AP Language & Composition

Unlocking the Rhetorical Devices

Balance

ParallelismChiasmusAntithesis

Ex: To think carefully and to write precisely are interrelated goals. Vs. To think carefully and precise writing are interrelated goals.

By matching the cadence, the form, or the subjects, you’ll be able to make your essay easier to read and digest and your speeches easier to listen to.

Parallelism-- is the repetition of a grammatical structure. The effect of parallelism is usually one of balance arrangement achieved through repetition of the same syntactic form.

Understanding Balance 3

Chiasmus Figure of speech—a pattern in which the

second part is balanced against the first but with the parts reversed. This may involve a repetition of the same words.

Ex: “Pleasure’s a sin, and sometimes sin’s a pleasure.” Bryon

4Understanding Balance

Parallelism vs. Chiasmus

Parallelism: The code breakers worked constantly but succeeded rarely.

5

Chiasmus: The code breakers worked constantly but rarely succeeded.

verb adverb verb adverb

verb adverb adverb verb

Parallelism: What is learned unwillingly is forgotten gladly.

Chiasmus: What is learned unwillingly is gladly forgotten.

Antithesis—contrasting two ideas by placing them next to each other

Ex: “That’s one small step for man, one giant leap for mankind.” Neil Armstrong

“We live within our limits, for we are men, not gods.”

By contrasting legality and morality, wisdom and learning, or success and happiness, you make your reader think about the subtle shades of difference between concepts.

Emphasis 1

ClimaxAsyndetonPolysyndetonExpletive

Climax—is the presentation of ideas of increasing importance.

Random Order: When the bucket fell off the ladder, the paint splashed onto the small rug, the drop cloth, the Rembrandt painting, and the sofa.

Climactic Order: When the bucket fell off the ladder, the paint splashed onto the drop cloth, the small rug, the sofa, and the Rembrandt painting.

Asyndeton (uh SIN duh tahn)– consists of omitting conjunctions between words, phrases, or clauses in a list.

Ex: When he returned, he received medals, honors, riches, titles, fame.

Conj: He was a winner and a hero.

Asyndeton: He was a winner, a hero.

POLYSYNDETON (POL E SIN DUH THAN) –IS THE USE OF A CONJUNCTION BETWEEN EACH WORD, PHRASE, OR CLAUSE AND IS THUS STRUCTURALLY THE OPPOSITE OF ASYNDETON.

THE GENERAL FEEL OF POLYSYNDETON IS ONE OF AN INCREASING URGENCY AND POWER, WITH AN ALMOST HYPNOTIC RHYTHM FORMING QUITE QUICKLY.Ex: “I slithered under the sheets, and under

the blankets, and under the top quilt to evade the monsters.” The commas draw out the action and make

escaping more suspenseful.

EXPLETIVE—A WORD OR SHORT PHRASE, OFTEN INTERRUPTING A SENTENCE, USED TO LEND EMPHASIS TO THE WORDS

Without expletive: The lake was not drained before April.

With expletive: The lake was not, in fact, drained before April.

EMPHASIS II: THE MOST EMPHATIC PART OF A SENTENCE IS AT THE END, WHILE THE SECOND MOST EMPHATIC PART IS AT THE BEGINNING.

HOW DO YOU WANT TO LEAVE YOUR READERS?

Irony

Understatement

Litotes

Hyperbole

IRONY—INVOLVES A STATEMENT WHOSE HIDDEN MEANING IS DIFFERENT FROM ITS SURFACE OR APPARENT MEANING.

Ex: When the tow truck driver pulled up, he saw the girl

sitting in the rain on the spare tire, her prom dress

ripped, grease on her face, mud on her shoes. As he

stepped out of the truck, she asked him, “Does this mean

my fun is over?”

UnderstatementThe opposite of exaggeration. It deliberately expresses an idea as less important than it actually is.

“I know my actions were a little inappropriate,” statedTiger Woods.

