AP BIOLOGY EXAM REVIEW GUIDE

“The price of success is hard work, dedication to the job at hand, and the determination that

whether we win or lose, we have applied the best of ourselves to the task at hand.”

Big Idea Curriculum Framework for AP® Biology Big Idea 1: The process of evolution drives the diversity and unity of life.

Enduring understanding 1.A: Change in the genetic makeup of a population over time is evolution.

Essential knowledge 1.A.1: Natural selection is a major mechanism of evolution.

Essential knowledge 1.A.2: Natural selection acts on phenotypic variations in populations.

Essential knowledge 1.A.3: Evolutionary change is also driven by random processes.

Essential knowledge 1.A.4: Biological evolution is supported by scientific evidence from many disciplines, including mathematics.

Enduring understanding 1.B: Organisms are linked by lines of descent from common ancestry.

Essential knowledge 1.B.1: Organisms share many conserved core processes and features that evolved and are widely distributed among organisms today.

Essential knowledge 1.B.2: Phylogenetic trees and cladograms are graphical representations (models) of evolutionary history that can be tested.

Enduring understanding 1.C: Life continues to evolve within a changing environment.

Essential knowledge 1.C.1: Speciation and extinction have occurred throughout the Earth’s history.

Essential knowledge 1.C.2: Speciation may occur when two populations become reproductively isolated from each other.

Essential knowledge 1.C.3: Populations of organisms continue to evolve.

Enduring understanding 1.D: The origin of living systems is explained by natural processes.

Essential knowledge 1.D.1: There are several hypotheses about the natural origin of life on Earth, each with supporting scientific evidence.

Essential knowledge 1.D.2: Scientific evidence from many different disciplines supports models of the origin of life.

Big Idea 2: Biological systems utilize free energy and molecular building blocks to grow, to reproduce and to maintain dynamic homeostasis.

Enduring understanding 2.A: Growth, reproduction and maintenance of the organization of living systems require free energy and matter.

Essential knowledge 2.A.1: All living systems require constant input of free energy.

Essential knowledge 2.A.2: Organisms capture and store free energy for use in biological processes.

Essential knowledge 2.A.3: Organisms must exchange matter with the environment to grow, reproduce and maintain organization.

Enduring understanding 2.B: Growth, reproduction and dynamic homeostasis require that cells create and maintain internal environments that are different from their external environments.

Essential knowledge 2.B.1: Cell membranes are selectively permeable due to their structure.

Essential knowledge 2.B.2: Growth and dynamic homeostasis are maintained by the constant movement of molecules across membranes.

Essential knowledge 2.B.3: Eukaryotic cells maintain internal membranes that partition the cell into specialized regions.

Enduring understanding 2.C: Organisms use feedback mechanisms to regulate growth and reproduction, and to maintain dynamic homeostasis.

Essential knowledge 2.C.1: Organisms use feedback mechanisms to maintain their internal environments and respond to external environmental changes.

Essential knowledge 2.C.2: Organisms respond to changes in their external environments.

Enduring understanding 2.D: Growth and dynamic homeostasis of a biological system are influenced by changes in the system’s environment.

Essential knowledge 2.D.1: All biological systems from cells and organisms to populations, communities and ecosystems are affected by complex biotic and abiotic interactions involving exchange of matter and free energy.

Essential knowledge 2.D.2: Homeostatic mechanisms reflect both common ancestry and divergence due to adaptation in different environments.

Essential knowledge 2.D.3: Biological systems are affected by disruptions to their dynamic homeostasis.

Essential knowledge 2.D.4: Plants and animals have a variety of chemical defenses against infections that affect dynamic homeostasis.

Enduring understanding 2.E: Many biological processes involved in growth, reproduction and dynamic homeostasis include temporal regulation and coordination.

Essential knowledge 2.E.1: Timing and coordination of specific events are necessary for the normal development of an organism, and these events are regulated by a variety of mechanisms.

Essential knowledge 2.E.2: Timing and coordination of physiological events are regulated by multiple mechanisms.

Essential knowledge 2.E.3: Timing and coordination of behavior are regulated by various mechanisms and are important in natural selection.

Big Idea 3: Living systems store, retrieve, transmit and respond to information essential to life processes.

Enduring understanding 3.A: Heritable information provides for continuity of life.

Essential knowledge 3.A.1: DNA, and in some cases RNA, is the primary source of heritable information.

Essential knowledge 3.A.2: In eukaryotes, heritable information is passed to the next generation via processes that include the cell cycle and mitosis or meiosis plus fertilization.

Essential knowledge 3.A.3: The chromosomal basis of inheritance provides an understanding of the pattern of passage (transmission) of genes from parent to offspring.

Essential knowledge 3.A.4: The inheritance pattern of many traits cannot be explained by simple Mendelian genetics.

Enduring understanding 3.B: Expression of genetic information involves cellular and molecular mechanisms.

Essential knowledge 3.B.1: Gene regulation results in differential gene expression, leading to cell specialization.

Essential knowledge 3.B.2: A variety of intercellular and intracellular signal transmissions mediate gene expression.

Enduring understanding 3.C:The processing of genetic information is imperfect and is a source of genetic variation.

Essential knowledge 3.C.1: Changes in genotype can result in changes in phenotype.

Essential knowledge 3.C.2: Biological systems have multiple processes that increase genetic variation.

Essential knowledge 3.C.3: Viral replication results in genetic variation, and viral infection can introduce genetic variation into the hosts.

Enduring understanding 3.D: Cells communicate by generating, transmitting and receiving chemical signals.

Essential knowledge 3.D.1: Cell communication processes share common features that reflect a shared evolutionary history.

Essential knowledge 3.D.2: Cells communicate with each other through direct contact with other cells or from a distance via chemical signaling.

Essential knowledge 3.D.3: Signal transduction pathways link signal reception with cellular response.

Essential knowledge 3.D.4: Changes in signal transduction pathways can alter cellular response.

Enduring understanding 3.E: Transmission of information results in changes within and between biological systems.

Essential knowledge 3.E.1: Individuals can act on information and communicate it to others.

Essential knowledge 3.E.2: Animals have nervous systems that detect external and internal signals, transmit and integrate information, and produce responses.

Big Idea 4: Biological systems interact, and these systems and their interactions possess complex properties.

Enduring understanding 4.A: Interactions within biological systems lead to complex properties.

Essential knowledge 4.A.1: The subcomponents of biological molecules and their sequence determine the properties of that molecule.

