AP Bio Notes Tyler

7/29/2019 AP Bio Notes Tyler

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03/10/2011 18:09:00

AP Biology

Plants

Unlike animals plants do this

Unity within Diversity

Among basic life processes organisms carry them out in a different manner

Plants Angiosperm

o A flowering plant, which forms seeds inside a protective chamber called an ovary.

Gymnosperm

o A vascular plant that bears naked seedsseeds not enclosed in specialized chambers.

Vascular Plants

o A plant with vascular tissue. Vascular plants include all living plant species except mosses,

liverworts, and hornworts.

o veins help moving things around

Roots, stems and leaves in all plants room for variation

o Meristem

area of rapid cell division

unique structures that come out of plants come from varied reproduction Radicle

o gives rise to roots

Hypocotyl

o gives rise to stems

Epicotyl

o gives rise to leaves


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Reproduction in plants

seed has embryo

need zygote to get to embryo

Zygote= 2n aka. diploid

need egg and sperm which are both haploid

sporophyteo In organisms (plants and some algae) that have alternation of generations, the multicellular

diploid form that results from the union of gametes.

o The sporophyte produces haploid spores by meiosis that develop into gametophytes.

o can claim a flower is in the sporophyte stage

Male and female structures in flowers, most plants but some dont have both

o Megaspore - female

A spore from a heterosporous plant species that develops into a female gametophyte.

haploid

Goes through mitosis and divides 3 times and produces 8 nuclei

Only one nuclei is a peanut

o Microspore male A spore from a heterosporous plant species that develops into a male gametophyte.

haploid

o Mega and micro spores are called

gametophytes

In organisms (plants and some algae) that have alternation of generations,

the multicellular haploid form that produces haploid gametes by mitosis.

The haploid gametes unite and develop into sporophytes.

o To produce gametes gametophytes go through meiosis

o In mitosis the plants do not go through cytokenesis and hence do not divide


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this means the gamete is multinucleated

o Pollen and pollen tube from microspore

is a gametophyte structure that contains two sperm

Plants

Development is influenced by external factors

Root systemo can be above ground

o how do parts define it as root system?

o Roots

increase absorption and surface area

o Variations of roots

snorkel roots

Involved in gas exchange

support

Chute systems

o Strawberries

chutes branching from main plant

asexual reproductiono Onion

layers

series of modified leaves

Leaves

o Simple leaf

o Compound leaf


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o Doubly compound

o Axillary bud and Petiole

in all three leaves

Photosynthetic in Nature leaves

o Epicotyl part

Tendrils

modified leaves for support

Spines

protection

Succulent

Hold water and store salts

Poinseta

Red leaves are used for attraction

Tissues

o Dermal tissue

Protection

Absorption regulation

o Vascular tissue movement of materials

o Ground Tissue

support

Cells

o Parenchyma Cells

thinnest cell walls


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flimsy

enormous amount in leaves

absorption and photosynthesis

palisade parenchyma

contain different organelles and carry out biological processes

o

Collenchyma cells Cell wall stronger

ground tissue

provide significant support

stalk of flower

o Sclerenchyma cells

Multiple cell walls

wood is solid cells

o Xylum cells

cells are dead

trachied cells

tendency to not be alive and to be connected

like celeryo phloem cells

Are alive but dont have the organelles to stay alive

Have companion cells that help them carry out processes

Companion cells

have the necessary organelles to live

Plasmodesmata


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Passage ways between companion cells and sieve cells

sieve plate

important in how the phloem

o Meristematic activity

in roots and leave system

need Meristimatic activity that allows for growth

there is a ring of meristematic area that goes throughout the plant

closely linked with vascular tissue

Roots

o Zone of maturation

o Zone of Elongation

o Zone of cell division

Endo dermis of monocot root in vascular tissue

o Creates wax

o Wax layer

prevents material thats bad from getting in

new structure originate in vascular tissue not epidermis

Plants Monocot roots

o grass

o corn

o Endo dermal layer

Transport and absorption by root system

Pericycle


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o new root hairs originate from here

all new structures come from vascular structure

Stem

o Vascular bundles are all scattered

Cross section of leaf

o

Number of Layers epidermis

The innermost layer of the cortex in plant roots; a cylinder one cell thick that

forms the boundary between the cortex and the vascular cylinder.

Cuticle

Wax

does not allow for oxygen absorption

Stoma

Allows for oxygen absorption

Pallisade

parenchyma

A relatively unspecialized plant cell type that carries out most

of the metabolism, synthesizes and stores organic products,and develops into a more differentiated cell type.