Litotes A form of understatement, created by

denying the opposite of the idea in mind.Without litotes: Those who examine themselves will gain knowledge of their failings.

With litotes: Those who examine themselves will not remain ignorant of their failings.

Many writers have created litotes by using a non un- construction: Instead of saying, “We were willing,” they would write, “We were not unwilling.”

HyperboleA figure of speech, emphasized by exaggeration.

Ex. There were millions of people at school.

Figurative Language I Clarifying the unfamiliar by comparing it with the familiar is one

of the “key” methods of teaching and learning.

SimileAnalogyMetaphor

Simile

It compares two very different things that have at least one quality in common.

Ex: After long exposure to the direct sun, the leaves of the houseplant looked like pieces of overcooked bacon.

The difference between subject and image should be substantial!

Analogy

A word, thing, or idea chosen

for the purpose of comparison.

Ex: In order to solve a problem, you first have to know what the problem really is, in the same way that you can’t untie a knot until you’ve found the knot. -Aristotle

Metaphor It identifies the subject with the

image: That is, instead of saying the subject is like the image, a metaphor asserts that the subject is the image in some sense.

Simile: A good book is like a friend.Metaphor: A good book is a friend.

FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE II

MetonymySynecdochePersonification

Metonymy (muh THAN uh me) One entity is used to stand for another associated entity(The substitution of the name of a thing by the name of an attribute of it.)

Ex: the “crown” =monarchy“John Hancock”=signatureThe “big apple”=NYCA “Mercedes” rear-ended me

(Ex: The word me stands for the car that the speaker was driving.)

Synecdoche (sin EK duh Ke) (a kind of metonymy)

A part is used to describe the whole

Ex: If I had some wheels, I’d put on my threads and ask for Jane’s hand.

Wheels=automobile/motorcycleThreads=clothesHand=part-for-whole substitution for Jane

Personification

Human attributes to animals, objects, or ideas.

Ex: This coffee is strong enough to get up and walk away.

The ship began to creak and protest as it struggled against the rising sea.

FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE III

AllusionEponymApostrophe

AllusionA short, informal reference to a famous person or event. The allusion often functions as a brief analogy or example to highlight a point being made.

Ex: Plan ahead: It wasn’t raining when Noah built the Ark. --Richard Cushing

“It was like Romeo and Juliet, only it ended in tragedy.” (Milhouse from the Simpsons implying the effects from his first love)

Eponym (EP uh nim) Is a specific type of allusion, substituting

the name of a person famous for some attribute in place of the attribute itself. The person can be a historical, mythological, literary, or Biblical figure.

Ex: This lid is stuck so tight I need a Hercules to open it.

Is he smart? Why, the man is an Einstein. Is he creative?

Apostrophe (uh POS truh fe)

A direct address to someone, whether present or absent, and whether real, imaginary, or personified. Its most common purpose is to permit the writer to turn away from the subject under discussion for a moment and give expression to built-up emotion.

Ex: O books who alone are liberal and free, who give to all who ask of you and enfranchise all who serve you faithfully! –Richard de Bury

After this last piece of unexpected news, the stock collapsed completely, ending its fall from $84 a share a year earlier to less than a dollar now. You poor shareholders! If only you had known about those secret partnerships! How much wiser you could have been!

Syntax I

The term syntax refers to the way words and phrases are put together to form sentences.

Zeugma (ZOOG muh) Linking together two or more words,

phrases, or clauses by another word that is stated in one place and only implied in the rest of the sentence.

Ex: Jane and Tom jogged along the trail together. (One verb links two subjects.)

She grabbed her purse from the alcove, her gloves from the table near the door, and her car keys from the punchbowl.(The verb grabbed is implied in front of her gloves and her car keys.)

Diazeugma (di uh ZOOG muh) Consists of a single subject linking multiple verbs or verb phrases.