Essential knowledge 4.A.2: The structure and function of subcellular components, and their interactions, provide essential cellular processes.

Essential knowledge 4.A.3: Interactions between external stimuli and regulated gene expression result in specialization of cells, tissues and organs.

Essential knowledge 4.A.4: Organisms exhibit complex properties due to interactions between their constituent parts.

Essential knowledge 4.A.5: Communities are composed of populations of organisms that interact in complex ways.

Essential knowledge 4.A.6: Interactions among living systems and with their environment result in the movement of matter and energy.

Enduring understanding 4.B: Competition and cooperation are important aspects of biological systems.

Essential knowledge 4.B.1: Interactions between molecules affect their structure and function.

Essential knowledge 4.B.2: Cooperative interactions within organisms promote efficiency in the use of energy and matter.

Essential knowledge 4.B.3: Interactions between and within populations influence patterns of species distribution and abundance.

Essential knowledge 4.B.4: Distribution of local and global ecosystems changes over time.

Enduring understanding 4.C: Naturally occurring diversity among and between components within biological systems affects interactions with the environment.

Essential knowledge 4.C.1: Variation in molecular units provides cells with a wider range of functions.

Essential knowledge 4.C.2: Environmental factors influence the expression of the genotype in an organism.

Essential knowledge 4.C.3: The level of variation in a population affects population dynamics.

Essential knowledge 4.C.4: The diversity of species within an ecosystem may influence the stability of the ecosystem.

Science Practices for AP® Biology Science Practice 1: The student can use representations and models to communicate scientific phenomena and solve scientific problems. Visual representations and models are indispensable tools for learning and exploring scientific concepts and ideas. The student is able to create representations and models using verbal or written explanations that describe biological processes. The student also can use representations and models to illustrate biological processes and concepts; communicate information; make predictions; and describe systems to promote and document understanding. Illustrative examples of representations and models are diagrams describing the relationship between photosynthesis and cellular respiration; the structure and functional relationships of membranes; and diagrams that illustrate chromosome movement in mitosis and meiosis. Using model kits, the student can build three-dimensional representations of organic functional groups, carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and nucleic acids. The student is able to demonstrate how chemical structures, such as the Watson and Crick model for DNA, link structure to function at the molecular level and can relate key elements of a process or structure across multiple representations, such as a schematic two-dimensional diagram and a space-filling model of DNA. The student can refine and/or revise visual representations of biological processes, including energy flow through ecosystems; immunological processes; movement of molecules in and out of cells; and graphs or other visual data representations of experimental results. The student can use/apply representations and models to make predictions and address scientific questions as well as interpret and create graphs drawn from experimental data.

1.1 The student can create representations and models of natural or man-made phenomena and systems in the domain. 1.2 The student can describe representations and models of natural or man-made phenomena and systems in the domain. 1.3 The student can refine representations and models of natural or man-made phenomena and systems in the domain. 1.4 The student can use representations and models to analyze situations or solve problems qualitatively and quantitatively. 1.5 The student can reexpress key elements of natural phenomena across multiple representations in the domain.

Science Practice 2: The student can use mathematics appropriately. The student can routinely use mathematics to solve problems, analyze experimental data, describe natural phenomena, make predictions, and describe processes symbolically. The student also can justify the selection of a particular mathematical routine and apply the routine to describe natural phenomena. The student is able to estimate the answers to quantitative questions using simplifying assumptions and to use this information to help describe and understand natural phenomena. Examples of the use of mathematics in biology include, but are not limited to, the use of Chi-square in analyzing observed versus predicted inherited patterns; determination of mean and median; use of the Hardy-Weinberg equation to predict changes in gene frequencies in a population; measurements of concentration gradients and osmotic potential; and determination of the rates of chemical reactions, processes and solute concentrations. The student is able to measure and collect experimental data with respect to volume, size,

mass, temperature, pH, etc. In addition, the student can estimate energy procurement and utilization in biological systems, including ecosystems.

2.1 The student can justify the selection of a mathematical routine to solve problems. 2.2 The student can apply mathematical routines to quantities that describe natural phenomena. 2.3 The student can estimate numerically quantities that describe natural phenomena.

Science Practice 3: The student can engage in scientific questioning to extend thinking or to guide investigations within the context of the AP course. As scientists and students, how do we know what we know? Facts, concepts and theories fill biology textbooks, but how did scientists discover facts, concepts and theories that make up modern science, such as that cells produce carbon dioxide as a by-product of respiration or that the details for copying the two strands of DNA differ during replication? What historical experiments provided evidence that DNA, not protein, was the hereditary material for living organisms? What scientific evidence supports evolution by natural selection, and how is this different than alternative ideas with respect to evolution and origin of life? To provide deeper understanding of the concepts, the student must be able to answer, “How do we know what we know?” with, “This is why we know what we know.” The student is able to pose, refine and evaluate scientific questions about natural phenomena and investigate answers through experimentation, research, and information gathering and discussion. For example, if the student poses the question: “What happens to photosynthesis at very high, non-biological temperatures?” he or she can address this question in a variety of means: literature searches, fact finding and/or designing an experiment to investigate the effect of temperature on chloroplast function, including collecting data, making predictions, drawing conclusions and refining the original question or approaches. The student is able to formulate good scientific questions — ones that are amenable to experimental approaches and addressable through evidence — and can distinguish them from other questions that are ethical, social or teleological in nature. The student can pose and rationally discuss questions that address ethical and civic issues that surround the development and application of scientific knowledge, and controversial issues such as stem cells, cloning, genetically modified organisms, and who should decide what types of biological research are acceptable and which are not.

3.1 The student can pose scientific questions. 3.2 The student can refine scientific questions. 3.3 The student can evaluate scientific questions.

Science Practice 4: The student can plan and implement data collection strategies appropriate to a particular scientific question. Experimentation and the collection and analysis of scientific evidence are at the heart of biology. Data can be collected from many different sources: experimental investigation, scientific observation, the findings of others, historic reconstruction and archival records. After the student poses a question about biology, he or she is able to investigate and arrive at answers through experimentation and reasoning. In this coupled process, the student can justify the selection of the kind of data needed to answer a question. For example, if the question is about how temperature affects enzymatic activity, the student should be able to collect data about temperature while controlling other variables, such as pH and solute concentration. To test a hypothesis about an observation, the student is able to design an experiment; identify needed controls; identify needed supplies and equipment from a given list of resources; develop or follow an experimental protocol to collect data; analyze data and draw conclusions from the results; and describe the limitations of the experiment and conclusions. In addition, the student can draw conclusions from experimental results of other scientists, e.g., the historical experiments of Fredrick Griffith, Calvin and Krebs, Hershey and Chase, and Watson and Crick.

