe

effe

ctive

whe

nthey


13/73

are

inco

rrectly

appl

iedin

pipi

ngsyst

ems.

Listed

arre

sters

sho

uldnot

beinst

alle

d inpipi

ng

syst

emsunle

sstheyhav

e

been

teste

dund

er

con

ditions

equi

valent to

thos

eexp


14/73

ecte

d in

thespec

ific

applicati

ons.

Thispubl

icati

on

isinte

nde

d to

alertindu

stryto

the

limitatio

ns

of

flame

arresters.

The

highly

vari

able

conditio

ns

surroun

ding

applicati

ons

ofarre


15/73

sters

may

result in

high

flame

spee

dsthat

coul

drend

er

the

arre

stersinef

fective.

1.2 Referenced Publications

The

mos

trece

nteditions

of

thefoll

owi

ngstan

dard

s,

codes,

and

specifica

tion

s arecite


16/73

d in

this

publicati

on.

API

Publ 2210Flame Arrester for Vents of Tanks Storing PetroleumProducts

UL1

UL 525Flame Arresters for Use on Vents of Storage Tanks forPetroleum Oil and Gasoline

GasandOil

Equ

ipm

ent

SECTION 2 - FLAME PROPAGATION

Flames

propagat

ingthro

ugh

piping

syst

emsare

capa

bleofreac

hing

extreme

ly

high
http://fulltext.ihserc.com/ihs_dynaweb/api/an7/@IHS__DocView/1193391;tl=1193391/@ebt-link;cs=inline?root=%25N%17_1193552_START_RESTART_N%25;stylesheet=fnhtml;society=API;__me__=1193513;prod=API;sess=513668253http://fulltext.ihserc.com/ihs_dynaweb/api/an7/@IHS__DocView/1193391;tl=1193391/@ebt-link;cs=inline?root=%25N%17_1193552_START_RESTART_N%25;stylesheet=fnhtml;society=API;__me__=1193513;prod=API;sess=513668253


17/73

spee

ds.

Initially,

the

flames

trav

el ata

burn

ingvelo

city

char

acte

ristic of

themixt

ure;

thisvelo

city,

som

etimes

tabulated in

han

dbooks,

is

usually a

few

feet

perseco

nd.

Then

the

flames


18/73

begi

n to

accelerat

e.

Thisacce

lerat

ionproc

ess

isassi

sted

by

turb

ulence,

which

can

beindu

ced

in

theunb

urnedmixt

ure

bythe

flam

esthe

mse

lves

orcan

resu

ltfro

m

suchfact


19/73

ors

as

flow,

pipe

wallroug

hnes

s, orturb

ulen

ce-prod

ucin

g

fitti

ngs[1].

Note: The flame velocity at a given point is a function of thelength of pipe and size of pipe through which the flames havetraveled, the intensity of turbulence, the properties of theparticular flammable mixtures and other factors.

Flames

can

accelerate to

a

velocity

that

permits

their

trav

elupst

rea

m aswell

as

downstr


20/73

eam

of

theorig

inal

directio

n of

theflow

[2].

They

can

read

ily

reach a

velocity

of

several

hun

dred

feetper

second.If

the

flames

are

propagat

ing

in

theunb

urne

dmed

ium

at avelo


21/73

city

less

thanthe

spee

d ofsou

nd,

it iskno

wn

as adefl

agra

tion,

but

ifthe

pipeis

long

enough,

flam

e

propagat

ionunder

deto

nation

con

ditions

can

occ

ur.In

deto

nations,

flam

escan


22/73

trav

el

several

thou

sandfeet

per

second

and

areacco

mpa

nied

by

pressure

pulses;

the

magnitu

de

of

thepres

surepulses

may

exceed

20

times the

initi

al

absolute

pres

sure[1].