Additional pages (755-56)

o difference between plants and animals

o Development Initial stage different

Early development

Animal

Cleavage

Morphogenesis

Differentiation


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Plant

Cleavage (Growth)

plants divide different cells at different rate

and elongate different cells

Morphogenesis (radicle, epicotyl, hypocotyl)

Differentiation

Plant Transport

Effective at moving water at quick rates

basics

o two direction

roots to leaves

leaves to anywhere else

o Leaves

ultimately decide when to create more root hairs

o Exchange of gases in leaf and root system

Sometimes in chute system

o Absorption of water and minerals by roots

minerals NO3 - nitrate

K+ - potassium

PO4 phosphate

Transport

Need to move salt before water can be moved

Transporting ions across the membrane


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o Proton pump

like cell resperation and photosynthesis

necessary for the effectiveness of moving other ions

requires ATP

o Anion uptake

NO3-

needs hydrogen

o Cation Uptake

K+

o Transport of Neutral solute

needs hydrogen

moving sucrose

Cell Compartments

Tissue Compartments

o Symplastic

In plants, the continuum of cytoplasm connected by plasmodesmata between cells.

from one cell membrane to the next

Plasmodesmata required like a pathway

regulated flow

o Apoplastic

Moving through the cell walls

In plants, the continuum of cell walls plus the extracellular spaces.

uncontrollable flow


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Wax

o Casparian Strip

Waxy layer

stops apoplastic flow

apoplastic is uncontrollable flow

o

Water goes into the cell but cant get out because of casparian stripo Creates water pressure in the plant

Force for moving water

o Root pressure

plants ability to move nitrates phosphates and potassium across symplastically into

the cell

Guttation

o Water loss in a leaf

o The exudation of water droplets, caused by root pressure in certain plants.

o What are the conditions which allow water to leave or preserve the water

Transpiration Pull

o Evapo-transpiration

o The evaporative loss of water from a plant.o stomata open

o Enough light or heat energy to excite water molecules to evapo-transpiration

o Water pulls more molecules

cohesion

Means if you move a water molecule in the leaf one moves in the stomata

o Stomata needs to be open to do this

Capillary Action


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o Force that keeps things down

o adhesion

o Plants absorb water in the spring and then disperse the sugar across each other

o Mix = sap

Maple tree

Stomata opening and closing

o Pump of potassium helps regulate gas exchange and evapotranspiration rate

Transport Phloem

Pressure Flow in a sieve tube

Bulk movement

Sugar driven by pressure which is established by concentration gradient

Source

o leaves or meristems

Sink

o chutes

o rootsPlant Hormones

Tropism

Phototropism

Gravitropism

Hormones

o need receptor in cell membrane

o detection of hormone to receptor is called reception

o reaction producing second messengers


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exp. cyclical AMP

called signal transduction

o Response of signal transduction is called Response

o auxin

o Target cells and source cells

produced by source influences the target cell

o Hormones produced in leaves or meristems

o Went experiment Auxin

removed sunlight to try to influence direction of growth

auxin exposed to only one side and the side grew

Auxin

o Chute system promotes cell growth

o stimulates movement of hydrogen ions

o Hydrogen elongates cells through expansions which are pressed apart by the hydrogen ions

Cells exposed to sunlight pump auxin away from them

Treeso If you remove auxin it promotes lateral branching but not up

A.P. Biology Plant Notes

Basic Characteristics: Multicellular Eukaryotes, photosynthetic autotrophs, cell walls contain cellulose,

food reserve that is starch stored in plastids, chloroplasts with photosynthetic pigments (chlorophyll a,

b, and carotenoids), gas exchange via stomata, waxy cuticle to prevent desiccation

Overview of Groups

Nonvascular Plants: (Bryophytes) haploid gametophytes is dominant generation, gametangia protect

developing gametes, lack woody tissue

Division Bryophyta Division Hepatophyta Division Anthocerophyta

Mosses Liverworts Hornworts


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Vascular Plants:

Seedless Vascular Plants: sporophyte (diploid) dominated life cycle, is the familiar leafy part of the

plant, small gametophytes that grow beneath surface of soil, formed the coal forests of the

carbinoferous period

o Division Lycophyta Division Sphenophyta Division Pterophyta

o

Lycophytes, club mosses, ground pines Horsetails Ferns Seed Plants:

o seeds replaced the spore as the main means of dispersing offspring; pollen is vesicle for

sperm cells, Gymnosperms: lack enclosed chambers (ovaries) in which seeds develop

o Division Coniferophyta Division Cycadophyta Division Ginkgophyta Division Gnetophyta

Angiosperms: most widespread and diverse, 250,000 species, refined vascular tissue, flowers,

fruit

o Division Anthophyta Dicotyledons

o Monocotyledons

taproot 1 cotyledon, parallel veins, flower parts in multiples of 3, scattered vascular

bundles, fibrous root system

Origin and Evolution

-Evolved from green algae -Alternation of generations in plants may have originated by delayed meiosis

-Adaptation to shallow water pre-adapted plants for living on land (waxy cuticles, protection of

gametes, and protection of embryos)

-Eventually, accumulated adaptations (regional specialization of plant body (roots and plant body),

structural support, vascular system, pollen, seeds) allowed terrestrial plants to live above water line on

dry land which opened new adaptive zone with:

o -Sunlight unfiltered by water and algae

o -Soil rich in minerals

o -Absence of terrestrial herbivores

Vascular Seed Plants: Angiosperms and Gymnosperms Plant tissues

Ground Tissues: the general cells of the plant cell wall, function in photosynthesis, storage, and

supporto Parenchyma Cells: most common, least specialized, lack secondary walls (thin walls), where

photosynthesis takes place, food storage

o Collenchyma Cells: thick flexible cell walls, lack secondary walls, grouped in cylinders to

support young growth, elongate as the stems and leaves they support grow

o Sclerenchyma Cells: main function is support, thick secondary cell walls strengthened by

lignin

Dermal Tissues: single layer of tightly packed cells covering and protecting the young parts of the

plant


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o Root hairs: specialized for water and mineral absorption near root tips

o Cuticle: waxy, helps retain water

Vascular Tissues: xylem and phloem that function in transport and support, is continuous throughout

the plant, found in bundles

o Xylem: conduction of water and minerals, primary and secondary cell wall for strength, pits