4.1 The student can justify the selection of the kind of data needed to answer a particular scientific question. 4.2 The student can design a plan for collecting data to answer a particular scientific question. 4.3 The student can collect data to answer a particular scientific question. 4.4 The student can evaluate sources of data to answer a particular scientific question.

Science Practice 5: The student can perform data analysis and evaluation of evidence. The student can analyze data collected from an experimental procedure or from a given source to determine whether the data support or does not support a conclusion or hypothesis. For example, if the student conducts an experiment to determine if light intensity affects the rate of photosynthesis, he or she can construct a graph based on the collected data and use the graph to formulate statements, conclusions, and possibly a hypothesis. Alternatively, the student can draw conclusions from a provided data set. For example, given a graph depicting the percent change in the mass of potato cores after exposure to different concentrations

of sucrose, the student is able to estimate the concentration of sucrose within the potato core. The student also is able to assess the validity of experimental evidence. Using the same example, if given hypothetical data showing that potato cores increase in mass when placed in solutions with lower water potential (a hypertonic solution), the student is able to explain why the data (evidence) are likely invalid: Since potatoes contain sucrose, they should increase in mass only when placed in solutions with higher water potential (hypotonic). After identifying possible sources of error in an experimental procedure or data set, the student can then revise the protocol to obtain more valid results. When presented with a range of data, the student is able to identify outliers and propose an explanation for them as well as a rationale for how they should be dealt with.

5.1 The student can analyze data to identify patterns or relationships. 5.2 The student can refine observations and measurements based on data analysis. 5.3 The student can evaluate the evidence provided by data sets in relation to a particular scientific question.

Science Practice 6: The student can work with scientific explanations and theories. The student can work with scientific descriptions, explanations and theories that describe biological phenomena and processes. In efforts to answer, “How do we know what we know?” the student can call upon current knowledge and historical experiments, and draw inferences from his or her explorations to justify claims with evidence. For example, the student is able to cite evidence drawn from the different scientific disciplines that supports natural selection and evolution, such as the geological record, antibiotic-resistance in bacteria, herbicide resistance in plants or how a population bottleneck changes Hardy- Weinberg Equilibrium. The student can articulate through narrative or annotated visual representation how scientific explanations are refined or revised with the acquisition of new information based on experimentation; for example, the student can describe/explain how advances in molecular genetics made possible a deeper understanding of how genes are carried in DNA and of how genes are expressed to determine phenotypes. The student understands that new scientific discoveries often depend on advances in technology; for example, only when microscopy was sufficiently advanced could the linkage between chromosomes and the transmission of genetic traits be clearly established. Likewise, the ability to sequence whole genomes allows comparisons between the entire genetic information in different species, and technology is revealing the existence of many previously unknown genes and evolutionary relationships. In addition, the student can use existing knowledge and models to make predictions. For example, when provided a sequence of DNA containing a designated mutational change, the student can predict the effect of the mutation on the encoded polypeptide and propose a possible resulting phenotype. The student also can evaluate the merits of alternative scientific explanations or conclusions.

6.1 The student can justify claims with evidence. 6.2 The student can construct explanations of phenomena based on evidence produced through scientific practices. 6.3 The student can articulate the reasons that scientific explanations and theories are refined or replaced. 6.4 The student can make claims and predictions about natural phenomena based on scientific theories and models. 6.5 The student can evaluate alternative scientific explanations.

Science Practice 7: The student is able to connect and relate knowledge across various scales, concepts and representations in and across domains. The student is able to describe through narrative and/or annotated visual representation how biological processes are connected across various scales such as time, size and complexity. For example, DNA sequences, metabolic processes and morphological structures that arise through evolution connect the organisms that compose the tree of life, and the student should be able to use various types of phylogenetic trees/cladograms to show connections and ancestry, and to describe how natural selection explains biodiversity. Examples of other connections are photosynthesis at the cellular level and environmental carbon cycling; biomass generation and climate change; molecular and macroevolution; the relation of genotype to phenotype and natural selection; cell signaling pathways and embryonic development; bioenergetics and microbial ecology; and competition and cooperation from molecules to populations. The student is able to describe how enduring understandings are connected to other enduring understandings, to a big idea, and how the big ideas in biology connect to one another and to other disciplines. The student draws on information from other sciences to explain biological processes; examples include how the conservation of energy affects biological systems; why lipids are nonpolar and insoluble in water; why water exhibits cohesion and adhesion, and why molecules spontaneously move from high concentration to areas of lower concentration, but not vice versa.

7.1 The student can connect phenomena and models across spatial and temporal scales. 7.2 The student can connect concepts in and across domain(s) to generalize or extrapolate in and/or across enduring understandings and/or big ideas.

BIG IDEA 1 REVIEW See AP Bio Test Prep pp. 6 & 7 for corresponding review pages.

Assume that a local population of birds experiences immigration of additional birds of the same species from another country each

winter, and that there is a limited amount of breeding during those winters. For each of the five principles of the Hardy-Weinberg

theorem, explain why it would be impossible for the local population not to evolve.

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Discuss the claim that a heterozygote advantage promotes genetic diversity within a population.

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Explain why phylogenetic trees based on gene sequences are more accurate in showing evolutionary relationships than phylogenetic

trees based on morphology.

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In sheep, black wool is a recessive trait. In a flock of 250 sheep, 12 sheep were found to have black wool. Calculate the percent of

the population that is heterozygous for this trait. Assume that the population is in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium. Give your answer

to the nearest tenth.

Discuss this claim: “The Miller-Urey apparatus proves that life originated in a primordial sea.”

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Briefly describe and discuss how living organisms have altered the oxygen concentration in the atmosphere over the past three

billion years.

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There are several competing hypotheses about the evolution of early life on Earth, but as life evolved, all cells clearly had

requirements for raw materials and energy transfers. Briefly explain how the earliest living cells obtained raw materials and

accomplished energy transfers.

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Sexual reproduction generates diverse combinations of genes within a population. However, not all species reproduce sexually,

revealing some of the drawbacks of sexual reproduction. Discuss three of these drawbacks.

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Describe the structural characteristics suggesting a formerly independent lifestyle for the following organelles:

Mitochondria:

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Chloroplasts:

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Discuss your agreement or disagreement with the statement: “The evolutionary development of photosynthetic eukaryotes was

likely preceded by the development of mitochondria.” Explain and justify your reasoning.

