[Antroposophy][Rudolf Steiner][en] Rudolf Steiner - Basic Issues of the Social Question

8/11/2019 [Antroposophy][Rudolf Steiner][en] Rudolf Steiner - Basic Issues of the Social Question

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BasicIssuesoftheSocialQuestion

ByRudolfSteiner

GA23

Thisbookwaswrittenin1919,justaftertheFirstWorldWar,andsuggestssolutionstothesocial,political

and economic problems of those times. At the end of the book, Steiner writes: ... either people will

accommodate their thinking to the requirements of reality, or theywill have learned nothing from the

calamityandwillcauseinnumerablenewonestooccurinthefuture. Historysincethenhasproventhese

wordstobeprophetic.The socialquestion hasnotbeenresolved,norhavestepsbeentakentoinitiatethe

healingprocess.Wealltoooftenlooktothepoliticalstateforthesolutionstoallsocialproblems,betheyof

aneconomic,culturalorpoliticalnature.Steinersconceptofa tripartite,or threefoldsociety inwhich the

economic,culturalandpoliticalsphereswouldenjoyrelativeautonomywithinthesocialorganismhasnot

yetbeen

tried.

This

book

contains

his

basic

ideas

for

the

restructuring

of

society.

Thise.Texteditionisprovidedthroughthewonderfulworkof:

FrankThomasSmith,and

SouthernCrossReview
http://southerncrossreview.org/http://southerncrossreview.org/http://southerncrossreview.org/http://southerncrossreview.org/http://southerncrossreview.org/http://southerncrossreview.org/http://wn.rsarchive.org/Covers/basicissues_cov.html


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SouthernCrossReviewEbooks

www.SouthernCrossReview.org

BASICISSUES

OFTHESOCIALQUESTION

RelevanttotheNecessitiesofLifeinthePresentandFuture

RudolfSteiner

Original German Title: Die Kernpunkte der Sozialen Frage in den

LebensnotwendigkeitenderGegenwartundZukunft (volume 23 in theRudolfSteiner

BibliographicalSurvey).

TranslatedbyFrankThomasSmith
http://www.southerncrossreview.org/http://www.southerncrossreview.org/


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BasicIssuesoftheSocialQuestion

CONTENTS

Translatorsintroduction

PrefacetotheFourthGermanEdition

PreliminaryRemarksconcerningthePurposeofthisBook

ChapterOne:

TheTrue

Nature

of

the

Social

Question,

ApprehendedfromtheLifeofModernHumanity

ChapterTwo:

FindingRealSolutionstotheSocialProblemsoftheTimes

ChapterThree:

CapitalismandSocialIdeas

(Capital,HumanLabor)

ChapterFour:

InternationalRelationsbetweenSocialOrganisms

Appendix:

TotheGermanPeopleandtheCivilizedWorld

Notes

AbouttheAuthor


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TranslatorsIntroduction

BasicissuesoftheSocialQuestionwaswrittenin1919fortheGermanspeakingpeoplesof

centralEurope.Itdealswiththesocialproblemsofthattimeandsuggestssolutions.The

question therefore arises: Is thisbook still relevant today, in a newmillennium, for a

worldwidereadership?

Inorder toanswerthisquestion, letusfirst lookat thebooksvery lastparagraph: One

cananticipate theexpertswhoobject to thecomplexityof these suggestionsand find it

uncomfortable even to think about three systems cooperatingwith each other,because

theywishtoknownothingoftherealrequirementsoflifeandwouldstructureeverything

according to the comfortable requirementsof their thinking.Thismustbecome clear to

them:eitherpeoplewillaccommodatetheirthinkingtotherequirementsofreality,orthey

willhave

learned

nothing

from

the

calamity

and

will

cause

innumerable

new

ones

to

occurinthefuture.

Thecalamityreferredto istheFirstWorldWar,andsincethattimehistoryhascertainly

shownthesewordstobeprophetic.RudolfSteinerssuggestionswereignoredinCentral

Europeatthattime,atleastbythosewhowereinapositiontoputthemintopractice,and

thecalamitieshavebeenoccurringinnumerablyeversince.Thesocialquestionhasnot

beenresolved,norhave thestepsbeen takenwhicharenecessary to initiate thehealing

process.People all too often still look to thepolitical state for the solution to all social

problems,

whether

they

be

of

an

economic,

spiritual

(cultural),

or

political

nature.

Whereintheworldisspirituallife,schoolsforexample,freenotinthesenseofcost,

butfreefromstatecontrolandeconomicinfluence?Wheredoesanassociativeeconomy

function? What political state is content with its legitimate function of ensuring that

humanrightsarerespected?Theanswertoallthesequestionsisnegative.Thedestructive

tendencieswhichexisted in 1919 are stillverymuchwithus; in fact, theyhavegreatly

increasedtheirpotency.

Certainhistorical circumstancesare referred to, especially inChapterFour,whichwere

freshinthemindsofthereadersinthatpartoftheworldatthetimethebookwaswritten.RudolfSteinerwasbornon27February1861,inthetownofKraljevec,whichwasthenin

AustroHungary and is now in Yugoslavia (he died on 30 March 1925 in Dornach,

Switzerland),sotheeventsrelatingtosuchpoliticalentitiesastheAustroHungarianand

Germanempireswereentirelyfamiliartohimand,forthemostpart,tohisreaders.Thisis

no longer thecase,so Ihaveaddedasectionof Notesat theendwhichcan,however,

onlyincludeaverybriefdescriptionofthehistoricaleventsreferredtobytheauthor.

Thisbookisfarfromoutdated,inspiteofthefactthatcertaindescriptionsrefertospecific

occurrencesand

attitudes

of

the

times

in

which

it

was

written.

The

suggestions

and

essentialprinciplesgivenbyRudolfSteinerareevenmorerelevanttodaythanwhenthey
http://wn.rsarchive.org/Books/GA023/English/SCR2001/GA023_c04.htmlhttp://wn.rsarchive.org/Books/GA023/English/SCR2001/GA023_c04.htmlhttp://wn.rsarchive.org/Books/GA023/English/SCR2001/GA023_c04.htmlhttp://wn.rsarchive.org/Books/GA023/English/SCR2001/GA023_notes.htmlhttp://wn.rsarchive.org/Books/GA023/English/SCR2001/GA023_notes.htmlhttp://wn.rsarchive.org/Books/GA023/English/SCR2001/GA023_c04.html


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wereoriginallydescribed, ifonlybecause their realizationhas sincebecomeevenmore

urgent.

FrankThomasSmith


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system, and his upbringing must correspond to the economic circumstances of his

environment.

Itiseasytobelievethatthissituationresultsintheindividualbecomingwelladjustedto

contemporarylife,thatthestateisbestqualifiedtoorganizetheeducationalsystemandtherewiththefoundationofpublicculturalaffairsforthebenefitofthecommunity.Itis

also easy to believe that the individual who is educated according to the economic

conditions of his environment and who is then placed according to these conditions

becomesthebestpossiblememberofhumansociety.