(absent 2o cell wall) for water movement, dead a maturity, made up of two types of cells Tracheids: long, thin, tapered, lignin hardened with pits, water flows from cell to cell

through pits, support

Vessel Elements: wide, short, thin walled, aligned end to end, end of cell is pitted for

end to end transmission of water, efficient, more found in flowering plants

o Phloem: conduction of sugars, living at maturity

o Sieve Tube members: chains of phloem cells that transport sucrose, organic compounds, and

some minerals, in angiosperms: sieve tube has pores and is called sieve plate to facilitate

movement between cells

The Seed

Embryo:

Epicotyl: top portion of embryo, becomes the shoot tip

Plummule: attached to epicotyl, young leaves Hypocotyl: below epicotyl, attached to cotyledons, young shoot

Radicle: develops below the hypocotyl, develops into root

Coleoptile: in monocots, protects epicotyl

Seed Coat: formed from integuments of ovule, outer layer of seed

Endosperm or Cotyledons: cotyledons formed by digesting storage material in endosperm

o Monocots: most of storage tissue is endosperm, single cotyledon to transfer nutrients from

endosperm to embryo

Dicots: two fleshy cotyledons (most of what you see when you look at two halves of

pea seed), remainder is a small embryo

Germination and Development: after a seed reaches maturity, it remains dormant until environmental cues such as

water, fire, temperature, light cause germination to begin

Germination: begins with absorption of water, seed swells, seed coat cracks, radicle produces roots,

elongation of hypocotyl to form young shoot

Primary Growth: in young seedling, growth at roots and shoots called apical meristems, meristematic

cells (actively dividing) create the primary growth

Root Growth: Root cap protects apical meristem, dividing cells in apical meristem from zone of cell

division, behind is zone of maturation where cells mature into xylem, phloem.

Primary Growth vs Secondary Growth: Primary growth occurs in monocots and occurs in primary

tissues (xylem and phloem) that originate from apical meristem and occurs vertically. Secondary

Growth (conifers and woody dicots) in addition to primary growth extends laterally and is origin of

woody tissue. Lateral meristems, vascular cambium, and cork cambium, is origin of secondary growth


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Vascular cambium produce secondary xylem and secondary phloem. Cork cambium gives rise to

periderm (protective material that lines outside of woody plants.

Plant Morphology

Primary Structure of Roots: leads to formation of the following tissues:

o Epidermis: lines outside surface of root, root hairs (from zone of maturation) increase

absorptive surface area, constantly growo Cortex: bulk of root, storage of starch

o Endodermis: ring of tightly packed cells that control water movement and confine to vascular

bundle, has casparian strip (water-impenetrable) strip on outside of cells

o Vascular Cylinder: (stele), tissue inside endodermis, pericycle (outer part of vascular cylinder,

form lateral roots)

Monocots: xylem cells alternate with phloem cells in groups in rings around the

center tissue area called the pith

Dicots: Xylem cells form a big X across center, Phloem occupy regions between the

lines of the X

Primary Structure of Stems: similar to root, except most lack endodermis and casparian strip because they are

designed for water absorption. Other differences from roots:

Epidermis: with a waxy cutin to protect cuticle Cortex: ground tissue that contains chloroplasts

Vascular Cylinder: differing arrangements of xylem and phloem

Secondary Structure of Roots and Stems:

Vascular cambium between xylem and phloem becomes a cylinder of meristematic cells on inside and

outside of cambium cylinder. Cells on inside become secondary xylem (increases girth of stem and

root as accumulates), outside become secondary phloem. This growth pushes outside tissues as xylem

girth continues, they break apart as separate from root or stem.

Periderm: cells produced by cork cambium to cover epidermis

Wood: dead xylem tissue, sapwood is new xylem is for water transportation, heartwood is old xylem

for support

Annual Rings: alternation of growth and dormancy, number and size of rings is related to age and

amount of water

Structure of the Leaf:

Epidermis: protective covering, covered by cuticle (cutin) to reduce transpiration

Palisade mesophyll: parenchyma cells with chloroplasts for photosynthesis tightly packed near upper

surface

Spongy mesophyll: loosely arranged parenchyma cells below palisade cells, spaces for CO2 to cells

Guard Cells: specialized epidermal cells that control stomata (gas exchange)

Vascular Bundles: xylem and phloem contained within bundle sheath


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Plant Hormones: 5 classes of plant hormones:

Auxin (IAA): indoleacetic acid, promotes growth by elongation, influences phototropism and

geotropism, is also active in leaves, fruits and germinating seeds

Gibberellins: gibberellic acid, 60 types, promote shoot growth, fruit development, and seed

germination, inhibits aging of leaves

Cytokinins: stimulate cyotkinesis, growth of lateral buds, and organ development, produced in roots Ethylene (CH2): gas promotes ripening of fruit, production of flowers, and leaf abscission (aging and

dropping of leaves)

Abscisic acid (ABA): growth inhibitor, maintains dormancy in winter, and seeds

Functions in the Plant Life:

Transport of Water: Enters root by osmosis in root hairs, then to center or root by either:

Apoplast: path of water through nonliving cell walls without leaving cells

Symplast: path of water through living portion of cytoplasm through plasmodesmata (tubes that

connect cytoplasm of adjacent cells)

Mechanisms of Water and dissolved minerals in plants:

Osmosis: from soil through root into xylem due to concentration gradient from water that is constantly

leaving the root xylem up the plant, force is called root pressure

Capillary Action: results from adhesion force of water Cohesion-tension theory: explains most of water movement: Transpiration causes a negative pressure

(tension), to cause the cohesive water in the column to bulk flow through the xylem cells as the water

is pulled by evaporation, so the sun is the driving force for water movement

Control of Stomata: controls gas exchange, transpiration, sap and photosynthesis, controlled by guard cells as water

diffuses into and out of cells controlling the shape. Controlled by the some of the following:

Stomata: close when temperatures are high, reduces loss of water, no photosynthesis

Stomata: open when CO2 are low inside leaf

Stomata: close at night, open during day in response to CO2 fluctuation due to photosynthesis

Stomata: open when K+ ions diffuse into guard cells, this gradient causes water to move into guard cell

Transport of Sugars: translocation is movement of carbohydrates through phloem from source to sink, is described

by a pressure flow hypothesis:

Sugars enter sieve-tube members: from palisade mesophyll by active transport, creates a higher

concentration of sugars at source

Water enters sieve-tube members: as a result of movement of solutes to move water down

concentration gradient

Pressure in sieve-tube members at source moves water and sugars to sieve-tube members at the sink

though sieve tubes: by bulk flow

Pressure is reduced in sieve-tube members at the sink as sugars are removed for utilization by nearby

cells: pressure relieved as sugars are used in sink, and water is removed by diffusion


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Sugars stored as starches (water insoluable)

Plant Responses to Stimuli:

Tropism: a growth pattern to an environmental stimuli

Phototropism: response to light, controlled by auxin

Gravitropism (Geotropism): response to gravity, controlled by auxin and gibberellins

Thigmotropism: response to touch Photoperiodism: changes in the plant to the length of light and darkness controlled by circadian

rhythm, controlled by phytochrome (Pt or 660 or Pfr or 730) that is photoreversible depending on the

red light (wavelength 660 nm) or far red (wavelength 730 nm)

o Pfr appears to reset the circadian-rhythm clock

Pr is the form of phytochrome synthesized in plant cells (in the leaves)

Pr and Pfr are in equilibrium during daylight:

Pr accumulates at night

At daybreak, light rapidly converts the accumulated Pr and Pfr

Night length is responsible for resetting the circadian-rhythm clock

Flowering plants initiate flowering according to changes in photoperiod as follows:

Long-Day Plants: flower in the spring and early summer when daylight is increasing

Short-Day Plants: flower in late summer and early fall when daylight is decreasing Day-Neutral Plants: flower in response to temperature, or water

Animals

Theme

o Unity within diversity

o Recurring on Essay questions

Animals are

o Bilateral


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Humans

o Radial

Starfish

Development

o early stages symmetry is established

Cross section of a starfisho Gastrula

Cell layer migrated internally

Cell layer outside

digestive tract has only one opening

different in bilateral organism

orientation of cells early adds to chances

Bilateral

o flat problem

o Round

issues with transport

o Celum space where tissue fluid can flow

Sponges

o animals

o cant move

o Filter feeders

o The organism has adaptations to meet its biological needs


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o Gastrovascular cavity

digestive transport

o violates general rule of division of labor

o structure that forms two functions

digestion and transport

takes longer this way

Jelly fish

o Never get thicker than 2 or 3 cell layers

o Cannot swim against currents

Plankton

o Cant swim against current

Flat worms

o primitive respiratory system

o Internal cavity and single opening

o diffusion of gases in an out of its skin

o Ganglia

Nervous system

describes collection of nervous cells Rotefer

o microscopic

o but has complex system

o pumping mechanism to move fluids around it

o complex structures but very very small

Clam


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o Phylum

mollusk

o Complex digestive tract

o food goes in one area and comes out the other

o circulatory hearts pretty primitive

o

circulatory system removing of pressure

o uses shell to establish pressure

o blood is bathed in its own blood

Snails Mollusk

o Osmotic balance

Excretory system

Screw up balance by salt

Why have a digestive system?

o break down things we consume so they are small enough to pass across a membrane