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Provide specific examples that illustrate the following statement: “Molecular and genetic evidence from extant and extinct

organisms indicates that all organisms on Earth share a common ancestral origin of life.”

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BIG IDEA 2 REVIEW See AP Bio Test Prep pp. 7 & 8 for corresponding review pages.

Review Figure 9.6 on page 166 in the Campbell textbook.

Draw and label the model that describes an overview of cellular respiration.

Under your model, briefly explain what is happening at each step.

Discuss how many ATP are produced at each step and by what mechanism they are produced.

With each step you describe, discuss how the structure of that area of the mitochondria supports its function.

What is chemiosmosis? How does this term relate to the process of cellular respiration?

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Compare and contrast anaerobic and aerobic respiration in terms of ATP produced and evolutionary significance of both processes.

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Review Figure 10.21 on page 203 in the Campbell textbook.

Draw and label the model that describes an overview of photosynthesis.

Under your model, briefly explain what is happening at each step.

Discuss the purpose of the light reactions and the purpose of the dark reactions. Explain why these processes are said to be

“coupled” or interdependent.

With each step you describe, discuss how the structure of that area of the chloroplast supports its function.

As the amount of membrane-crossing toxin increases around the outside of the three cube-shaped cells in the diagram below, which

cell would be the first to have an enriched concentration of the toxin in its core region? Explain and justify your answer using the

surface area-to-volume ratio.

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Explain how the structure of an individual phospholipid molecule allows these molecules to form a membrane with a

nonpolar/hydrophobic middle layer and a polar/hydrophilic inner and outer layers.

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Briefly explain how each of the following factors can alter the diffusion rates of solutes across membranes:

Size of the diffusing solutes:

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Temperature:

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Concentration Gradient:

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As you eat, your stomach secretes an inactive enzyme precursor called pepsinogen. As pepsinogen is converted to the active

enzyme pepsin, it triggers activation of other pepsinogen molecules. Through this cascade effect, your food-filed stomach creates

enough active pepsin molecules to digest the proteins you have ingested. Identify this type of feedback as either negative or

positive, and explain your choice.

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Cells along blood vessels have sensory neurons that measure the stretch caused by blood flow against the vessel walls, thus being

part of a blood-pressure monitoring system. When blood pressure decreases during dehydration, thirst is stimulated. Identify this

type of feedback as either negative or positive, and explain your choice.

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BIG IDEA 3 REVIEW See AP Bio Test Prep pp. 8 & 9 for corresponding review pages.

Each cell in an individual mouse contains the same genes, but the mouse has many different types of cells: muscle cells, nerve cells,

skin cells, etc. Briefly, but stating specific mechanisms, describe how two cells in an embryo can become two different types of cells

in an adult, even though both cells have the same DNA and genes.

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Explain the biochemical actions of protein kinases in controlling the cell cycle:

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Plant scientists studying inheritance in sweet peas developed two true-breeding strains of peas, one with purple flowers and the

other with red flowers. When these two strains were crossed, all of the F1 were purple. Another trait of interest was pollen grain

appearance. For this, two true-breeding strains were produced, one strain yielding long (tube-like) pollen grains and the other,

round pollen grains. When these two strains were crossed, all of the offspring had long pollen grains.

Predict the flower color and pollen shape of 1000 members of the F1 generation for a mating between true-breeding

purple-flowered, long-grained pollen peas and true-breeding red-flowered, round-grained pollen peas.

Now predict the flower color and pollen shape of 1000 members of the F2 generation, resulting from crossing F1 plants

above, and assuming Mendel’s law of independent assortment applies to the flower and pollen traits.

Predict the flower color and pollen shape of 1000 members of the F2 generation if Mendel’s law of independent

assortment did not apply to the flower and pollen traits. This is considered to be the alternate hypothesis to the previous

prediction.

Describe the major contributions to the discovery of the specific structure of DNA by the following scientists: Erwin Chargaff:

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Rosalind Franklin

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Describe the major contributions to the discovery that DNA is a cell’s genetic material by the following scientists:

Frederick Griffith

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Avery-MacLeod-MCarty

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Hershey-Chase

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In a completely hypothetical case, assume that “yogurt flies” were recently discovered in the International Space Station, and that

these flies complete their life cycle in only 90 hours, making them ideal for genetic experiments. The astronauts observe variations

in fly phenotype. With lots of time on their hands, the astronauts decide to run some genetic crosses to see if inheritance patterns

in space match those back on Earth.

Perform a chi-square analysis using the data provided above.

State an appropriate null hypothesis:

Perform Chi-Square:

Using the chi square outcome, discuss what these data suggest about the linkage and the distance between genes F and J.

Explain how the double helical structure of DNA allows for each of the following:

Storage of genetic information:

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Precise replication during the cell division cycle:

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Susceptibility to mutations:

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Expression of the coded information of phenotypes:

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A dog was taken to a veterinary clinic because she had become increasingly lethargic. A blood test determined that the dog had very

low levels of the steroid hormones produced by the adrenal glands, especially cortisol. The veterinarian’s diagnosis was “a mutation

in the cortisol gene.” Explain why this characterization is inaccurate, given that steroid hormones are lipids. Speculate on a way that

a genetic mutation could result in low levels of steroid hormones.

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Describe the genetic condition of a person who has sickle-cell disease. Provide specific details about which gene is mutated, and

include information about the polypeptide that has been altered by the mutation. Compare the effects of being heterozygous

versus homozygous for the mutation in areas of the world plagued with malaria.

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In the April 30, 2010 issue of Science, J. C. Roach, et al., reported that the mutation rate for humans is approximately 1.1 x 10-8

mutations per base pair in the haploid genome. Humans have a diploid genome of 6 x 109 base pairs.

Calculate the number of mutations in each new child. Show your work.

Explain, using appropriate genetics terminology, why the majority of these spontaneous mutations have no effect on most

children.

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Explain how HIV uses RNA as its genetic material but still uses DNA for insertion as a provirus.

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Many people oppose inserting genes from one organism into another to produce genetically modified organisms (GMOs). Describe

three scientific concerns about GMOs, and describe three environmental and/or economical benefits of GMOs.

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Draw, label and describe the three major steps in cell signaling:

The drug ouabain inhibits the activity of the Na+/K+ pump. A nerve cell is incubated in ouabain. Create a table in which you predict

what would happen to the concentrations of Na+ and K+ inside the cell, as a result of the action of ouabain. Explain your diagram.