Thisbookmustassume theunpopular taskofshowing that thechaoticconditionofour

publiclifederivesfromthedependenceofspirituallifeonthepoliticalstateandeconomic

interests. It must also show that the liberation of spiritual life and culture from this

dependenceconstitutes

an

important

element

of

the

burning

social

question.

This involves attacking certain widespread errors. For example, the political states

assumptionof responsibility foreducationhas longbeenconsidered tobebeneficial for

humanprogress.Forpeoplewithsocialisticideasitisinconceivablethatsocietyshoulddo

anythingbutshapetheindividualaccordingtoitsstandardsandforitsservice.

Itisnoteasytoacceptaveryimportantfactofhistoricaldevelopment,namely,thatwhat

wasproperduringanearlierperiodcanbeerroneousforalaterperiod.Foranewerain

human relations toemerge, itwasnecessary that thecircleswhichcontrollededucation

and culturebe relieved of this function and that itbe transferred to thepolitical state.

However,topersistinthisarrangementisagravesocialerror.

The firstpartof thisbookattempts to indicate this.Humanculturehasmatured toward

freedomwithin the frameworkof the state,but it cannotexercise this freedomwithout

completeautonomyofaction.Thenaturewhichspirituallifehasassumedrequiresthatit

constitute a fully autonomous member of the social organism. The administration of

education, from which all culture develops, must be turned over to the educators.

Economic and political considerations should be entirely excluded from this

administration. Each teacher should arrange his or her time so that he can alsobe anadministratorinhisfield.Heshouldbejustasmuchathomeattendingtoadministrative

matters as he is in the classroom.No one shouldmake decisionswho is not directly

engaged in theeducationalprocess.Noparliamentorcongress,norany individualwho

was perhaps once an educator, is to have anything to say.What is experienced in the

teachingprocesswould then flow naturally into the administration.By its very nature

suchasystemwouldengendercompetenceandobjectivity.

Ofcourseonecouldobjectthatsuchaselfgoverningspirituallifewouldalsonotattainto

perfection.But

we

cannot

expect

perfection;

we

can

only

strive

toward

the

best

possible

situation. The capabilities which the child develops can best be transmitted to the

communityifhiseducationistheexclusiveresponsibilityofthosewhosejudgementrests


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onaspiritualfoundation.Towhatextentachildshouldbetaughtonethingoranothercan

onlybecorrectlydeterminedwithinafreeculturalcommunity.Howsuchdeterminations

are tobemadebinding isalsoamatter for thiscommunity.Thestateand theeconomy

wouldbeabletoabsorbvigourfromsuchacommunity,whichisnotattainablewhenthe

organizationofculturalinstitutionsisbasedonpoliticalandeconomicstandards.

Eventheschoolswhichdirectlyservethestateandtheeconomyshouldbeadministered

bytheeducators:lawschools,tradeschools,agricultureandindustrialcolleges,allshould

beadministeredby the representativesofa freespiritual life.Thisbookwillnecessarily

arousemanyprejudices,especiallyiftheconsequencesofitsthesisareconsidered.Whatis

thesourceoftheseprejudices?Werecognizetheirantisocialnaturewhenweperceivethat

theyoriginateintheunconsciousbeliefthatteachersareimpracticalpeoplewhocannotbe

trusted to assume practical responsibilities on their own. It is assumed that all

organizationmust

be

carried

out

by

those

who

are

engaged

in

practical

matters,

and

educatorsshouldactaccordingtothetermsofreferencedeterminedforthem.

This assumption ignores the fact that it is just when teachers are not permitted to

determine their own functions that they tend tobecome impractical and remote from

reality.As long as the socalled experts determine the terms of reference according to

whichtheymustfunction,theywillneverbeinapositiontoturnoutpracticalindividuals

whoareequippedforlifebytheireducation.Thecurrentantisocialstateofaffairsisthe

resultofindividualsenteringsocietywholacksocialsensitivitybecauseoftheireducation.

Socially

sensitive

individuals

can

only

develop

within

an

educational

system

which

is

conductedandadministeredbyothersociallysensitive individuals.Noprogresswillbe

madetowardssolvingthesocialquestionifwedonottreatthequestionofeducationand

spiritasanessentialpartofit.Anantisocialsituationisnotmerelytheresultofeconomic

structures,itisalsocausedbytheantisocialbehaviouroftheindividualswhoareactive

in these structures. It is antisocial to allow youth to be educated by people who

themselves havebecome strangers to realitybecause the conduct and content of their

workhasbeendictatedtothemfromwithout.

The state establishes lawschoolsand requires that the law they teachbe in accordance

with the states own view of jurisprudence. If these schools were established as free

culturalinstitutions,theywouldderivethesubstanceoftheirjurisprudencefromthisvery

culture.Thestatewould thenbecome therecipientofwhat this freespiritual lifehas to

offer.Itwouldbeenrichedbythelivingideaswhichcanonlyarisewithinsuchaspiritual

environment.Withinaspiritual lifeof thisnaturesocietywouldencounter themenand

womenwho could grow into it on their own terms.Worldlinessdoes not originate in

educational institutions organized by socalled experts, in which impractical people

teach,butonly ineducatorswhounderstand lifeand theworldaccording to theirown

viewpoints.Particulars ofhow a free culture should organize itself are outlined in this

book.


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Theutopianmindedwillapproachthebookwithallkindsofdoubts.Anxiousartistsand

otherspiritualworkerswillquestionwhether talentwouldbebetteroff inafreeculture

thaninonewhichisprovidedforbythestateandeconomicinterests,asisthecasetoday.

Suchdoubtersshouldbearinmindthatthisbookisnotmeanttobetheleastbitutopian.

Nohardandfasttheoriesarefoundinitwhichsaythatthingsmustbethiswayorthat.On the contrary, its intention is to stimulate the formation of communitieswhich, as a

resultoftheircommonexperience,willbeabletobringaboutwhatissociallydesirable.If

weconsiderlifefromexperienceinsteadoftheoreticalpreconceptions,wewillagreethat

creative individualswouldhavebetterprospectsof seeing theirwork fairlyjudged ifa

freeculturalcommunityexistedwhichcouldactaccordingtoitsownvalues.

The social question is not something which has suddenly appeared at this stage of

human evolution and which can be resolved by a few individuals or by some

parliamentarybody,

and

stay

resolved.

It

is

an

integral

part

of

modern

civilization

which

has come to stay, and as suchwill have tobe resolved anew for eachmoment in the

worldshistoricaldevelopment.Humanityhasnowentered intoaphase inwhichsocial

institutionsconstantlyproduceantisocialtendencies.Thesetendenciesmustbeovercome

eachtime.Justasasatiatedorganismexperienceshungeragainafteraperiodoftime,so

thesocialorganismpassesfromordertodisorder.Afoodwhichpermanentlystillshunger

doesnotexist;neitherdoesauniversalsocialpanacea.Nevertheless,mencanenter into

communitiesinwhichtheywouldbeabletocontinuouslydirecttheiractivitiesinasocial

direction. One such community is the selfgoverning spiritual branch of the social

organism.