Plants

o k+

o N03o PO4

o CO2

o H20

all small enough to go across membrane

Animals

o Polymers that cant be broken down immeadiately


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Carbohydrates

Monomer: Monossacharide

Proteins

Monomer: Amino Acids

Lipids

Monomer: Glycerol and fatty acids

Nucleic Acids

Nucleotides

Monomers in simplest form

o Vitimins

o H20

o Minerals

Need to know Digestion needs enzymes

o enzyme

where its produced

what it does

subtrate

Product Evolutionary Advances of the Digestive System

o Intracellular vs. Extracelluler

o Intracellular

Ameoba

Perimicium

Can carry out intracellular digestion


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Digestion within a cell

o Extracellular

In cavity but outside of a cell

One way digestive tract vs. Two Way digestive tract

Two Way

sponges

sea anenome

gastrovascular cavity

flat worm

food comes in one way and goes out the other

Hydra

Cells that secrete enzymes into cavity but also engulfs small

molecules

both intra and extracellular

One Way digestive tract

Worm

Mouth consumes through ingestion

just past the pharynx has a crop Crop

thin walls

o flexible

no enzymes being secreted

storage location

o evolutionary advantage

o conservation of energy


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Gizzard

thick wall

Muscular

mechanical break down

no secretions just mechanical breakdown increasing surface area

increased surface area=more digestion (chemically) Intestinal Tract

half the length of the body

two features

o Length

Time- Gives you time to digest stuff

o Fold in intestine tract

increase surface area

Greater absorption rate

Human Digestion enzymes all about enzymes peristalsis throughout

Enzyme

o Where its produced

o Where it workso what its substrate is

o product

Mouth

o Carbohydrates

saliva

amount produced based on sugar in your mouth


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salivary amylase

produced by salivary glands

breaks carbs into breaks down into disaccharide

Esophagus

o Heart Burn

o

o Epiglottis

blocks food from going into trachea

o Peristalsis

wave like muscle contractions

not just esophagus but entire digestive system

Stomach

o Proteins broken down

Pepsin breaks down proteins

o Thick walled very muscular glangeral cells

glangeral cells

parietal cells

chief cells Produce pepsinogen

pepsinogen

o inactive form of pepsin

o inactive to avoid digesting itself

o HCl

removes piece from pepsinogen and creates pepsin


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No cells produce HCL

Cells pump out h+ and cl- ions and when those come together they produce

HCL

Denatures proteins

o Protein to polypeptide

o

Mechanical movemento Liquify food with acid

o Mucus membrane

o Very low ph

because of HCL

o Used for storage

2-6 hrs

o Muscular valves

sphincters regulate movement of food

heart burn when food/acid goes back through stomach valves

Small intestine

o upper end called Dodenum

gets chyme exocrine gland

Secrete things into cavity

o Liver

secrete solution and bathes the acidic chyme

Produces bile

Bile

involved in increasing surface area


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works upon lipids

composed of salt

Emulsification

simple process of creating liquid droplets out of lipids

increasing surface so lipidase can work on it

o

Pancreas Lipase

breaks lipids down into glycerol and fatty acids

Nuclease

Breaks down nucleotides into nucleic acids

Amylase

Breaks starch down into disaccharides

Polypeptidase

Breaks polymers into amino acids

o Villi

folds in small intestine that have epithelial cells that can produce their own enzymes

have their own capillary beds

monosaccharides have to be water soluable to get into capillaries Lymphatic systems

Lipids need to become water soluable

Combine with other things to become water soluable in the i

micro villi

mini folds

o Epithelial cells


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Sucrase

Breaks

Lactase

breaks disaccharides to monosaccharide

Maltase

breaks disaccharides to monosaccharide

o Absorption

look at pathways organic molecules take in regards to absorption

Large Intestine

o E coli in gut

o remove vitamins

specifically vitamin k

o Water

o Vitamins

o Minerals

Associate structures and their diet

o carnivore

o herbivoreo omnivore

o teeth

Differences in pit and hinge

o Appendix

cecum similar to appendix

cecum varies over time


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Cecum helps digest cellulose

Cows

o elaborate digestive tract

o bacteria cells inside that help break down cellulose

o Throw up and rechew it to help bacteria break it down

Gas exchange and circulation

Gills

4 issues to gas exchange

o 1. Moisture

gases must be dissolved in water to be able to exchange

o 2. Surface Area

gas exchange

relatively slow

need to increase surface area to allow for gas exchange

o 3. Thin Membrane

Diffusion of gases can only occur from 1-3 cell layers

o 4. Protection Delicate structure

Jellyfish

o gastrovascular cavity

inefficient

grooves

small cells that have cilia that move cells back and forth


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Open vs. Closed Circulatory system

o Open

Problems

Dont have a lot of pressure

slow blood rate

blood remains in cavity of exoskeleton

blood isnt circulating evenly

Cant efficiently pump oxygen

Grasshopper

doesnt carry oxygen in blood

o Closed

Worm

Capillary bed

Allows for diffusion and exchange

slow movement of blood

complex system

Heart

o Atriums receive blood from other parts of body

thin walls

o Ventricles

thick walls

generate pressure

send blood through the body


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Fish Heart

o Atrium to the ventricle

o ventricle pumps blood to gills to get oxygen

o Very slow and inefficient at moving oxygen rich blood

o blood pressure is extremely slow

o

Cold blooded dont need oxygen levels we doo Arteries

go away from heart and towards capillaries

o Veins

go to heart and away from capillaries

Amphibian Heart

o Three chambers

repressurized every time

keeps blood pressure good

Two atriums and one ventricle

Issue

Blood is mixing

oxygen rich and oxygen poor are mixing in one ventricle inefficient process

o cold blooded because they cant keep the oxygen demand

Mammals

o two atriums

o two ventricles

o ceptum


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extension that separated the ventricles into two parts

Separates oxygen rich and oxygen poor

Humans

o Warm blooded

majority of oxygen goes to keeping this in homestasis

Path of Bloodo Right atrium

o atrial ventricle valve

o Right ventricle

o Goes through semi lunar valve

o atrial ventricular valve

o Pulmonary artery

o Lungs capillaries

o Pulmonary veins to right atrium

o to right ventricular valve

o valve to aorta

o One capillary bed and then comes back

o Constant branching and constant returning to heart for repressurization Heart

o Tendons in heart

attaches to flap of valves to keep them from going backwards

Systemic

Pulmonary

Hear valves when they close


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o Lub dub only valves closing