Ex: The book reveals the extent of counterintelligence operations, discusses the options for improving security, and argues for an increase in human intelligence measures.

(The word book links the verb phrases beginning with reveals, discusses, and argues.)

Restatement I

Anaphora Epistrophe Symploce

AnaphoraRhetorical figure of repetition in which the same word or phrase is repeated (found often in prose and verse).

Ex: You’re beautiful, you’re beautiful, you’re beautiful, it’s true. --J. Blunt

Your body is a wonderland. –John Mayer

EpistropheThe same word or phrase is repeated at the end of successive clauses, sentences, or lines.

Whitman’s Song of Myself:

The moth and the fish-eggs are in their place.

The bright suns I see and the dark suns I cannot see are in their place,

The palpable is in its place and the impalpable

is in its place.

Symploce (SIM plo ke)

Combines anaphora and epistrophe by repeating words at both the beginning and the ending of phrases, clauses, or sentences.

Ex: Whenever Chef Robaire cooked, his soup du jour began with chicken broth and garlic, his soup a la Chef included vegetables and garlic, and his soup Forentine was made with onions, cheese, and garlic.

Soup (repeated) Garlic (repeated)

Restatement II

Anadiplosis Conduplicatio

Anadiplosis (an uh di PLO sis)

Formed by the repetition of the last word or words of a sentence or clause at or very near the beginning of the next clause.

Ex: The treatment plant has a record of uncommon reliability, a reliability envied by every other water treatment facility on the coast.

Conduplicatio (con doo plih KAHT e o) Takes an important word from anywhere in one sentence and repeats

it at the beginning of the next sentence.

Ex: Working adults form the largest single group of customers for on-line courses in the United States. On-line courses allow them to schedule academic assignments around full-time jobs and family responsibilities.

Sound

Alliteration Onomatopoeia Assonance Consonance

AlliterationA sequence of repeated consonantal sounds in a stretch of language

Without Alliteration: Jonathan was the child of mature parents, who were calm and relaxed.

With Alliteration: Jonathan was the product of a mature marriage, whose partners were calm and relaxed.

Onomatopoeia Words which

sound like the noise they describe.

Ex: Swish, cuckoo, smack, plonk, etc.

Assonance (As uh nuns) Repeating vowel sounds in the stressed syllables of successive

words or words relatively close to each other.

Ex: A city that is set on a hill cannot be hid.—Matthew 5:14b To get within sight of the lava, the geologists took a high-

temperature hike.

Consonance (KON suh nuns) Repeating the same consonant sound at the end of stressed syllables

(or short words) with different vowels before the consonants.

Ex: Without consonance: He was so thirsty that he tried to tear the lid from the top.

With consonance: He was so thirsty that he tried to rip the cap from the top.

Drama

Rhetorical Question Aporia

Rhetorical Question The expected answer is implied by the question itself, and is often just a yes or

no.

Ex: So, then, do we want to continue a business model that guarantees we will lose more money next year than this year and more money than ever each coming year?

Aporia (uh POR e uh) Expresses doubt about a fact, idea, or conclusion. The doubt may be real or

pretended.

Ex: I cannot decide whether I approve of dress codes for middle-school children: Dress codes prevent gang clothing and conspicuous consumption, but they also produce a gray uniformity that suppresses personality and individual taste.

Apophasis (uh POF uh sis) Brings up a subject by pretending not to bring it up. Its legitimate use is to

call attention to something briefly, mentioning the existence of an idea without going into it.

Ex: I will not mention Houdini’s books on magic, nor the tricks he invented, nor his well-known escapes, because I want to focus on the work he did exposing swindlers and cheats.

Anacoluthon (an uh kuh LOO thun)

A sentence whose two pieces do not fit together grammatically.

Ex: Suddenly we heard an explosion from the direction of the hut. I turned to see the windows blowing out and the roof coming off. I began to—we were all knocked down.