Observationofthecontemporaryworld indicatesthatthespiritual liferequiresfreeself

administration, while the economy requires associative work. The modern economic

processconsistsof theproduction,circulationandconsumptionofcommodities.Human

needsaresatisfiedbymeansofthisprocessandhumanbeingsaredirectlyinvolvedinit,

eachhavinghisownpartinterest,eachparticipating to theextenthe isable.Whateach

individualreallyneedscanonlybeknownbyhimself,whatheshouldcontributehecan

determinethroughhisinsightintothesituationasawhole.Itwasnotalwaysso,anditis

notyetthecasetheworldover;butitisessentiallytrueasfarasthecivilizedinhabitants

oftheearthareconcerned.

Economic activity has expanded in the course of human evolution. Town economies

developed fromclosedhouseholdeconomiesand in turngrew intonationaleconomies.

Todaywestandbeforeaglobaleconomy.Undoubtedlythenewcontainsmuchoftheold,

justas theoldshowed indicationsofwhatwas tocome.Nevertheless,humandestiny is

conditioned by the fact that this process, in most fields of economic endeavour, has

alreadybeen accomplished.Any attempt to organize economic forces into an abstract

worldcommunityiserroneous.Inthecourseofevolutionprivateeconomicenterprisehas,

toalargeextent,becomestateeconomicenterprise.Butthepoliticalstatesarenotmerelythe products of economic forces, and the attempt to transform them into economic

communitiesisthecauseofthesocialchaosofmoderntimes.Economiclifeisstrivingto


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structure itself according to its ownnature, independent ofpolitical institutionalization

andmentality.Itcanonlydothisifassociations,comprisedofconsumers,distributorsand

producers,areestablishedaccordingtopurelyeconomiccriteria.Actualconditionswould

determinethescopeoftheseassociations.Iftheyaretoosmalltheywouldbetoocostly;if

they are too large theywouldbecome economically unmanageable. Practical necessitywouldindicatehowinterassociationalrelationsshoulddevelop.Thereisnoneedtofear

that individualmobilitywouldbe inhibiteddueto theexistenceofassociations.Hewho

requiresmobilitywouldexperienceflexibilityinpassingfromoneassociationtoanother,

as long as economic interest and not political organization determines themove. It is

possibletoforeseeprocesseswithinsuchassociationswhicharecomparabletocurrencyin

circulation.

* * * *

Professionalismandobjectivitycouldcauseageneralharmonyof interests toprevail in

theassociations.Not laws,butmenusing their immediate insightsand interests,would

regulate theproduction,circulationandconsumptionofgoods.Theywouldacquire the

necessaryinsightsthroughtheirparticipationintheassociations;goodscouldcirculateat

theirappropriatevaluesdue to the fact that thevarious interests representedwouldbe

compensatedbymeansofcontracts.This typeofeconomiccooperation isquitedifferent

from that practisedby the labourunionswhich, although operational in the economic

field, are established according to political instead of economic principles. Basically

parliamentary

bodies,

they

do

not

function

according

to

economic

principles

of

reciprocal

output. In these associations there would be no wage earners using their collective

strength to demand the highest possible wages frommanagement,but artisans who,

togetherwithmanagement and consumer representatives,determine reciprocal outputs

bymeansofpriceregulationsomethingwhichcannotbeaccomplishedbysessionsof

parliamentarybodies.This is important!Forwhowoulddo thework ifcountlessman

hourswere spent in negotiations about it? Butwith person to person, association to

association agreements,workwould go on as usual.Of course it is necessary that all

agreements reflect the workers insights and the consumers interests. This is not the

descriptionofautopia. Iamnot sayinghow things shouldbearranged,but indicating

howpeoplewillarrange thingsfor themselvesonce theyactivate the typeofassociative

communitieswhichcorrespondtotheirowninsightsandinterests.

Humannaturewouldseetoitthatmenandwomenuniteinsucheconomiccommunities,

weretheynotpreventedfromdoingsobystateintervention,fornaturedeterminesneeds.

Afreespirituallifewouldalsocontribute,foritbegetssocialinsights.Anyonewhoisina

position to consider all this from experience will have to admit that these economic

associationscouldcomeintobeingatanymoment,andthatthereisnothingutopianabout

them. All that stands in their way is modern mans obsession with the external

organization of economic life. Free association is the exact opposite of this externalorganizingforthepurposeofproduction.Whenmenassociate,theplanningofthewhole

originates in the reasoning of the individual.What is the point of thosewho own no


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property associating with those who do! It may seem preferable to justly regulate

production and consumption externally. Such external planning sacrifices the free,

creativeinitiativeoftheindividual,therebydeprivingtheeconomyofwhatsuchinitiative

alonecangiveit.If,inspiteofallprejudice,anattemptweremadetodaytoestablishsuch

associations, the reciprocal outputbetween owners and nonownerswould necessarilyoccur. The instincts which govern the consideration of such things nowadays do not

originateineconomicexperience,butinsentimentswhichhavedevelopedfromclassand

otherinterests.Theywereabletodevelopbecausepurelyeconomicthoughthasnotkept

pacewith thecomplexitiesofmoderneconomics.Anunfreespiritual lifehasprevented

this.The individualswho labour in industryarecaught ina routine,and the formative

economic forces are invisible to them. They labourwithout having an insight into the

wholenessofhumanlife.Intheassociationseachindividualwouldlearnwhatheshould

know throughcontactwithanother.Through theparticipants insightandexperience in

relation to their respective activities and their resulting ability to exercise collectivejudgement,knowledgeofwhatiseconomicallypossiblewouldarise.Inafreespirituallife

theonlyactiveforcesarethoseinherentinit;inthesamesense,theonlyeconomicvalues

active in an associatively structured economic system would be those which evolve

through the associations themselves. The individuals role would emerge from

cooperationwithhisassociates.Hecouldtherebyexertjustasmucheconomicinfluenceas

corresponds to his output.How thenonproductive elementswouldbe integrated into

economiclifewillbeexplainedinthecourseofthebook.Onlyaneconomicsystemwhich

isselfstructuredcanprotecttheweakagainstthestrong.

Wehaveseen that thesocialorganismcanarrange itself into twoautonomousmembers

able to supporteachotheronlybecauseeach is selfgoverningaccording to its inherent

nature.Betweenthemathirdelementmustfunction:thepoliticalstate.Hereiswhereeach

individualwho isofagecanmakehis influenceandjudgementfelt.Infreespiritual life

eachpersonworksaccordingtohisparticularabilities;intheeconomicsphereeachtakes

hisplaceaccordingtohisassociativerelationship.Inthecontextofthepoliticalrightsstate

thepurelyhumanelementcomesintoitsown,insofarasitisindependentoftheabilities

bymeansofwhichtheindividualisactiveinspirituallife,andindependentofthevalue

accruedtothegoodsheproducesintheassociativeeconomicsphere.