Alth

ough


23/73

the

mag

nitude

of

thepres

sure

pulses

may

exceed

20

time

s the

initial

absolute

pres

sure,

ther

e

area

numberof

way

s inwhi

ch

even

high

er

pressure

s

canbe

gen

erated:


24/73

a. At closed ends and elbows, the pressure is increased by reflection ofthe detonation wave.

b. At the point where the deflagration transforms into a detonation,even higher pressures can occur during a phase of the detonation

known as the overdriven phase [3].

c. When flames are propagating toward a closed system, pressureshigher than 20 times the initial absolute pressure can occur undercertain circumstances because of a process known as pressure piling.In pressure piling, the deflagration causes precompression of the gasbefore the transition to detonation.

Fla

me

prop

agation

mak

esthe

inst

allation

of

flame

arrestersin

pipi

ng

systems

fund

amentall

y

differen

t

fro

mthe

inst

allat


25/73

ion

of

arresters

on

tankvent

s.

Tank

vent

shav

e

little

or

nopipe

length

pres

entbet

wee

n

thearre

sterandan

exte

rnalignit

ion

source at

the

ope

nend

(see

Underwr

iters

Laborat


26/73

orie

s'Gas

andOil

Equipm

ent

andAPI

Publ

ication

221

0).

SECTION 3 - LISTED FLAME ARRESTERS

3.1 Problems in Piping Systems

Installin

g

flame

arre

sters

inpipi

ngsyst

ems

with

extende

d or

continuo

uspipeleng

ths

pres

entsa

com


27/73

plex

desi

gnprob

lem.

Thecrite

ria

forthe

desi

gnof

flam

e

arre

stersfor

continuo

us

piping

syst

ems

have

noteven

bee

nesta

blis

hedyet.

Syst

ems

withexte

nde

d orcont

inuo

uspipe


28/73

leng

ths

mayhav

e

pipeleng

ths

thatwou

ld

permit

flam

es to

attai

neno

ughvelo

city

topass

thro

ugh

anarre

ster.Alternati

vely

, thehigh

pres

sures

dev

elop

edmay

dam

agethe

arre

sting


29/73

ele

men

t orrupt

ure

thehou

sing

,ena

blin

g aflam

e to

pass

thro

ughthe

device.

Pres

sures

resu

lting

from

within apipe

may

exceed

the

strength

of

an

attache

d

vessel.

3.2 Design


30/73

List

ed

flame

arre

stersare

usua

llycell

ular

arresters

and

incl

ude

thefoll

owing

type

s:perf

orat

ed-

plate

arresters,

para

llel-plat

e

arresters

,

crim

ped-met

al-

ribbon

arre

sters,


31/73

and

sint

ered-

met

alarre

sters

[4].The

se

devices

are

barr

iers

thatarre

stthe

flam

esby

que

nchi

ng(that

is,theheat

of

theflam

es is

transferr

ed

to

thewall

s of

anarra

y of

small


32/73

pass

age

ways in

the

arrester)

.

Thecriti

cal

paramet

ers

that

gov

ernthe

effectiv

enes

s ofcell

ular

arre

stersare

thediamet

er or

width

and

theleng

th of

the

flame

pass

ages.

Cell

ulararre


33/73

sters

(dis

cussed

in

APIPubl

icati

on221

0)

areliste

d by

nati

onal

lyreco

gnized

testi

nglabo

rato

ries

asinte

ndedfor

inst

allation

on

atmosp

heri

c

pressure

tank

vents

stori

ngpetr


34/73

oleu

m

products

and

onvent

s

from

the

tanks of

oil

tank

ers

(seeGasand

Oil

Equipm

ent)

[1].

The

listings

areusually

base

d ontests

mad

ewith

mixt

ures

ofgaso

line

vapor

and

airand


35/73

may

not

cover

othe

rmixt

ures

.Arre

sters

tested

with

gaso

line

vapor

areprob

ably

suitable

for

use

withmos

tcommon

para

ffinor

aro

matic

hydr

ocar

bons;

how

ever,

they

should


36/73

not

be

usedwith

fast

burning

gase

sand

vap

ors,such

as

hydr

oge

n,acet

ylene, or

olefi

nichydr

ocar

bon

s,with

outaddition

al

tests.