Word Play

Oxymoron Pun Anthimeria

Oxymoron A condensed paradox, usually reduced to two words. (Paradox= an

apparent contradiction)

Ex: Your dog whimpers and scratches to be picked up, but when I pick him up, he turns his head away as if he doesn’t care that he’s being held. It’s clearly a case of clinging aloofness.

PunIt plays with multiple meanings of a word or words. It is considered the “lowest form of humor,” but historically puns were considered witty and elegant because they were often well done.

Ex: Tell me, what’s the scoop on cat litter?

I can’t believe you ducked up like that!

Anthimeria (an thi MER e uh) Uses one part of speech as if it were another.

Ex: I can keyboard that article this afternoon. Friends who Internet together, stay together!

Connotation/Denotation

Connotation-emotional response evoked by a word

Ex. Kitten=soft, warm, cuddly

Denotation-literal meaning

Epithet (EP uh thet)An adjective, or adjectival phrase, that describes a

key characteristic of the noun. (The characteristic poetic diction of the 18th century was replete with epithets.)

Ex: Brightening dawn, smirking billboards, joyous firefly, sleeping night

Prozeugma (pro ZOOG muh)

The linking word is presented once and then omitted from the subsequent sets of words or phrases linked together.

Ex: The freshman excelled in calculus; the sophomore, in music; the senior, in drama.

Mesozeugma (mez uh ZOOG muh) The linking word (often a verb) comes in

the middle of the sentence.

Ex: A center speaker is included, and a subwoofer.

Hypozeugma (hi po ZOOG muh)

The linking word follows the words it links together.

(Commonly done with Periodic Sentences)

Ex: Monkeys, giraffes, elephants, and even lions had escaped from the zoo after the earthquake.

Syllepsis (si LEP sis)

The terms are linked in different senses or meanings of the linking word.

Ex: She was unwilling to drive to that party because she was afraid to damage her car or her reputation.

Cumulative Sentences

Presents the main idea first and then adds modification, detail, and qualification afterwards.

Ex: The joint leaked after the third pressure test at low temperature and high vibration.

Periodic Sentence

It presents modification first or in some other way holds off the completion of the main idea until the very end.

Ex: When the students knew they were being observed, they scored less well on the test.

Transition

One of the keys to good writing is the ability to take your reader with you as you move along in your discussion. Transitions allow you to signal clearly when you are changing directions.

MetabasisProcatalepsisHypophora

Metabasis (muh TAB uh sis)

Ex: “I have discussed various reasons that show why we need to vote for a new president of this company: our present leader has run the organization for twelve years, she has not had any profitable ideas in years, her salary has doubl3ed since 2005, the company’s stocks has not moved, and her daughter has recently been hired as a consultant. But last week, the final incident occurred that has led me to recommend that she be replaced.”

It is a device used to sum up a body of work that has come before, so that you can move on to a new point.

Procatalepsis (pro kat uh LEP sis)

Anticipates an objection that might be raised by a reader and responds to it, thus permitting an argument to continue moving forward while taking into account opposing points.

Ex: It is usually argued at this point that if the government gets out of the mail delivery business, small towns like One Tree will not have any mail service. The answer to this can be found in the history of the Pony Express…

Hypophora (hi POF or uh)

It involves asking one or more questions and then proceeding to answer them, usually at some length.

Ex: Why should you vote in the next election? Your future may depend on who is elected.

Clarity Writing so that your reader has an accurate understanding of your ideas—at the heart of good writing.

Distinctio Exemplum Amplification Metanoia

Amplification

Consists of restating a word or idea and adding more detail. This device allows a writer to call attention to an expression that may otherwise be passed over.

Ex: The subway car came to a halt with a jolt: a wrenching, neck-snapping jolt.

Distinctio (dis TINK te o) The presentation of a specific meaning for a

word in order to prevent ambiguity or confusion.

Ex: Ambiguous: It is impossible to make methanol for twenty-five cents a gallon.