Ihaveattemptedtoshowinthisbookhowhoursandconditionsoflabouraremattersto

bedealtwithbythepoliticalrightsstate.Allareequalinthisareaduetothefactthatonly

matters are tobe treated in it aboutwhich allmen are equally competent to form an

opinion.Human rightsandobligationsare tobedeterminedwithin thismemberof the

socialorganism.

Theunityofthewholesocialorganismwilloriginateintheindependentdevelopmentof

its three members. The book will show how the effectiveness of capital, means of

production and land use can be determined through the cooperation of the threemembers. Thosewhowish to solve the social questionbymeans of some economic

schemewillfindthisbookimpractical.However,thosewhohavepracticalexperienceand


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would stimulatemenandwomen to cooperativeventures throughwhich they canbest

recognizeanddedicate themselves to the social tasksof theday,willperhapsnotdeny

that theauthor is infactadvocatingsomethingwhich is inaccordancewiththepractical

factsoflife.

Thisbookwasfirstpublishedin1919.AsasupplementIpublishedvariousarticlesinthe

magazineDreigliederungdesSozialenOrganismus,whichsubsequentlyappearedasa

separate volume with the title In Ausfhrung der Dreigliederung des Sozialen

Organismus.[Note1]Inbothofthesepublicationsmuchmoreemphasisisplacedonthe

meanswhichshouldbeemployedthanontheends,orobjectivesofthesocialmovement.

Ifwethinkrealisticallyweknowthatparticularendsappearindiverseforms.Onlywhen

we think in abstractions does everything appear to us in clearly defined outlines. The

abstract thinkerwill often reproach thepractical realist for lack ofdistinctness, for not

beingsufficiently

clear

in

his

presentations.

Often

those

who

consider

themselves

to

be

expertsareinrealityjustsuchabstractionists.Theydonotrealizethatlifecanassumethe

mostvariedforms.Itisaflowingelement,andifwewishtomovewithitwemustadapt

ourthoughtsandfeelings to thisflowingcharacteristic.Social taskscanbegraspedwith

this type of thinking. The ideas presented in this book have been drawn from an

observationoflife;anunderstandingofthemcanbederivedfromthesamesource.
http://wn.rsarchive.org/Books/GA023/English/SCR2001/GA023_notes.html#NOT01http://wn.rsarchive.org/Books/GA023/English/SCR2001/GA023_notes.html#NOT01http://wn.rsarchive.org/Books/GA023/English/SCR2001/GA023_notes.html#NOT01http://wn.rsarchive.org/Books/GA023/English/SCR2001/GA023_notes.html#NOT01


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PRELIMINARYREMARKSCONCERNINGTHEPURPOSEOFTHIS

BOOK

The contemporary social situation poses grave and comprehensive challenges. The

demands which have arisen for new structures indicate that the solutions to these

challenges must be sought in ways which have not been previously considered.

Conditionsbeingwhattheyare,thetimehasperhapscomewhenattentionwillbepaidto

onewhoseexperience in lifeobligeshim tocontend that thoughtlessnessconcerning the

wayswhichhavebecomenecessaryhasresultedinsocialchaos.Theargumentspresented

inthisbookarebasedonthisopinion.Theydealwiththeprerequisitesfortransforming

thedemandsofa largepartof contemporaryhumanity intopurposeful socialwill.The

formationof thiswillshouldnotdependonwhether thedemandspleasesomeofusor

not.They exist,andmustbedealtwithas social facts.This shouldbekept inmindby

thosewhose position in life causes them to find distasteful the authors description ofproletariandemands as somethingwhichmustbe reconciledby socialwill.Theauthor

wishes tospeakonly inaccordancewith therealitiesofcontemporary life, insofarashis

experienceenableshimtodoso.Hehasseentheinevitableconsequencesofignoringthe

factswhichhaveunfoldedinthelifeofmodernmanandofbeingblindtothenecessityof

asocialwilltodealwiththem.

Selfstyledexpertsinpracticalmatters(whathavecometoberegardedaspracticalmatters

undertheinfluenceofroutine)will,atfirst,bedissatisfiedwiththeargumentspresented

inthis

book.

But

it

is

just

such

persons

as

these

who

should

undergo

arelearning

process,

fortheirexpertisehasbeenprovenbyrecenteventstobeabsolutelyerroneousandhas

led to disastrous consequences. Theymust learn to recognizemany things as practical

whichhaveseemedtothemtobeeccentricidealism.Theymaybecriticalofthefactthat

theearlypartsofthebookdealmorewiththespirituallifeofmodernmankindthanwith

economics.Theauthorisobligedhowever,fromhispersonalknowledgeoflife,totakethe

positionthattheerrorsofthepastwillonlymultiplyifthedecisionisnotmadetofocus

attentiononmodernmankinds spiritual life.Equallydissatisfiedwithwhat the author

says in thisbookwillbe thosewho are continuously intoning clichs aboutmankind

abandoningpurely

materialistic

interests

and

turning

to

the

spirit,

to

idealism,

for

he

attaches little importance to themere reference to thespiritand talkaboutanebulous

spiritualworld.Hecanonlyrecognizeaspiritualitywhichconstitutesthelifesubstanceof

humanity. This manifests itself in the mastery of practical aspects as well as in the

formulation of a conception of theworld and of lifewhich is capable of satisfying the

needs of the soul. It is not a matter of knowing or believing to know about

spirituality,butthatitbeaspiritualitywhichisalsoapplicabletothepracticalrealitiesof

everydaylife,onewhichaccompaniestheseeverydayrealitiesand isnotameresideline

reservedfortheinnerlifeofthesoul.Tothespiritualiststheargumentspresentedinthis

bookwillbe toounspiritual,while to the practicalones theywillseemunrealistic.The

author isof theopinion,however, thathemaybeuseful tocontemporarysociety inhis

wayjustbecause he does not share the impracticality of those personswho consider


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themselvestobepractical,norcanhefindanyjustificationforthekindoftalkaboutthe

spiritthatresultsinillusions.

Thesocialquestionisspokenofinthisbookasaneconomic,alegalrightsandaspiritual

question.Theauthorisconvincedthatthetruenatureofthisquestionrevealsitselfintherequirementsof theeconomic,rightsandspiritualculturalareasofsociety.The impulse

forahealthycoordinationofthesethreeareaswithinthesocialorganismcanemergefrom

arecognitionofthisfact.Duringpreviousperiodsofhumanevolutionsocialinstinctssaw

toitthatthethreeareaswereintegratedinsocietyinawaywhichcorrespondedtohuman

nature as itwas then.At thepresenthowever, it isnecessary formankind to structure

societybymeans ofpurposeful socialwill.Between thosepast epochs and thepresent

there is a confusion of old instincts and modern consciousness which is no longer

competenttodealwiththedemandsofmodernmankind,atleastasfarasthosecountries

areconcerned

in

which

such

awill

is

meaningful.