Systolic and Dystolic blood pressure

o Systolic

Contraction

o Diastolic

relaxation

Heart Beat

o Atrial and ventricular diastole

both chambers fill up with blood

both relaxed and filling up with blood

o Atrial Systole ventricular diastole

Atrium contract and ventricle relaxation

Atrium puts pressure on ventricles strong walls and this produces pressure

o Ventricular systole atrial diastole

ventricles compressed and pump blood because of pressure

Coranary Artery

o branches of aorta

o feeds the hearto artery is the blood supply for heart

Cardiac cycle

o SA Node Synoatrial

pacemaker

generate electrical current

Can cause cells around it to contract


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Causes atrial contraction

picked up by purkinje fibers and cause ventrical contraction

SA Node regulated by the brain

o AV Nodes atrial ventricular node

AV controls contra via lead and sets the heart to be at 68 beats per minute

Lead fell out of heart to cause grandpa to go on the floor

Blood Pressure

o Influence in exchange

o where blood pressure is lost

o Arteries

thick smooth muscle

inflexible

neither easily expanded or crushed

Blood flow through artery

pressure isnt changing

highest area of pressure

o Capillaries

High flexibility Low pressure

greatest surface

greatest amount of friction

Blood flows the slowest in capillaries

slow is good for exchange

o Vein


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a little thinner

ability to compress

veins have valves

arteries dont

The rate of blood flow is inversely proportional to the cross sectional surface area of

the vessels through which it flows Blood pressure in veins slow

Why can blood pick up in terms of the speed of flow through vein

1. Movement

o Veins run near skeletal muscles

o muscles kind of squeeze veins

2. Valves

o valves close allows the squeezing skeletal muscle in the

veins to go in one direction

3. Breathing

o creates suction

o vaccum

Purpose of this lab is to determine relative cardiac fitnesso sphygmometer

Muscles squeeze veins to create pressure to drive blood through system

Veins have valves to also create pressure

Exchange of materials

in capillary beds or just outside of capillaries

arterioles

o smaller and smaller arteries

Significant amount of pressure in arterioles


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Arterioles are much thinner and susceptible to leakage

Surrounding arterioles is tissue fluid

Tissue Fluid

o Lymph

Movement of materials via liquid medium

Occurs through blood stream and lymphatic system Need to be an exchange

Arteriole end

o so much pressure that fluid in arteriole leaks out

o determines force to get other fluid to move

o the fluid in arteriole has stuff in it

Low pressure in veinule end

o fluid flows in to venule end

o allows for adequate exchange throughout body

This movement based on blood pressure

Tissue fluid needs muscle contraction to go throughout body

Capillaries dont always do the exchange

Components of Blood Blood is a tissue

Made up of a bunch of different types of cell

Circulatory

o muscle

o epithelial

o connective tissue


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Erythrocytes, leukocytes, and platelets all develop from a single population of cells, pluripotent stem

cells, in the red marrow of bones, particularly the ribs, vertebrae, breastbone, and pelvis.

o Pluripotent means that these cells have the potential to differentiate into any type of

blood cells or cells that produce platelets.

o This population arises in the early embryo and renews itself while replenishing the blood

with cellular elements. A negative-feedback mechanism, sensitive to the amount of oxygen reaching the tissues via the blood,

controls erythrocyte production.

o If the tissues do not produce enough oxygen, the kidney synthesizes and secretes

a hormone called erythropoietin (EPO), which stimulates production of erythrocytes.

o If blood is delivering more oxygen than the tissues can use, the level of erythropoietin is

reduced, and erythrocyte production slows.

As atherosclerosis progresses, arteries become more and more clogged and the threat of heart attack or

stroke becomes much greater, but there may be warnings of this impending threat.

o For example, if a coronary artery is partially blocked, a person may feel occasional chest

pains, a condition known as angina pectoris.

o This is a signal that part of the heart is not receiving enough blood, especially when the heart

is laboring because of physical or emotional stress.Gas Exchange

4 problems

Surface area

Protection

o structural

doesnt have to be

o Behavioral

worm living under ground

Moisture

Thin Membrane

o diffusion has difficult time meeting needs of a cell if its going beyond three layers

Some animals, such as earthworms and some amphibians, use the entire outer skin as a respiratory organ.

Just below the moist skin is a dense net of capillaries.

However, because the respiratory surface must be moist, the possible habitats of these animals are

limited to water or damp places.

Animals that use their moist skin as their only respiratory organ are usually small and are either long

and thin or flat in shape, with a high ratio of surface area to volume.


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Gas exchange at the gill surface is enhanced by the opposing flows of water and blood at the gills.

This flow pattern is countercurrent exchange.

As blood moves through a gill capillary, it becomes more and more loaded with oxygen, but it

simultaneously encounters water with even higher oxygen concentrations because it is just beginning

its passage over the gills.

All along the gill capillary, there is a diffusion gradient favoring the transfer of oxygen from water toblood.

The countercurrent exchange mechanism is so efficient that the gills can remove more than 80% of the

oxygen from water to blood.