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Explain how a “resting” neuron comes to have more sodium ions outside the cell than in the cytosol and to have more potassium

ions inside the cell that in the extracellular fluid.

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Explain what is meant by the term threshold in describing neuronal function.

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The ions considered in studying excitable membranes contribute to the “electrochemical gradient” along a neuronal membrane.

Discuss the meanings of “electro-“ and “-chemical” gradients.

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For a motor neuron that releases acetylcholine, describe the connection between the arrival of an action potential at the axon

terminal and its release of acetylcholine.

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Speculate on how the “acetylcholine message” is terminated in the neuromuscular junction.

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Hormones can reach all the cells in the body, but only some of the cells change activity in response. Describe the features of a given

cell that determine its ability to respond to a particular hormone.

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BIG IDEA 4 REVIEW See AP Bio Test Prep pp. 9 for corresponding review pages.

Many hormones, such as insulin, are proteins secreted by cells. Describe the structure and function of four cellular organelles

needed for the synthesis and secretion of protein signals.

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Countercurrent flow aids both gas exchange and temperature regulation. Describe how countercurrent flow in a fish’s gills is similar

to what is observed in the leg circulation of a penguin: the artery leading away from the body runs adjacent to the vein leading back

up from the foot:

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How is migration based on circannual rhythms poorly suited for adaptation to global climate change?

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What is a possible explanation for cooperative behavior among nonrelated animals?

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A wheat farmer tests four fungicides on small plots and finds that the wheat yield is slightly higher when all four fungicides are used

together than when any one fungicide is used alone. From an evolutionary perspective, what would be the likely long-term

consequence of applying all four fungicides together?

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Give examples of human actions that could expand a species’ distribution by changing its (a) dispersal or (b) biotic interactions.

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Many organisms living in estuaries experience fresh and saltwater conditions each day with the rising and falling of tides. What

challenge does this pose for the physiology of the organisms?

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Describe the difference between exponential population growth and logistic population growth. Support your description with

graphical models.

Identify three density-dependent factors that limit population size, and explain how each exerts negative feedback.

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How does a human population’s age structure affect its growth rate?

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Explain how interspecific competition, predation, and mutualism differ in their effects on the interacting populations of two species.

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Describe two hypotheses that explain why food chains are usually short, and state a key prediction of each hypothesis.

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Consider a grassland with five trophic levels: plants, grasshoppers, snakes, raccoons, and bobcats. If you released additional bobcats

into the grassland, how would plant biomass change if the bottom-up model applied? If the top-down model applied?

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Compare and contrast the key stages of a primary and secondary succession.

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How and why do energy and matter move differently through an ecosystem?

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As a part of a science project, a student is trying to estimate total primary production of plants in a prairie ecosystem for a year.

Once each quarter, the student cuts a plot of grass with a lawnmower and then collects and weighs the cuttings to estimate plant

production. What components of plant primary production is the student missing with this approach?

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How can the addition of excess nutrients to a lake threaten its fish population?

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Why does the reduced genetic diversity of a small population make them more vulnerable to extinction?

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By far the most popular way to measure the size of a population is called the Mark and Recapture Technique. This technique is

commonly used by fish and wildlife managers to estimate population sizes before fishing or hunting seasons. The mark and

recapture method involves marking a number of individuals in a natural population, returning them to that population, and

subsequently recapturing some of them as a basis for estimating the size of the population at the time of marking and release. This

procedure was first used by C.J.G. Petersen in studies of marine fishes and F.C. Lincoln in studies of waterfowl populations, and is

often referred to as the Lincoln Index or the Petersen Index. It is based on the principle that if a proportion of the population was

marked in some way, returned to the original population and then, after complete mixing, a second sample was taken, the

proportion of marked individuals in the second sample would be the same as was marked initially in the total population. That is,

Sample problem:

A pest control technician captures and applies ear tags to 23 brown rats, which he then releases. A week later he traps 29 brown

rats, 11 of which have ear tags. What is the estimate of the total population of brown rats? Show your work.

AP BIO EQUATIONS AND FORMULAS REVIEW SHEET

Mode = value that occurs most frequently in a data set Median = middle value that separates the greater and lesser halves of a data set Mean = sum of all data points divided by the number of data points Range = value obtained by subtracting the smallest observation (sample minimum) from the greatest (sample maximum)

Standard Deviation = 1

)( 2

n

xxi where x = mean and n = size of the sample

Example problem: One of the lab groups collected the following data for the heights (in cm) of their Wisconsin Fast Plants:

5.4 7.2 4.9 9.3 7.2 8.1 8.5 5.4 7.8 10.2 Find the mode, median, mean, and range. Show your work where necessary. Mode:__ ___ Median:________ Range:________ Find the standard deviation by filling in the following table.

Heights (x) Mean ( x ) xx

2)( xx

1 5.4

1 7.2

1 4.9

1 9.3

1 7.2

1 8.1

1 8.5

1 5.4

1 7.8

1 10.2

2)( xx

2)( xx /

Standard deviation: =

Interpret the standard deviation in the context of the problem:

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Standard Deviation versus Standard Error of Mean Put simply, the standard error of the sample is an estimate of how far the sample mean is likely to be from the population mean, whereas the standard deviation of the sample is the degree to which individuals within the sample differ from the

sample mean. It is easy to be confused about the difference between the standard deviation (SD) and the standard error of the mean (SEM). Here are the key differences:

The SD quantifies scatter — how much the values vary from one another.

The SEM quantifies how precisely you know the true mean of the population. It takes into account both the value of the SD and the sample size.

Both SD and SEM are in the same units – the units of the data.

The SEM, by definition, is always smaller than the SD.

The SEM gets smaller as your samples get larger. This makes sense, because the mean of a large sample is likely to be closer to the true population mean than is the mean of a small sample. With a huge sample, you'll know the value of the mean with a lot of precision even if the data are very scattered.

The SD does not change predictably as you acquire more data. The SD you compute from a sample is the best possible estimate of the SD of the overall population. As you collect more data, you'll assess the SD of the population with more precision. But you can't predict whether the SD from a larger sample will be bigger or smaller than the SD from a small sample. (This is not strictly true. It is the variance -- the SD squared -- that doesn't change predictably, but the change in SD is trivial and much much smaller than the change in the SEM.)

Sample Problem:

Step 1: Calculate the mean (Total of all samples divided by the number of samples).

Step 2: Calculate each measurement's deviation from the mean (Mean minus the individual measurement).

Step 3: Square each deviation from mean. Squared negatives become positive.