Often

the

old

instincts

persist

in

what

passestodayforpurposefulsocialthinking.Thisweakensthinkinginrelationtothetasks

itmustface.Amoreprofoundeffort thanhasbeenhithertosupposedmustbemadeby

themenandwomenof thepresent inorder towork theirwayfreeofwhat isno longer

viable.Howtheeconomic,rightsandspiritualareasaretobestructuredinawaywhich

corresponds to the demands of modern society can, in the authors opinion, only be

determined if sufficient goodwill isdeveloped to recognize this fact.What the author

believes is necessary concerning the shape such structures should take is submitted to

contemporary judgement by means of this book. The authors wish is to provide a

stimulusalong

away

which

leads

to

social

objectives

that

correspond

to

contemporary

realitiesandnecessities.Forhebelievesthatonlysucheffortscantranscendemotionality

andutopianismwheresocialwillisconcerned.

If,inspiteofthis,somereadersfindelementsofthisbookutopian,thentheauthorwould

suggest they consider how often ideas concerning possible social developments are so

completelydivorcedfromrealitythattheydegenerateintononsense.Forthisreason,one

is inclined to find utopias even in arguments which derive from reality and direct

experience,ashasbeenattemptedinthisbook.Oneseesanargumentasabstractbecause

onlythehabitualisconcrete,andtheconcreteisabstractifitdoesnotcoincidewiththe

habitualmannerofthinking.*

*Theauthorhaspurposelyavoidedconfininghimself tothecustomarypoliticaleconomic terminology.He

knowsexactlywhicharethepassagesaspecialistopinionwillcallamateurish.Hisformofexpressionwas

determinednotonlybyhisdesiretoaddresshimselfalsotopeoplewhoarenotfamiliarwithpoliticaland

social scientific literature,but primarilybecause of his view that a new agewilljudgemost ofwhat is

specialized inthis literature, including itsterminology,tobeonesidedand inadequate.Theauthorwould

remind thosewho feel thathe shouldhave referred to seemingly similar social ideas of others, that the

pointsofdepartureandthewaysdescribedhere,forwhichtheauthorcanthankdecadesofexperience,are

theessentialpointstowardsapracticalrealizationofthegivenimpulses,andnotmerelythisorthattypeof

thinking.

Furthermore,

as

can

be

gathered

from

Chapter

Four,

the

author

had

already

committed

himself

to

anattemptatpracticalrealizationwhenseeminglysimilarideasinrespecttoonepointoranotherhadnot

yetbeennoticed.
http://wn.rsarchive.org/Books/GA023/English/SCR2001/GA023_c04.htmlhttp://wn.rsarchive.org/Books/GA023/English/SCR2001/GA023_c04.htmlhttp://wn.rsarchive.org/Books/GA023/English/SCR2001/GA023_c04.htmlhttp://wn.rsarchive.org/Books/GA023/English/SCR2001/GA023_c04.html


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Theauthorknowsthatstrictfollowersofpartyprogramswillatfirstbeunhappywiththis

book.Nevertheless,heisconfidentthatmanypoliticalpartypeoplewillsooncometothe

conclusion that events have already far outstripped party programs and that a

determination, independent of such programs, concerning the immediate objectives of

socialwillis,aboveall,necessary.

April1919,RudolfSteiner


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16

ChapterOne

ThetruenatureoftheSocialQuestion

Does not the catastrophe of theWorldWardemonstrate thedeficiency of the thinkingwhichfordecadeswassupposedtohaveunderstoodthewilloftheproletariat?Doesnot

thetruenatureofthesocialmovementstandrevealedbythefactofthiscatastrophe?

It is necessary to ask these questions, for the demands of the proletariat, previously

suppressed, are surging to the surface now that the powers of suppression havebeen

partiallydestroyed.Buttomaintainthepositionwhichthesepowerstookinrelationtothe

social urges of a large part of mankind is something which can only be desired by

someonetotallyignorantoftheindestructibilityofsuchimpulsesinhumannature.

Manyof thekeypeoplewhowereable to influencetheEuropeanpowerswhich in1914

were intent on rushing headlong into the catastrophe ofwarwere victims of a great

illusioninrespecttotheseimpulses.Theyactuallybelievedthatamilitaryvictoryfortheir

sidewouldstilltheimpendingsocialstorm.Theyhavesincehadtoadmitthattheirown

behaviourgave the socialurges the impetus theywerewaiting for. Indeed, thepresent

humancatastrophehasrevealeditselftobethehistoricaleventthroughwhichtheseurges

attainedtotheirfulldrivingforce.

Duringtheselastfatefulyearstheleadingpersonsandclasseshavehadtoconditiontheir

behaviourtotheattitudesofthesocialistcircles,althoughifithadbeenpossibletoignore

them theywouldgladlyhavedoneso.The formeventshavesince taken is theresultof

these attitudes.Now that a decisive stage in preparation for decades hasbeen

reached,a tragedyunfolds in that thinkinghasnotkeptpacewithevents.Manypeople

whohavebeentrainedtothinkintermsofdevelopmentsinwhichtheysawsocialideals

arenowhelplesswhenconfrontedwiththegraveproblemswhichthefactspresent.

Somestillbelieve that their ideasconcerningarestructuringofsocietywillsomehowbe

realized and prove sufficiently efficacious to guide events in a positive direction. The

deludedopinionthattheoldschemeofthingsshouldberetainedinspiteofthedemandsofamajorityofmankindcanbedismissedoffhand,andattention shouldbe shifted to

thosewhoareconvincedofthenecessityforsocialrenewal.Inanycaseweareobligedto

admit thatpartyplatformswander around amongstus like somanymummified ideas

whicharecontinuouslyrefutedbythefacts.Thesefactsrequiredecisionsforwhichparty

programsareunprepared.Thepoliticalpartieshaveevolvedalongwithevents,buthave

fallen behind in respect of their thinking habits. It is perhaps not presumptuous to

maintainthattheseconclusionswhicharecontrarytowhatisgenerallybelievedcan

beproperlyarrivedatthroughacorrectappraisalofcontemporaryevents.Itispossibleto

deducefrom

this

that

the

times

should

be

receptive

to

acharacterization

of

the

social

life

ofmankindwhich, in itsoriginality, is foreign to the thinkingofmost sociallyoriented

personagesaswellastopartylines.Itisquitepossiblethatthetragedyoftheattemptsto


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solve the social question is attributable to amisunderstanding of themeaning of the

proletarian struggle even on the part of thosewhose ideas have originated in that

struggle.Formenarebynomeansalwaysable toderivecorrectjudgements from their

owndesires.