Clarified with distinctio: To make methanol for twenty-five cents a gallon is impossible; by impossible I mean currently beyond our technological capabilities.

The clarification assures that your readers know what you mean when you use the word.

Exemplum (eg ZEM plum)

Provides a specific example.

Ex: Snow cones flavors, such as bubble gum and mango, are often named after candy or fruit.

The conifers (evergreens like pine and cypress trees) produce seeds in hard, cone-shaped structures.

Metanoia (met uh NOI uh)

Qualifies a statement or part of a statement by rejecting it or calling it back and expressing it in a better, milder, or stronger way.

Ex: Most bottled water companies try to capture the mountain spring water taste; or rather, they do not so much capture it as manufacture it by adding minerals and ozone.

Syntax II

Hyperbaton (hi PUR buh tahn)

Refers to any departure from normal word order.

Ex: Disturb me not! (Do not disturb me!)

Books they have demanded and books they will get.(They have demanded books.)

Anastrophe (uh NAS tro fe)

Involves the reversal or transposition of words.

Ex: Normal Word Order: His was a sad countenance.

Anastrophe: His was a countenance sad.

Welcome to our home comfortable.

She displayed an air of confidence unusual.

Appositive

A noun that redescribes another noun standing next to it.

Ex: Mrs. Wilkins, the manager, told me about the plans for expansion.

Parenthesis

A word, phrase, or entire sentence inserted as an aside into the middle of another sentence.

Ex: But the new calculations—and here we see the value of relying on up-to-date information—showed that man-powered flight was possible with this design.

Epanelepsis (ep an uh LEP sis) Repeats the beginning word or words of a clause or sentence at the end.

Ex: Water alone dug this giant canyon; yes, just ordinary water. Our eyes saw it, but we could not believe our eyes.

Restatement III

Diacope Epizeuxis Antimetabole Scesis Onomaton

Diacope (di AK uh pe) The repetition of a word or phrase after an intervening word or phrase.

Ex: They dynamited the statue, those villains; they dynamited the statue. The stock market didn’t fall—will you believe it? --the stock market didn’t

fall.

Epizeuxis (ep i ZOOK sis)

The repetition of one word or short phrase. The most common and most natural effect is produced by three occurrences of the word or phrase, while two can be effective as well.

Ex: The best way to describe this AP Language students is cool, cool, cool!

Antimetabole (an te muh TAB uh le) Reverses the order of repeated words or phrases to call attention to the

final formulation, present alternatives, or show contrast.

Ex: All play and no work can be as stressful as all work and no play. Sarah’s job is to find a location suitable for the wedding, while

Alison’s job is to design a wedding suitable for the location.

Scesis Onomaton (SKE sis uh NO muh tahn) Emphasizes an idea by expressing it in a string of generally synonymous phrases or

statements.

Ex: Wendy lay there, motionless in a peaceful slumber, very still in the arms of sleep. The fog rolled in so thick that we had no visibility; we were completely blinded; we just

could not see anything.

Apophasis (uh POF uh sis) Brings up a subject by pretending not to bring it up. Its legitimate use is to

call attention to something briefly, mentioning the existence of an idea without going into it.

Ex: I will not mention Houdini’s books on magic, nor the tricks he invented, nor his well-known escapes, because I want to focus on the work he did exposing swindlers and cheats.

Anacoluthon (an uh kuh LOO thun)

A sentence whose two pieces do not fit together grammatically.

Ex: Suddenly we heard an explosion from the direction of the hut. I turned to see the windows blowing out and the roof coming off. I began to—we were all knocked down.

Word Play

Oxymoron Pun Anthimeria

Oxymoron A condensed paradox, usually reduced to two words. (Paradox= an

apparent contradiction)

Ex: Your dog whimpers and scratches to be picked up, but when I pick him up, he turns his head away as if he doesn’t care that he’s being held. It’s clearly a case of clinging aloofness.