3.3 Limitations

Whi

le

listed

arre

stersare

teste

d bylabo


37/73

rato

ries,

thetest

con

ditions

may

notbe

equi

valent to

or

repr

esen

tative of

theactu

al

service

con

ditio

nsof

particular

pipi

ngsyst

em

designs.

The

listi

ngsindi

cate

whether

the

testcon


38/73

ditio

ns

include

d

ignition

at

theope

n

endof a

pipe

atta

che

d tothe

device.

If

theyindi

cate

that

ignition

attheope

n

endof a

pipe

wasincl

ude

d,

thelisti

ngs

would

also

indicate


39/73

the

max

imum

per

missible

leng

th ofthe

pipe

.This

limi

tatio

n of

pipeleng

thmea

ns

thatthe

state

d

length is

thegreatest

for

which

the

arrester

was

succ

essfully

teste

d;this

pres

umes


40/73

that

the

pipeis a

strai

ghtsecti

on

ofpipe

that

isthe

sam

e

size

asthe

arrester.

To

beeffe

ctiv

e,

listed

arrestersmus

t be

installe

d in

accordan

ce

with

theirliste

d

installat

ion

paramet


41/73

ers.

3.4 Test Procedures

The

testproc

edur

e forliste

d

arresters

whi

ch is

prov

idedin

UL525

defi

nesignit

ion

as

occurri

ngatthe

ope

nend

of

thedisc

harg

e

pipeand

und

ernonf

lowi

ngcon


42/73

ditio

ns,

sothis

test

procedur

e is

notappr

opri

atefor

liste

d

arre

stersin

closed

pipi

ngsyst

ems

or

withflow

ingflammab

le

material

s.

Before

arre

sters

areinst

alle

d inpipi

ng

systems,


43/73

the

arre

sterssho

uld

beteste

d

witha

proc

edure

that

ade

quat

elyrepr

esents

the

service

con

ditio

nsund

erwhich

they

willbe

used

.The

para

met

ersof

the

testproc

edur

emus


44/73

t be

equi

valent to

the

operatin

g

conditio

ns,

which

incl

ude

fuel

mixture

composi

tion,

tempera

ture,

pres

sure,

flowrate,and

pote

ntialignit

ion

location

s

relat

iveto

the

arresters

. In

some


45/73

case

s,

testing

und

erover

driv

encon

ditio

nsor

with

pres

sure

piling

effects

cons

idered

may

be

appropri

ate.Inothe

r

cases,

testi

ngdeto

nati

on

arresters

at

deflagra

tion

conditio


46/73

ns

sho

uldbe

cons

idered

beca

usearre

sters

suitable

for

deto

nati

onshav

efaile

d

deflagra

tion

tests

[3].

3.5 Untested Arresters

Som

e

imprope

r

installat

ions

of

listed

arre

stershav

e

been in


47/73

serv

ice

foryear

s

without

an

accident

, but

thissho

uld

not

be

consider

edas

proo

fthat

such

inst

allations

aresafe.In

mos

t ofthes

e

cases,

the

arre

stershav

e

never

bee

nsubj


48/73

ecte

d to

flame

fron

ts.The

stati

stical

risk

islow

beca

use

the

required

mixture

and

anignit

ion

sour

cehav

enotocc

urre

dsim

ulta

neously

.

In

facilities

that

terminat

e at

continuo


49/73

us

ignit

ionsour

ces,

suchas

furn

aces,

flare

pits,or

pilot

light

s,

theprob

ability of

a

simulta

neo

us

occurre

nceofthe

prop

ermixt

ure

andan

ignit

ion

source is

grea

ter.Wh

ere

arresters


50/73

hav

e

been

inst

alled in

pipi

ngbet

wee

nthe

gas

and

ignit

ionsour

ces,ther

e

have

bee

n

many

instances of

flam

esocc

urri

ngwith

in

the

piping,

mig

rating

thro

ughthe


51/73

arre

sters

,and

resu

ltingin

an

explosio

n.

3.6 Flame Arresters in Series

In

man

ycase

s,plac

ing

twoor

mor

e

flame

arrestersin

seri

esprov

ides

onlyslig

ht

addi

tional

prot

ection

whe

ncom


52/73

pare

d to

asing

le

arrester.