Itwouldthereforeappearjustifiedtoaskthefollowingquestions:Whatdoesthemodern

proletarianmovement reallywant? and does this correspond towhat is generally

consideredtobeitsobjectivebythenonproletariatandtheproletariatalike?Doesthetrue

nature of the socialquestion agreewithwhat is commonly thought about it or is a

completelydifferentway of thinkingnecessary?Thisquestion canhardlybe answered

objectivelyexceptbyonewhohasbeeninapracticalpositiontounderstandthemodern

proletarianmind,especiallythemindsofthosemembersoftheproletariatwhohavebeen

instrumentalindeterminingthedirectionwhichthesocialmovementhastaken.

Much hasbeen said about the development ofmodern technology and capitalism, the

birthofanewproletariat:andhowthisproletariatsdemandshavearisenwithinthenew

economicsystem.Muchofwhathasbeensaid isrelevant,but thatnothingdecisivehas

been touchedupon isevident toanyonewhohasnotbeenhypnotizedby the idea that

externalconditionsdetermine thenatureofhuman life,andwho isobjectivelyawareof

the impulses which originate in the human soul. It is true that the demands of the

proletariathavearisenduringtheevolutionofmoderntechnologyandcapitalism;butthe

recognitionof this fact saysnothing about thepurelyhuman impulse residing in these

demands.

As

long

as

these

impulses

are

not

fully

understood,

the

true

nature

of

the

social

questionwillremaininscrutable.

The significance of the following expression is apparent to anyone who has become

familiarwith thedeepseated, internal forcesof thehumanwill: themodernworkerhas

become classconscious.He no longer instinctively follows the lead of the other social

classes; he considers himself tobe amember of a separate class and is determined to

influence the relations between his class and the others in a manner which will be

advantageous to his own interests. The psychological undercurrents related to the

expressionclassconscious,asusedbythemodernproletariat,provideaninsightintothe

mentalityofaworkingclasswhichisboundupwithmoderntechnologyandcapitalism.It

is important to recognize the profound impression which scientific teachings about

economicsanditsinfluenceonhumandestinyhavemadeonthemindoftheproletarian.

Hereafactistoucheduponconcerningwhichmanypeoplewhocanonlythinkaboutthe

proletarian and not with him have murky, if not downright dangerous notions,

considering the seriousnessofcontemporaryevents.Theopinion that the uncultivated

workerhasbeendeceivedbyMarxismandtheproletarianwriterswhopromulgate it, is

notconducivetoanunderstandingofthehistoricalsituation.Thisopinionrevealsalack

of insight into an essential element of the socialmovement: that the proletarian class

consciousness has been cultivated by concepts which derive from modern scientificdevelopments. The sentiment expressed in Lassalles speech Science and theWorker

[Note2]continuestodominatethisconsciousness.Thismayseemunimportanttocertain


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18

practicalpeople.Nevertheless,atrulyeffectiveinsightintothemodernlabourmovement

requires that attentionbe focused on this subject.Whatboth themoderate and radical

wingsof theproletarianmovement aredemanding reflects the economic sciencewhich

has captivated their imagination and not as hasbeenmaintained, economic life itself

somehow transformed into a human impulse. This is clearly illustrated by thejournalisticallypopularized scientific character of proletarian literature; to deny it is to

shutoneseyestothefacts.Afundamental,determiningcharacteristicofthepresentsocial

situation is that the modern proletarian is able to define the content of his class

consciousnessinscientificallyorientedconcepts.Theworkingmanathismachinemaybe

farremovedfromscienceassuch;nevertheless,hehearstheexplanationofhissituation

fromotherswhoseknowledgeisderivedfromthisscience.

All thediscussion about the new economics, themachine age, capitalism, etc.,maybe

mostenlightening

in

respect

to

the

underlying

causes

of

the

proletarian

movement.

However,thedeterminingfactorofthepresentsocialsituationisnotthattheworkerhas

been harnessed to amachinewithin the capitalistic system,but that certain thoughts,

influencedbyhisdependentpositionwithinthecapitalisticworldorder,havedeveloped

in his class consciousness. It may be that the thought habits of the present inhibit

recognition of the implications of this fact and make it appear that to emphasize it

constitutesnomorethanadialecticgameofconcepts.Thismustbeansweredasfollows:

thereisnoprospectofasuccessfulinterventioninmodernsocietywithoutcomprehension

of the essential elements involved.Anyonewhowishes to understand the proletarian

movementmust

first

of

all

know

how

the

proletarian

thinks.

For

this

movement

from

itsmoderate efforts at reform to itsmost excessive abuses isnot activatedby non

humanforcesoreconomicimpulses,butbypeople,bytheirideasandbytheirwill.

Thedecisiveideasandwillforcesofthecontemporarysocialmovementarenotcontained

inwhat technologyandcapitalismhave implanted in theproletarianconsciousness.The

movementhas turned tomodern science for the sourceof its ideas,because technology

and capitalismwere not able to provide theworkerwith the human dignity his soul

needed.Thisdignitywasavailabletothemedievalartisanthroughhiscraft,towhichhe

felthumanly relateda situationwhich allowedhim to consider life in society asworth

living.Hewas able to viewwhat hewasdoing as the realization of his strivings as a

humanbeing.Undercapitalismandtechnology,however,hehadnorecoursebuthimself

hisown innerbeing in seeking thebasis for anunderstanding ofwhat ahuman

being is; for this basis is not contained in capitalism and technology. Therefore, the

proletarianconsciousnesschosethepathofscientificallyorientedthinking.Theinherently

humanelementofsocietyhadbeen lost.Now thishappenedata timewhenthe leading

classes were cultivating a scientificmode of thinking which no longer possessed the

spiritual impact necessary to satisfy the manifold needs of an expanding human

consciousness.Theoldworldconceptionsconsideredthehumanbeingtobeasoulentity

existing within a spiritually existential framework. According To modern scientificthought,however,he isnomorethananaturalbeingwithinthenaturalorderofthings.


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Thisscienceisnotexperiencedasacurrentwhichflowsintomansmindfromaspiritual

worldwhich also sustains his soul.An impartial consideration of history reveals that

scientific ideationhasevolvedfromreligious ideation;thishastobeadmitted inspiteof

how onemay feel about the relationshipbetween the various religious impulses and

modern scientific thinking. But these old world conceptions with their religiousfoundationswerenotable to impart theirsoulsustaining impulses tomodernmodesof

thinking. They withdrew and tried to exist outside these modes of thinking at a

consciousness level which the proletarian mind found inaccessible. This level of

consciousnesswasstillofsomevalueto themembersoftherulingclasses,as itmoreor

less corresponded to their social position. These classes sought no new conceptions

becausetraditionenabledthemtoretaintheold.Buttheworker,strippedofhistraditions,

foundhislifecompletelytransformed.Deprivedoftheoldways,helosttheabilitytotake

sustenance from spiritual sources fromwhich he had alsobeen alienated. Broadly

speaking,modern scientismdeveloped simultaneouslywith technology and capitalism,attractingintheprocessthefaithandconfidenceofthemodernproletariat insearchofa