Step 4: Sum the squared deviations (Add up the numbers from step 3).

Step 5: Divide that sum from step 4 by one less than the sample size (n-1, that is, the number of measurements minus one)

Step 6: Take the square root of the number in step 5. That gives you the "standard deviation (S.D.)."

Step 7: Divide the standard deviation by the square root of the sample size (n). That gives you the “standard error”.

Step 8: Subtract the standard error from the mean and record that number. Then add the standard error to the mean and record that number. You have plotted mean± 1 standard error (S. E.), the distance from 1 standard error below the mean to 1 standard error above the mean

5 Divide by number of measurements-1. (m-i)2 / (n-1) =

6 Standard deviation = square root of (m-i)2/n-1 =

7 Standard error = Standard deviation/n =

8 m ± 1SE =

Genetics reminders: Wisconsin Fast Plants have two very distinctive visible traits (stems and leaves). Each plant will either have a purple (P) or green (p) stem and also have either have green (G) or yellow (g) leaves. Suppose that we cross a dihybrid heterozygous plant with another plant that is homozygous purple stem and heterozygous for the leaf trait. Make a Punnett square to figure out the expected ratios for the phenotypes of the offspring. Genotype Ratios:

Phenotype Ratios: Suppose a class observed that there were 234 plants that were purple stem/green leaves and 42 that were purple stem/yellow leaves. Does this provide good evidence against the predicted phenotype ratio? How can you tell? Show your work! Using your understanding of genetics, what might be one reason why the class got these results?

Surviving Dilutions: C1V1 = C2V2 C1 = original concentration of the solution, before it gets watered down or diluted.(Could be molarity; M) C2 = final concentration of the solution, after dilution. V1 = volume about to be diluted V2 = final volume after dilution By drawing the "X" through the equal sign and filling in the formula with letters of a size permitted by the borders of the "X", it reminds you that : for all dilution problems C1> C2, and V1< V2. It makes sense because to dilute, we add water. This increases the volume but lowers concentration. Examples by Type: 1. Easiest: Joe has a 2 g/L solution. He dilutes it and creates 3 L of a 1 g/L solution. How much of the original solution did he

dilute?

2. A little trickier: Joe has 20 L of a 2 g/L solution. He diluted it, and created 3 L of a 1 g/L solution. How did he make such a solution?

3. Trickier too: Joe has 20 L of a 2 g/L solution. To this solution he adds 30 L. What is the final concentration of the solution?

pH Reminder: pH = -log (H+)

Which is more acidic? (H

+) of 1.0 x 10

-8 or 1.0 x 10

-12******Which is more basic? (H

+) of 1.0 x 10

-6 or 1.0 x 10

-3

Stomach acid has a pH of about 1-2. What would the H

+ concentration be around?

[H3O+] or [H+] scientific notation pH

0.1

0.01

0.001

0.0001

0.00001

0.000001

0.0000001

0.00000001

0.0000000001

0.00000000001

As [H+] gets smaller, scientific notation exponents get ____, and pH goes ____ As [H+] gets larger, scientific notation exponents get _____, and pH goes ____

Water potential in potato cells was determined in the following manner. The initial masses of six groups of potato cores were measured. The potato cores were placed in sucrose solutions of various molarities. The masses of the cores were measured again after 24 hours. Percent changes in mass were calculated. The results are shown below.

Graph these data to the right of the table. From your graph, label where the cells were hypotonic and the solution was hypertonic, and vice versa. Determine the apparent molar concentration (osmolarity) of the potato core cells.

1. You and your friends have just measured the heights of your dogs (in millimeters): The heights (at the shoulders) are: 600mm, 470mm, 170mm, 430mm and 300mm. Find out the Mean, the Variance, and the Standard Deviation.

Molarity of Sucrose in

Beaker

Percent Change in Mass

0.0 M 18.0

0.2 5.0

0.4 -8.0

0.6 -16.0

0.8 -23.5

1.0 -24.0

Given: Suppose you were asked to investigate whether the fungal pathogen lectin affects the number of cells

undergoing mitosis in a different plant, using onion root tips. You hypothesize that treating onion root tip cells with

lectin will induce mitosis in the cells. After designing and conducting the experiment, the following data are reported:

Number of Cells

Group Interphase Mitosis Total

Control/Non-Treated 1550 200 1750

Experimental/Treated w/ Lectin

500 1250 1750

Are deviations from the expected value due to chance alone? Calculate the chi-square value for this data. Report your

answer to the nearest hundredth.

Solution: First recognize that the data table given is observed data, and total the # of cells yourself:

Number of Cells

Group (observed) Interphase Mitosis Total

Control/Non-Treated 1550 200 1750

Experimental/Treated w/ Lectin

500 1250 1750

Now you need to determine the expected values to get a comparison…this is done with a simple addition of what you

have from the observed data…here’s a formula for how to do that!

Number of Cells

Group (expected) Interphase Mitosis Total

Control/Non-Treated

Experimental/Treated

w/ Lectin

Now, let’s put together the Chi Square chart:

O E (O-E) (O-E)2 (O-E)2/E

Control Inter

Control Mitosis

Treated Inter

Treated Mitosis

Chi Square:

Interpretation of chi square results:

A plant geneticist is investing the inheritance of genes for bitter taste (Su) and explosive rind (e) in watermelon (Citrullus lanatus). Explosive rind is recessive and causes watermelons to burst when cut. Non-bitter watermelons are a result of the recessive genotype (susu). The geneticist wishes to determine if the genes assort independently. She performs a testcross between a bitter/nonexplosive hybrid and a plant homozygous recessive for both traits. The following offspring are produced:

bitter/non-explosive – 88 bitter/explosive – 68

non-bitter/non-explosive – 62 non-bitter/explosive – 81

Calculate the chi-squared value for the null hypothesis that the two genes assort independently. Give your answer to the nearest hundredth.

Diffusion & Osmosis

Students in an AP Biology class designed an experiment to investigate the influence (if any) of solute concentration on the net

movement of water molecules through a semipermeable membrane. The solute they used was sucrose (cane or table sugar) in the

following molar concentrations: 0.0 M (distilled water); 0.2 M; 0.4 M; 0.6 M; 0.8 M; and 1.0 M.

1. What would have been an appropriate hypothesis for this experiment?

2. What is the independent variable?

3. What is the dependent variable?

4. What constants should have been used by the students?

The students collected their data and graphed it – the following results were obtained:

5. On the basis of the results, write a statement that expresses the relationship of solute concentration and direction of net

movement of water molecules in osmosis.