Reverse blood flow never get to 50-50 equilibrium instead Always have a concentration gradient

Grasshopper

Has open circulatory systems

Grasshoppers inhale and exhale through abdomen

Speraricles allow for air to enter into body

o Trachioles

The tracheal system of insects is composed of air tubes that branch throughout the body.

o The largest tubes, called tracheae, open to the outside, and the finest branches extend to the

surface of nearly every cell where gas is exchanged by diffusion across the moist epitheliumthat lines the terminal ends.

o The open circulatory system does not transport oxygen and carbon dioxide.

o Within exoskeleton for protection

Alternating contraction and relaxation of flight muscles compresses and expands the body, rapidly

pumping air through the tracheal system.

The flight muscles are packed with mitochondria, and the tracheal tubes supply each with ample

oxygen.

Humans System

Nose

Air enters through the nostrils and is then filtered by hairs, warmed and humidified, and sampled for

odors as it flows through the nasal cavity.

The nasal cavity leads to the pharynx, an intersection where the paths for air and food cross.

When food is swallowed, the larynx moves upward and tips the epiglottis over the glottis.

The rest of the time, the glottis is open, and air enters the upper part of the respiratory tract.

The wall of the larynx is reinforced by cartilage.


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In most mammals, the larynx is adapted as a voice box in which vibrations of a pair of vocal cords

produce sounds.

These sounds are high-pitched when the vocal cords are stretched tight and vibrate rapidly and low-

pitched when the cords are less tense and vibrate slowly.

From the larynx, air passes into the trachea, or windpipe, whose shape is maintained by rings of

cartilage. The trachea forks into two bronchi, one leading into each lung.

Within the lung, each bronchus branches repeatedly into finer and finer tubes, called bronchioles.

The epithelium lining the major branches of the respiratory tree is covered by cilia and a thin film of

mucus.

The mucus traps dust, pollen, and other particulate contaminants, and the beating cilia move the mucus

upward to the pharynx, where it is swallowed.

At their tips, the tiniest bronchioles dead-end as a cluster of air sacs called alveoli.

Gas exchange occurs across the thin epithelium of the lungs millions of alveoli.

These have a total surface area of about 100 m2 in humans, sufficient to carry out gas exchange for the

whole body.

Oxygen in the air entering the alveoli dissolves in the moist film and rapidly diffuses across the

epithelium into a web of capillaries that surrounds each alveolus. Carbon dioxide diffuses in the opposite direction.

Alveoli

o Surfactant

Satifies problem of moisture so the alveoli dont collapse

Disrupts water bonds

o Very thin and covered by capillaries

o Diffusion works to do gas exchange

Breathing

o Negative pressure system allows us to breath

aka vaccum

increase volume of an area and area has to come in and occupy that space

o Rib cage expands

tissue layer connected to rib cage is pulled out when cells between ribs expand


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Diaphragm

o Sheet of muscle

o flexing it goes down

o chest cavity expands first then air goes

Highly inefficient

o

Two way tract is inefficiento air moves in and comes out

problem

Never totally complete gas exchange process

Breathing in an out mixing gases in our lungs

Birds

o Lack alveoli

o one way directional flow of gases

o Ventilation is much more complex in birds than in mammals.

o Besides lungs, birds have eight or nine air sacs that do not function directly in gas exchange,

but act as bellows that keep air flowing through the lungs.

o The entire systemlungs and air sacsis ventilated when the bird breathes.

o Air flows through the interconnected system in a circuit that passes through the lungs in onedirection only, regardless of whether the bird is inhaling or exhaling.

o Instead of alveoli, which are dead ends, the sites of gas exchange in bird lungs are tiny

channels called parabronchi, through which air flows in one direction.

Brain

o Pons and Medulla

Medulla ensures that you breath

pons varies the rate that you breath has pH receptors that can measure CO2

Speed

o goal to get c02 out of blood


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o brain has ability to detect where the ph is low

o CO2 levels detrimental to the brain

Transport of oxygen in blood stream to cells and lungs

Hemaglobin

o carries oxygen

called oxyhemaglobin

o Protein

o 4 polypeptide chains

o each has iron which allows it to carry oxygen

o Can carry 4 02 molecules

o Shape

initial bind to first O2 molecule changes shape to have a higher affiinity to bind to 02

o Speed at which oxygen can be realsed

increases after first initial oxygen

Bohr Shift

shift in the affinity in the molecule toward and away from molecule

speed depends on first molecule

o What can influences the rate at which you can aquire and dump off this moleculeo How do RBCs know when to give or provide oxygen

o CO2 heat energy released in cellular respiration

o change shape of protein

Increases speed after heat is produced and first oxygen binds

Reverse

Oxygen pickup


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concentration difference

allows for diffusion quite readily of oxygen into lungs

How to get rid of C02

Realistically not efficient

Ability of the body to get rid of CO2

CO2 transported through cells by hemoglobin Diffusion gets blood out

RBCs can create bicarbonate from CO2s

Bicarbonate can dissolve in blood plasma

Bicarbonate can also reconvert to CO2 and get rid of CO2

Three ways

o efficient at getting rid of CO2

o need to protect brain from acidity

Things to remember

Arteries connective tissue have elastin and veins do not have elastin but still have connective tissue