newconsciousnessandnewvalues.But theworkersacquiredadifferent relationship to

scientismthandidthemembersoftherulingclasses,whodidnotfeeltheneedtoadapt

theirownpsychologicalneedstothenewscientificoutlook.Inspiteofbeingthoroughly

imbuedwith the scientific conception of causal relationships leading from the lowest

animaluptoman,itremainedforthemapurelytheoreticalconviction;theydidnotfeel

thenecessitytorestructuretheirlivesaccordingtothisconviction.ThenaturalistVogtand

thepopularsciencewriterBchner,forexample,werecertainlyimbuedwiththescientific

outlook.Alongside

this

outlook,

however,

something

was

active

in

their

minds

which

enabledthemtoretaincertainattitudesinlifewhichcanonlybejustifiedthroughbeliefin

auniversal,spiritualorderofthings.Howdifferentlyscientismaffectssomeonewhoselife

isfirmlygroundedinsuchcircumstancesandthemodernproletarianwhoiscontinuously

haranguedbyagitatorsduringhisfewfreehourswithsuchthingsas:modernsciencehas

curedmanofbelievingthathehasaspiritualorigin;heknowsnowthatinprimitivetimes

heclambered indecorouslyaround in treesand thathehasapurelynaturalorigin.The

modern proletarian found himself confronted with such ideas whenever he sought a

psychological foundationwhichwould permit him to find his place in the scheme of

things.He

became

deadly

serious

about

the

new

scientism

and

drew

from

it

his

own

conclusions about life. The technological, capitalistic age affected him quite differently

than it did the ruling classes, whose way of life was still supported by spiritually

rewardingimpulses;itwasintheirinteresttoadapttheaccomplishmentsofthenewage

tothislifestyle.Theproletarianhowever,hadbeendeprivedofhisoldwayoflifewhich,

inanycase,wasnolongercapableofprovidinghimwithasenseofhisvalueasahuman

being. The only thingwhich seemed capable of providing the answer to the question:

What isahumanbeing?was thenewscientificoutlook,equippedas itwaswith the

powersoffaithderivedfromtheoldways.

It is of course possible tobe amused at the description of the proletariansmanner of

thinkingasscientific;butonlybyequatingsciencewithwhat isacquiredthroughyears


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20

ofattendanceatinstitutesofhigherlearning,andbycontrastingittotheconsciousnessof

theproletarian,who is unlearned.Suchamusement ignoresoneof thedecisive factsof

contemporary life, namely, thatmany a highly educated person lives unscientifically,

whiletheunlearnedproletarianorientshisentirewayoflifeaccordingtoasciencewhich

heperhapsdoesnot evenpossess.The educatedpersonhas taken science andpigeonholed it in a compartment of hismind,but his sentiments are determinedby societal

relationswhichdonotdependonthisscience.Theproletarianhoweverisobligedbyhis

circumstancestoexperienceexistenceinawaywhichcorrespondstoscientificconvictions.

His level of knowledge may well be far removed from what the other classes call

scientific;hislifeisneverthelessorientedbyscientificideation.Thelifestyleoftheother

classes isdeterminedby a religious,anaesthetic, ageneral cultural foundation;but for

himscience,downtoitsmostinsignificantdetails,hasbecomedogma.Manymembersof

the leading classes consider themselves to be enlightened, freethinking. Scientific

conviction certainly lives in their intellects,but their hearts still pulsewith unnoticedvestigesoftraditionalbeliefs.

What the oldways did not transmit to the scientific outlookwas the awareness of a

spiritual origin. The members of the ruling classes could afford to disregard this

characteristicofmodernscientismbecause their liveswerestilldeterminedby tradition.

Themembersoftheproletariatcouldnottraditionhadbeendrivenfromtheirsoulsby

theirnewpositioninsociety.Theyinheritedthescientificoutlookfromtherulingclasses

and turned it into thebasis for a conception of the essence ofman a conception, a

spiritualsubstance

which

was

ignorant

of

its

own

spiritual

origin,

which

in

fact

denied

itsorigininthespirit.

Iamwellawareofwhateffecttheseideaswillhaveonnonmembersoftheproletariatand

members alike, who feel themselves to be practical people and who consequently

considerwhat hasbeen said here tobe remote from reality. But the facts which are

emerging from the world situation will eventually prove this opinion erroneous. An

objectiveconsiderationof these facts reveals thata superficial interpretationof lifeonly

hasaccess to ideaswhichno longercoincidewith thefacts.Prevailing thoughthasbeen

practical for so long that it has not the slightest relationship to the facts.Thepresent

catastrophic world situation couldbe a lesson formany: what did they think would

happen,andwhatdidhappen?Mustthisalsobethecasewithsocialthinking?

I can also imagine the reproach of someonewho professes the proletarian viewpoint:

Anotheronewhowould liketodivertthebasic issuesofthesocialquestionontopaths

which are amenable to thebourgeoisie. Such a person does not realize that, although

destinyhasplacedhim inaproletarianmilieu,hismodeof thinkinghasbeen inherited

fromtherulingclasses.Helivesproletarian,buthethinksbourgeois.Thenewtimesdo

notonlyrequireanewwayoflife,butalsoanewwayofthinking.Thescientificoutlook

willbecome lifesustaining only if itsmanner of dealingwith the question of a fullyhumancontenttolifeattainstoaforceequaltothatwhichanimatedtheoldconceptions.


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Apath isherewith indicatedwhich leads tothediscoveryofoneelementof themodern

proletarianmovement.At theendof thispathaconviction is intoned in theproletarian

mind: I seek a spiritual life. But spiritual life is an ideology, a reflection in people of

outwardoccurrenceswhichdoesnotoriginateinaspiritualworld.Whathasemergedin

modern times in the transition from the old culturalspiritual life is regardedby theproletariat as ideology. In order to capture the mood of the proletarian mind as it

manifests itself in social demands, it is necessary to realizewhat effect the view that

spirituallifeisanideologycanhave.Itispossibletoobjectthattheaverageworkerknows

nothingofthisview,thatitmorelikelyaddlesthehalfeducatedmindsofhisleaders.To

holdthisopinionistobeignorantofthefacts,istobeunawareofwhathastakenplacein

the livesoftheworkingclassesduringthe lastdecades, istobeblindtotherelationship

whichexistsbetweentheviewthatspirituallifeisanideology,thedemandsanddeedsof

thesocalledignorantradicalsocialistsandtheactsofthosewhohatchrevolutionsout

ofobscureimpulses.