6. In which, if any, of the experimental setups were the solutions in the bag and outside of the bag isotonic to each other?

Enzyme Catalysis

In a particular experiment, students observed some characteristics of enzyme action. The specific reaction they investigated was the

decomposition of hydrogen peroxide by the enzyme, catalase. At room temperature, hydrogen peroxide very slowly decomposes

into water and oxygen. The addition of catalase lowers the activation energy of the reaction until it proceeds swiftly at room

temperature. At the end of the reaction, the catalase is unchanged and is available to catalyze the reaction of more hydrogen

peroxide. Catalase, like most enzymes, is a protein. Its ability to form a complex with hydrogen peroxide is based on its molecular

shape. Any factor that can alter the shape of a protein molecule can be expected to impact the ability of catalase to facilitate the

decomposition of hydrogen peroxide. The following graph was produced by the students:

1. What does the line on the graph represent?

2. What is the rate of the enzyme-catalyzed reaction? What does the graph tell you about the rate of the reaction over time? 3. What would happen to this graph if more substrate and enzyme were added? Why?

4. What would happen to this graph if the catalase were boiled prior to the experiment? Why?

Mitosis & Meiosis

Sordaria fimicola is a common species of ascomycete fungi that grows on the dung of herbivores. Eight spores (ascospores) are

produced in an ascus. Many asci are grouped together within a vase-shaped structure called a perithecium. Two nuclei within a

developing ascus fuse to produce a diploid (2n) nucleus. This diploid nucleus then undergoes meiosis, followed by a mitotic division

to produce eight ascospores in a linear series within the ascus. When the growing filaments of two haploid strains of Sordaria that

produce spores of different colors meet, fertilization occurs and zygotes form. The figure below shows spore formation in Sordaria:

The number of map units between two genes or between a gene and the centromere is calculated by determining the percentage of

recombinants that result from crossing over. The greater the frequency of crossing over, the greater the map distance. Calculate

the percent of crossovers by dividing the number of crossover asci (spores arranged 2:2:2:2 or 2:4:2) by the total number of asci x

100. To calculate map distance, divide the percent of crossover asci by 2. The percent of crossover asci is divided by 2 because only

half of the spores in each ascus are the result of crossing over.

A group of asci formed from crossing light-spored Sordaria with dark-spored Sordaria produced the following results:

Number of Asci Counted Spore Arrangement

7 4 light / 4 dark spores

8 4 dark / 4 light spores

3 2 light / 2 dark / 2 light / 2 dark spores

4 2 dark / 2 light / 2 dark / 2 light spores

1 2 dark / 4 light / 2 dark spores

2 2 light / 4 dark / 2 light spores

1. How many of these asci contain a spore arrangement that resulted from crossing over?

2. From this small sample, calculate the map distance between the gene and centromere.

Plant Pigments & Photosynthesis

In the light reactions of photosynthesis, light energy is absorbed by chlorophyll and used to excite electrons. The excited electrons

then enter one of two electron transport chains. One chain converts ADP + P to ATP; and the other converts NADP + H to NADPH. In

a particular experiment, students added a solution of DPIP (a blue dye) to a suspension of chloroplasts. The DPIP substituted for

NADP in the light reactions: DPIP + H → DPIPH. DPIPH is colorless, so as the light reactions took place, the blue color of the solution

diminished. The students used this color change as an indication that the light reactions were taking place and they used the rate at

which the color change took place as a measure of the rate of the light reactions.

The students used a spectrophotometer to measure loss of color by DPIP. They prepared a sample by adding chloroplast suspension,

DPIP, and a buffer to water in a tube or vial called a cuvette. The instrument works by shining a light of known intensity into one side

of the cuvette. On the opposite side of the test chamber is a photocell. DPIP will absorb some of the light that enters the cuvette,

thus, the photocell will “see” less light. As the light reactions take place, there will be less DPIP and the photocell will “see” more

light. Since DPIP absorbs light most strongly at orange-red wavelengths, they set the spectrophotometer to read the amount of light

transmitted in that part of the spectrum.

The following were the content of the cuvettes and data obtained from their experiment:

1. Write a hypothesis that this experiment was designed to test:

2. What was the independent variable? What was the dependent variable?

3. Which cuvette served as a control for this experiment? Explain your answer.

4. What variables are tested in this experiment?

5. What affect did boiling have on the chloroplast suspension?

6. Plot the data from sample table 3 in the space provided below.

1. In the leaf disk assay you performed in the lab, when you exposed the disks to light you saw that the leaf disks floated if the

external environment contained CO2, but not in distilled water (- CO2). Based on this information, fill in the blanks in the

following sentences with ONE WORD.

a. The disks floated because the leaf is filled with _________________________ that is generated by splitting

______________________ molecules in the photosynthesis _______________________ reactions.

2. Explain briefly why CO2 is necessary for the disks to float under light conditions.

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3. Suppose you extended the leaf disk assay experiment to include the following scenario: 10 leaf disks are placed in sodium

bicarbonate solution and placed in the light. Every minute, the number of floating disks were counted and recorded. After 14

minutes, the leaf disks were moved into the dark and the number of floating disks were recorded every minute. Below is a

graphical representation of the data:

a. What is an appropriate title for this graph?

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b. What is an appropriate y-axis label for this graph?

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c. Why did the leaf disks begin to sink after being placed in the dark ?

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d. What could the rate of leaf disks sinking be related to?

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Sample Data (testing increasing light intensity) Calculate the rate of PS (1/ET-50) for each of the below light colors. Show your work below and then graph your data on the space provided on the next page.