If

flame

prop

agation

con

ditio

ns

cause

thefirst

arre

sterto

fail,

ther

e isa

significant

prob

ability

that

aniden

tical

seco

ndarre

ster

willalso

fail.

Inany


53/73

case

,

there is

little

ifany

test

work to

veri

fythe

ben

efits

of

arresters

inseri

es.

SECTION 4 - UNLISTED ARRESTERS

4.1 Description

Besi

desliste

darre

sters

,

there

are

other

arresting

devi

ces

andtech

niqu


54/73

es in

use

within

the

hydrocar

bon

processi

ng

industry,

incl

udin

g

water

seals,

pac

kedbeds

,

velo

city-type

arresting

devi

ces,and

mec

hanical

inter

rupt

ionof

the

flame

path

.The


55/73

se

arre

sting

devi

cesand

tech

niques

also

have

limi

tatio

ns

andsho

uldbe

teste

d atfull

scal

e to

determi

netheireffe

ctiv

eness

und

eractu

al

serv

icecon

ditio

ns.

4.2 Water Seals

Wat


56/73

er

seal

s areofte

n

designe

d

andinst

alle

d toprev

ent

reve

rse

gasflow

,and

their

design

is

pote

ntially

capableof

prev

enting

flam

eprop

agat

ion

[4,5,

1].

Ineach

wat

erseal,


57/73

the

gas

mixture

is

bubbled

thro

ugha

rese

rvoir of

wat

er, a

proc

essthat

mayprev

ent

thepass

age

of

flames.

Theflames

are

interrupt

ed

because

each

gas

bubble

is

isolated

fro

mthe


58/73

next

.

Nostan

dard

design

or

listing

is

avai

lable for

wat

er

seals.

Each

inst

allation

pres

ents

aspec

ificproblem

invo

lving

the

rate

ofthe

gas

flow, the

dept

h ofthe

seal,

andthe


59/73

size

and

theconf

igur

ation of

the

vessel

that

contains

the

wat

er.

Some

importa

nt

design

cons

ider

ations

forthewat

er

sealare

as

follows

:

a. It should prevent rupturing under flame-produced pressure.

b. It should reliably maintain the required water level for normal aswell as flame-produced conditions.

c. It should protect against freezing.

4.3 Packed Beds


60/73

For

man

yyear

s,

gravel,

rasc

higring

s,

small

peb

bles,

and

other

bulkmat

erial

shav

e

bee

nused

asflame

arre

stersin

pac

kedtow

ers

or

columns

.

There

are

noesta


61/73

blis

hed

design

crite

riafor

usin

gpac

ked

bedsas

flam

e

arre

sters.

4.4 Velocity-Type Arresting Devices

Where

the

flow

of agas

mixtureis

limi

tedto a

sing

ledire

ctio

n, it

isposs

ible

toensu

re,

bydesi


62/73

gn,

that

theflow

velo

citywill

nev

erbe

less

thanthe

velo

city

corr

espondin

g tothe

max

imum

rate

of

propagat

ionofflam

es in

themixt

ure

under

cons

ider

ation

[1].

Fora

sma

lldia


63/73

met

er

pipedisc

harg

inggaso

line

vapors

into

theope

n

air,

an

efflux

velocity

of

10feet

per

seco

ndis

considered

ade

quate [2,

6];

however

, the

appr

opriate

velo

citymus

t be

determi


64/73

ned

for

eachcase

.

Theappr

opri

atevelo

city

canbe

dete

rmi

ned

from

thegas

mixt

ureand

pipe

dia

meter

[1].Controll

ing

flowvelo

city

thro

ugha

velo

city-type

arre

sting

devi

cesho


65/73

uld

be

regarded

as

aneffe

ctiv

etech

niqu

e forprev

enti

ng

flas

hbacks

onlywhe

n

theignit

ion

sour

ce isat

theopen

end

ofthe

pipe

. Inthe

desi

gn

of avelo

city-

typearre

stin

gdevi


66/73

ce,

som

emea

ns

must be

prov

idedeith

er to

maintai

n a

mini

mu

mvelo

cityund

er

alloper

atin

g

conditio

nsor tointer

rupt

thegas

sup

plyif

the

flow

velocity

bec

omes

too

low.The


67/73

desi

gn

must

also

provide

som

emea

ns

either to

inter

rupt

the

gassup

plyor to

exti

nguish

burn

ing

within

thevelocity

secti

onof

the

arrester.