PunIt plays with multiple meanings of a word or words. It is considered the “lowest form of humor,” but historically puns were considered witty and elegant because they were often well done.

Ex: Tell me, what’s the scoop on cat litter?

I can’t believe you ducked up like that!

Anthimeria (an thi MER e uh) Uses one part of speech as if it were another.

Ex: I can keyboard that article this afternoon. Friends who Internet together, stay together!

Connotation/Denotation

Connotation-emotional response evoked by a word

Ex. Kitten=soft, warm, cuddly

Denotation-literal meaning

Concrete LanguageConcrete- nouns, verbs, and adjectives that help you imagine specific sensations or form mental pictures. Ex: yellow mustard

Abstract Language

Language that appeals more to the mind than to the senses.

Ex:

Color is abstract, a category name that covers every specific color there is. However, yellow mustard is concrete.

Ex: courage, worthlessness, etc.

Allegory

A work that functions on a symbolic level. Example: The Lord of the Flies is an allegory of society.

Anecdote

A story or brief episode told by the writer or a character to illustrate a point.

Cacophony

Harsh and discordant sounds in a line or passage in a literary work.

Didactic

Writing whose purpose is to instruct or to teach. A didactic work is usually formal and focuses on moral and ethical concerns.

Epigraph

The use of a quotation at the beginning of a work that hints at its theme. Hemingway begins The Sun Also Rises with two epigraphs. Example: “You are all a lost generation” by Gertrude Stein

Euphemism

A more acceptable and usually more pleasant way of saying something that might be inappropriate or uncomfortable. Example: “He went to his final reward.”

Euphony

The pleasant, mellifluous presentation of sounds in a literary work.

AphorismA terse (short, abrupt) statement of known authorship, which expresses a general truth or a moral principle.

Parody

A comic imitation of a work that ridicules the original (mocking or humorous). The Simpson’s Show is a parody of _____________.

Pedantic

Stream of Consciousness

Narrative that presents the private thoughts of a character without commentary or interpretation by the author.

Sarcasm

A comic technique that ridicules through caustic language.

SatireA mode of writing based on ridicule, that criticizes the foibles and follies of society without necessarily offering a solution.

SynaesthesiaA blending or confusion of different kinds of sense-impression, in which one type of sensation is referred to in terms more appropriate to another.Ex:

Sounds in terms of color“yellow cocktail music”

Sounds in terms of taste “how sweet the sound”

Color in terms of sound “loud shirt”

Color in terms of temp. “cool green”

Sound as “smooth”

Color as “warm” “loud”

MotifA simple element that serves as a basis for expanded narrative; in literature, recurrent images, words, objects, phrases, or actions that unify a work.

Denouement The clearing up or “untying” of

the complications of the plot in a play or story; usually a final scene or chapter in which mysteries, confusions, and doubtful destinies are clarified.

Ex: …the final scene in the Beauty & The Beast

Anticlimax

A sudden drop from the dignified or important thought of expression to the commonplace or trivial, often for humorous effect.

Inverted Syntax

Reversing the normal word order of a sentence

Ex: Star Wars, Yoda speaks in inverted syntax.

Robert Frost, “Whose woods these are I think I know.”

Argument Terms

Ad Hominem-an attack on the person rather than on the opponent’s ideas

Inductive Reasoning

Flowing from the specific to the general in an argument

Deductive Reasoning

Flowing from the general to the particular in an argument

Logical Fallacy

A mistake in reasoning

Pathos

An appeal to the emotions that can be used to persuade.

Logos

An appeal to the facts in order to persuade.

Ethos

An appeal to the ethical senses in order to persuade.

Syllogism

The format of a formal argument that consists of a major premise, minor premise, and a conclusion.

Non sequitur

Stating a conclusion that doesn’t follow from the first premise.

Post hoc, ergo propter hoc

Assuming that because B follows A, B was caused by A.

Example: Because I wore my red polo shirt, I won the U.S. Open.