Plasma ph is 7.4

o Proteins

clotting factors and antibodies Albumin

carrier protein facilitate things

osmotic balance and ph buffering

Clotting factors

o ions

45% red blood cells


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Get a cut

o platelets come and start recruiting clotting factors

o fibrin and helps in clotting

Cooperative

o when one binds it makes the second want to bind

Low ph decreases affinity for 02 called Bohr Shift Hemocyanin used in some invertebrates copper based

Immune System

Cell to cell communication

Physical Contact

Focus on cells themselves

o because pathways are very confusing

Pathogens

o Something that creates an immune response

Antigen on pathogens

o Antigen allows us to recognize pathogens

Most are proteins, sugars, Two Levels

o Innate immunity

o Acquired Immunity

First line

Spread of Pathogens

o Air


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Preventions

Mucus

Nose Hair

Cilia that line the lungs

o Fluids

Can effect many systems

Preventions

Saliva and enzymes in saliva

Lysozymes in saliva

Gastric Juice

HCL

o Direct Contact

Preventions

Skin

oil and sweat

Virus

o Aids

cause by HIVo Flu

Swine Flu

Bacteria

o Bacterial Menengitis

o Pneumonia

o Staf infections


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o Chicken Pox

caused by Herpes

Fungus

o Ringworm

o Athletes foot

Brain eating amoebaSecond Line of Defense

Non Specific

Capillaries are dilated so phagocytic white blood cells can go to the wound

Capillaries have tight junctions between cells

Tight junctions between them

Chemicals are released around cells

Cause capillaries to Dilate

Capillaries get wider and spread junctions out creating gaps where fluid and WBC and platelets can get

to cut

Histamine causes swelling

o take antihistimine to stop swelling

Increase in temperature around areas that are hurt Stops bacteria from invading

3rd Line

Specific pathway with many variations

Bacteria

o bacteria in tissue fluid

o bacterias have proteins that are antigens

o Recognized as foreign particles


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o B cells and macrophages

have the ability to take in parts of the bacteria

o Macrophage

can engulf bacteria

called phagocytosis

stores it in vacuole

use lysosome to digest it

Non-specific

o B Cells

Must have antigen receptors that are identical to antibodies

Binding sites

receptors can bind with specific cells

o T cells helper t cells

Initiate communication by contact

help the b cells and macrophages

MHC II

o Major histocompatibility complex

Protein Display a fragment of the original bacterial cell

cleve off antigen of bacteria

o Foreign antigen is presented on macrophage and b cell

TLRs and MHC

o Weak bond

Two major groups are important


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o require cd4 protein to establish bind between helper t cells and phagocytic cells

o and receptor protein

Response

o T cell produces hormone protein called interleukins or cytokinins

o cytokinins cause B cells to divide

Into to categories

Plasma cells

produce antibodies

short lived and attack the cells

mass produce

produce antibodies that are like the original b cells antibodies

Memory cells

long lived

Bind to same bacteria and immediately be able to produce

antibodies

at a great concentration

Antibodies

o two binding siteso Clump together bacterial cells

macrophages can come and eat them

bacterial cells unable to reproduce and are getting eaten by macrophages

Antibiotics

o produce antibodies

Epitope

o area of antigen that binds to a specific receptor


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o A small, accessible region of an antigen to which an antigen receptor or antibody binds; also

called an antigenic determinant. in b cells

Virus vs. Cancer

Body Cell

o if cell becomes cancerous there are proteins on the membrane that are being displayed when

its under attacko MHC I are the proteins

Pathway for Virus

o Cells that can recognize MHC I

Two types of T cells

Cytotoxic T cells (non-activated)

receptor on cell can recognize MHC I receptor

Needs help cuz it cant do it by itself

checks and balances system

Cd8 cell

o Helper T cells

Recognize foreign MHC receptor

no response unless helper t cell recognizes it helper t cell releases cytokinins

causes cytotoxic t cells to divide

one is Memory T cells

one is Activated cytotoxic t cells

o Perforin released by activated cytotoxic t cells

perforin can lyse membranes

Day 3 Immune

Antibodies


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o inhibit reproduction or release of toxin

o indirectly can kill cells

o clump bacteria together so macrophages can go to work

Blood Type

o A, B, O, AB

o

A A antigen

o B

B antigen

o O

No antigen

o AB

Both A and B

o A and b antigens

have epitopes similar to cells in body

design antibodies that are opposite of it

o Type A blood akes B antibody

o Type B blood makes A antibodyo Type O blood produces A and B antibody

o Type AB produces neither antibody

o Resistance to certain diseases because of blood type in the olden days

o O

is universal donor

Nothing the body can reject


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o AB

universal receiver because no antibodies in blood that would reject anything

Organ transplant and skin graphs

o Nobody has same MHC I or II

o Change in liver would make cytotoxic cells just go crazy and start killing everything

o

Body cells seen as foreigno Doctors give u suppressants

Bone Marrow Transplant will try to kill

o will attack the new host

o Kill current bone marrow transplant

Autoimmune

o Own immune system attacks you

Attacking yourselves

T cells attack beta cells

beta cells

produce insulin

rheumatoid Arthritis

Multiple sclerosis wbcs attack nerves

Hiv

o Host cell

need recognition site

host cell is helper T

can also occupy macrophage and nervous

CD4 protein recognized by Hiv

can either remain dormant or destroy t cells

People who have Aids die from flu, bacterial pneumonia, fungal infections, cancer

can mutate and change its antigens everytime it replicates

Documents

AP Bio Notes Tyler