This

prev

entsthe

flam

esfro

m

heating


68/73

the

arre

stereno

ugh

toper

mit

them to

pass

through

it,

whi

ch

canocc

urwith

in a

fewmin

utes.

4.5 Mechanical Interruption of Flame Path

Aclosed

pipe

valve

can

prevent

flam

e

passage

as

longas

the

valve


69/73


70/73

use

flam

esare

acco

mpanied

by

vibratio

n,

pressure

rise,

tem

pera

ture,and

ultraviol

et

emissio

ns,

sens

ingdevi

cesposition

ed

some

dist

ancefro

m

the

valve

can

beused

to

close it,


71/73

prec

ludi

ngthe

pass

ageof

flam

es.Mec

hani

calinter

rupt

ion

is

probably

more

usef

ul incom

bina

tion

withthe

otherappr

oac

hesdisc

usse

d inthis

publ

icati

on.

SECTION 5 - SUMMARY

For

cell

ularand


72/73

othe

r

tested

arre

sting

devi

ces,the

foll

owing

guid

elin

es

arereco

mmend

ed:

a. Only a listed or tested arresting device that is within the range of itslisted or tested parameters should be used.

b. For applications that use listed arresters outside the range of theirtest parameters and for all unlisted devices, a fullscale test under

conditions equivalent to actual service conditions should be conducted.Actual service conditions include mixture composition, temperature,pressure, flow rate, and ignition location relative to the arrester. Ifdetonation conditions can occur at the arrester, the device must betested under detonation as well as deflagration conditions.

c. The arresting device must be installed and maintained in the exactmechanical form in which it was tested; this includes maintaining theexact form of the element, its housing, and gaskets.

d. For piping system applications where both the flammable mixture

and an ignition source are likely to be present simultaneously, flamearresters should not be considered as the sole means of protection butshould be used as a supplement to other systems or operationalcontrols.

e. If the arresting device is not designed to withstand sustainedburning on the face, a provision must be made to detect and suppressor prevent burning.


73/73

f. When an arrester is installed in a piping system, it should be checkedperiodically to ensure that it has not been damaged, has not clogged,or has not corroded. Therefore, the inline arrester must be installed ina location that facilitates inspection and required maintenance.

SECTION 6 - REFERENCES

1. Howard, Walter B., "Flame Arresters and Flashback Arresters,"Plant/Operations Progress, American Institute of Chemical Engineers,New York, October 1982, Vol. 1, No. 4.

2. Broshchka, G.L., Ginsburgh, I., Mancini, R.A., and Will, R.G., "A Studyof Flame Arresters in Piping Systems," Plant/Operations Progress,American Institute of Chemical Engineers, New York, January 1983, Vol.2, No. 1.

3. Roussakis, N., and Lapp, K., "A Comprehensive Test Method forInline Flame Arresters," Paper presented at API Committee on Safetyand Fire Protection Spring Meeting, Tulsa, Oklahoma, April 13, 1989.

4. Watson, P.B., "Flame Arresters," Paper presented at the Conferenceon Instrumentation and Safety in the Oil and Natural Gas Industries,Glasgow College of Technology, Glasgow, Scotland, March 9 - 10, 1977.

5. Bartknecht, W., "Mechanical Flame Barriers," Explosions, Springer-Verlag, New York, 1981, pp. 155 - 158.

6. Wilson, R.P., and Crowley, D.P., Performance of CommerciallyAvailable Flame Arresters for Butane/Air and Gasoline/Air Mixtures,NTIS No. AD 063002, 1978.

Order No. 855-20280

American Petroleum Institute1220 L Street, NorthwestWashington, D.C. 20005

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AP!-Pbl 2028 Flame Arraestor