Time (min) Dark Green Red Yellow Purple Black Bright

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1

1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1

2 0 0 0 1 1 1 4

3 0 0 0 1 1 1 5

4 0 0 0 1 2 2 5

5 0 0 1 2 2 3 5

6 0 0 1 2 3 4 5

7 0 0 1 3 3 5 6

8 0 0 2 3 4 5 6

9 0 0 2 4 5 5 6

10 0 1 2 5 5 5 6

11 0 1 3 5 5 6 6

12 0 1 3 5 6 6 7

13 0 1 4 5 6 6 7

14 0 1 5 5 6 7 8

15 0 1 5 5 7 7 9

16 0 1 5 5 7 7 10

17 0 1 5 6 8 8 10

18 0 1 6 7 9 9 10

19 0 1 6 8 9 9 10

20 0 1 6 9 10 10 10

Show work here:

4. Graph:

5. Why is it important to take the inverse of the ET50?

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6. Write a conclusion about the data you graphed above. (2 pts)

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7. Write the full equation for photosynthesis. (2 pts)

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8. In the experiment above the syringes place under the green light showed a slow rate of photosynthesis. Explain why. (2 pts)

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Cell Respiration

In a particular experiment, students in an AP Biology class used a respirometer to measure the rate of respiration of germinating and

nongerminating pea seeds at two different temperatures. The respirometer consists of a vial that contains the peas and a volume of

air. The mouth of the vial is sealed with a rubber 1-hole stopper that has a pipet inserted in it. The respirometer is submerged in

water. If the peas are respiring, they will use oxygen and release carbon dioxide. Since 1 mole of carbon dioxide is released for each

mole of oxygen consumed, there is no change in the volume of gas in the respirometer. (Avogadro’s Law: At constant temperature

and pressure, 1 mole of any gas has the same volume as 1 mole of any other gas.) The students altered this equilibrium by placing a

solution of potassium hydroxide (KOH) in the vial. Potassium hydroxide reacts with carbon dioxide to form potassium carbonate,

which is a solid (CO2 + 2 KOH →K2CO3 + H2O). Since the carbon dioxide produced is removed by reaction with potassium

hydroxide, as oxygen is used by cellular respiration the volume of gas in the respirometer will decrease. As the volume of gas

decreases, water will move into the pipet. Students used this decrease of volume, as read from the scale printed on the pipet, as a

measure of the rate of cellular respiration. The following data were obtained from the experiment:

1. Which respirometer served as the control? Explain.

2. What constants were important in this experiment?

3. Using the graph, summarize your findings, comparing results from respirometers 1 and 2, and results obtained at room temperature vs. results at the colder temperature. Speculate as to the cause(s) of any differences between the treatments.

4. From the graph, calculate the rate of oxygen consumption for each treatment.

5. If you used the same experimental design to compare the rates of respiration of a 25g reptile and a 25g mammal at 10◦C, what results would you expect? Sketch a graph of your expected results and explain your reasoning.

Restriction Enzyme Analysis of DNA

Gel electrophoresis is a procedure that separates molecules on the basis of their rate of movement through a gel under the

influence of an electrical field. The direction of movement is affected by the charge of the molecules, and the rate of movement is

affected by their size and shape, the density of the gel, and the strength of the electrical field. DNA is negatively charged, so it will

move toward the positive pole of the gel when current is applied. When DNA has been cut by restriction enzymes, the different-

sized fragments will migrate at different rates. Smaller fragments move more quickly, therefore they will migrate the fastest

through the gel. The length of each fragment is measured in number of DNA base pairs.

The figure below shows the results of electrophoresis performed by a group of AP Biology students. Semilog paper was used to plot

the results of the HindiIII digest. Since its fragments sizes are known, this is the standard curve. It was used to determine the other

fragement sizes from DNA I and DNA II samples.

1. How many base pairs is the fragment circled in Figure 6.4?

Below is a plasmid with restriction sites for BamHI and EcoRI. Several restriction digests were done using these two enzymes either

alone or in combination. Use this data to answer the questions below. HINT: Begin by determining the number and size of the

fragments produced with each enzyme. “kb” stands for kilobases, or thousands of base pairs.

2. In the samples below, which lane shows a digest with BamHI only?

3. Which lane shows a digest with both BamHI and EcoRI? HINT: Begin by determining the number and size of the fragments produced with each enzyme. “kb” stands for kilobases, or thousands of base pairs.

Transformation in Bacteria

Genetic transformation occurs when a host organism takes in foreign DNA and expresses a foreign gene. Bacterial cells have a single

main chromosome and circular DNA molecules called plasmids, which carry additional genetic information. Plasmids are circular

pieces of DNA that exist outside the main bacterial chromosome and carry their own genes for specialized functions including

resistance to specific drugs. In genetic engineering, plasmids are one means used to introduce foreign genes into a bacterial cell.

In a molecular biology laboratory, a student obtained competent E. coli cells and used a common transformation procedure to

introduce the uptake of plasmid DNA with a gene for resistance to the antibiotic kanamycin. Competent cells are cells that are most

likely to take up extracellular DNA. The obtained results are shown below:

If there is no antibiotic in the agar (growth medium for bacteria), then bacteria will cover the plate with so many cells that a “lawn”

growth is produced. Only transformed cells can grow on agar with antibiotic. Since only some of the cells exposed to the kanamycin

plasmid will actually take them in, only some cells will be transformed, and individual bacterial colonies are produced on the agar

plate. If none of the E. coli cells have been transformed, nothing will grow on the agar plate containing antibiotic.

1. On which petri dish do only transformed cells grow?

2. Which of the plates is used as a control to show that nontransformed E. coli will not grow in the presence of kanamycin?

3. If a student wants to verify that transformation has cocurred, what procedure might he/she use?

4. During the course of an E. coli transformation laboratory, a student forgot to mark the culture tube that received the kanamycin-resistant plasmids. The student proceeds with the laboratory because he thinks that he will be able to determine from his results which culture tube contained cells that may have undergone transformation. Sketch and label a plate below that would most likely indicate transformed cells.

Genetics of Organisms – Chi Square Analysis:

Consider the following data for F2 grains of corn from a dihybrid cross of corn with grains that are purple and starchy and corn with

grains that are yellow and sweet (purple is dominant to yellow and starchy is dominant to sweet). The data are used to determine

whether or not corn color and sweetness assort independently or are linked on the same chromosome.

1. What is the correct null hypothesis for this experiment?

2. Calculate χ2 for the actual count above. Show all work and state whether the results support the null hypothesis in favor of the expected ratio or cause you to reject it.

3. If rejected, identify possible sources of error that could cause this.

Transpiration in Plants

1. Graph the class averages from Table 2. Give the graph and axes appropriate titles and labels.

2. Interpret the graph above – explain how each environmental factor affects the transpiration rate in plants:

Graphing Heart Rate of Water Flea

1. Graph the temperature and heart rate data of Daphnia. Give the graph and axes appropriate titles and labels.

2. Interpret the graph above – explain how temperature affects the heart rate of Daphnia.

3. If this lab had been performed with an endotherm, how might the results have differed? Sketch a graph of your expected results and explain.

Temperature and Dissolved Oxygen

1. Plot the Class Averages for DO from Table 1. Give the graph and axes appropriate titles and labels.

2. Interpret the graph above – explain how dissolved oxygen varies according to temperature changes.

3. Predict what would happen to the dissolved oxygen levels at: -10oC and 40

oC.