Itistragicthatthereissolittleempathyfortheemergingmoodofthemassesandforwhat

is really takingplace inpeoplesminds.Thenonproletarian listenswith anxiety to the

demands of the proletariat and hears the following: Only through socialization of the

meansofproductionisitpossibleformetoattaintoadignifiedhumanexistence.What

hedoesnotrealizeisthathisclass,inthetransitionfromtheoldtimestothenew,hasnot

onlysettheproletariantoworkatmeansofproductionwhicharenothis,ithasalsofailed

toprovidehimwith nourishment for his soul.Peoplewho think in thewaydescribed

abovemay

claim

that

the

worker

simply

wants

to

attain

to

the

same

standard

of

living

whichtherulingclassespossess,andtheywillaskwhatthishastodowithhissoul.Even

theworkermaycontendthatheclaimsnothingfromtheotherclassesforhissoul,thathe

onlywantsthemtostopexploitinghimandthatclassdifferencesceasetoexist.Suchtalk

doesnotreachtheessenceofthesocialquestion,revealsnothingofitstruenature.Forhad

theworkingpopulationinheritedagenuinespiritualcontentfromtherulingclasses,and

notonewhich considers spiritual life tobean ideology, then its socialdemandswould

havebeen presented quite differently. The proletarian is convinced of the ideological

natureofspirituallife,butbecomessteadilyunhappierastheresultofhisconviction.The

effects of this unconsciousmisery, fromwhich he suffers acutely, outweighby far in

importance for thepresentsocialsituation thejustifieddemands foran improvement in

externalconditions.

Themembers of the ruling classes do not recognize themselves as the authors of the

militancywhichconfronts them from theproletarianworld.But theyare theauthors in

that they have bequeathed to the proletariat a spiritual life which is bound to be

consideredanideology.

The social movement is not characterized by the demand for a change in the living

standards of aparticular social class,but ratherbyhow thedemand for this change istranslatedintorealitybymeansofthethoughtimpulsesofthisclass.Letusconsiderthe

facts foramoment from thispointofview.Wewill seehow thosepersonswho like to


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thinkalongproletarian lines smileat the contention thatany spiritualendeavour could

possibly contribute toward solving the social question. They dismiss it as ideology, as

abstracttheory.Theythinkthatnomeaningfulsolutionstotheburningsocialquestionsof

the day can come from mere ideas, from a socalled spiritual life. But upon closer

examination itbecomes obvious that the nerve centre, the fundamental impulse of themodernproletarianmovement,doesnotresideinwhattheproletariantalksabout,butin

ideas.

Theproletarianmovementistoanextentperhapsunequaledbyanysimilarmovement

in history a movement born of ideas. The more closely it is studied, the more

emphatically is thisseen tobe true.Thisconclusionhasnotbeenarrivedat lightly.For

years I taught a wide range of subjects in a workers educational institute [Note 3].

ThroughthisexperienceIhavecometorecognizewhatisaliveandstrivinginthemodern

proletarianworker

ssoul;

Iwas

also

able

to

observe

the

activities

of

the

various

labour

and

tradeunions.Ifeel,therefore,thatIdonotbasemyselfonmeretheoreticalconsiderations,

butontheresultsofactualexperience.

To know the modern workers movement where it is being carried out by workers

(unfortunately,thisisseldomthecaseasfarastheleadingintellectualsareconcerned)is

to recognize the profound significance of the fact that a certain trend of thought has

captured themindsofanexceedingly largenumberofpeople inanextremely intensive

way. The fact that the social classes are so antagonistic to each other makes the

formulation

of

a

position

regarding

social

problems

quite

difficult.

The

middle

classes

of

today find it very difficult to identify with the working class and cannot therefore

understand how such an intellectually demanding dialectic as that of Karl Marx

regardlessofwhatonemay thinkof its content couldhave found receptivity in the

virginproletarianintelligence.

KarlMarxssystemofthoughtcanbeacceptedbyoneindividualandrejectedbyanother,

perhapswithreasonswhichappeartobeequallyvalid.Itwasevenrevisedafterthedeath

ofMarx and his friend Engelsby those who saw society from a somewhat different

viewpoint. Idonotwish todiscusshere thecontentof thissystem,which isnot, inmy

opinion, the meaningful element in the modern proletarian movement. Its most

meaningfulcharacteristic is, tome, thefact that themostpowerful impulseactive in the

working class world is a system of thought. No practical movement with such

fundamental,everydaydemandshasever stood soexclusivelyona foundationofpure

ideationasdoesthismodernproletarianmovement.Itisthefirstmovementofitskindin

history to have chosen a scientific foundation. This factmustbe properly understood.

What themodernproletarianconsciouslyhas to sayprogramwiseabouthisown

opinions,hiswantsandhisfeelings,doesnotseemtobeessential.

Mostimportantisthattheintellectualfoundationforlifeaffectsthewholeman,whereasthe other classes restrict it to particular compartments of themind. The proletarian is

unable toacknowledgethisprocessbecause the lifeof the intellect,of thought,hasbeen


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bequeathed tohimasan ideology. Inreality,hebuildshis lifeon ideation,whichat the

same time he considers to be unreal ideology. It is not possible to understand the

proletarian interpretation of life and its realization through the acts of its adherents

withoutalsocomprehendingthisfactanditsconsequencesforhumanevolution.

Itfollowsfromwhathasbeenexpoundedabovethatanydescriptionofthetruenatureof

the proletarian social movement must give priority to a description of the modern

workersspirituallife.Itisessentialthattheworkersensethecausesofhisunsatisfactory

social situation and encounter the methods for changing it in this spiritual life.

Nevertheless, at present he is not yet able to do anything except angrily or

contemptuouslyrejectthecontentionthatameaningfulimpellentresidesinthesespiritual

undercurrentsofthesocialmovement.Howishetorecognizeanimpellent,whichaffects

himself, inwhat hemust consider tobe an ideology!One cannot expect to resolve an

untenablesocial

situation

by

means

of

aspiritual

life

so

perceived.

Due

to

ascientifically

orientedpointofviewnotonlyscienceitself,butalsoart,religion,moralityandjusticeare

considered tobe facetsofhuman ideologyby themodernproletarian.He sees in these

aspectsofspirituallifenothingthatrelatestotherealityofhisexistenceandwhichcould

contributetohismaterialwellbeing.Tohimtheyareamerereflectionofthemateriallife.

Although theymay indirectly reactuponmansmaterial life through the intellectorby

influencingwill impulses, they originally arose as ideological emanations of this same

material life.Hefeels that theycannotcontribute to thesolutionofsocialproblems.The

meanstotheendcanonlyoriginateinmaterialreality.

Thenewspirituallifehasbeenpassedonbytheleadingclassestotheproletarianintellect

in a devitalized form. It is of primary importance that this be understood when

considering the forces tobeutilized in solving the socialquestion. Should this state of

affairs remain unchanged, then the spiritual life of mankind will be condemned to

impotenceas faras thesocialchallengesof thepresentand the futureareconcerned.A

majority of themodern proletariat is absolutely convinced of this impotence, abelief

which isbrought toexpression throughMarxismand similarconfessions. It issaid that

moderncapitalismhasevolvedfromoldereconomicforms,thatthisevolutionhasplaced

the proletariat in an untenable positionwith respect to capital, that the evolutionwill

continueuntilcapitalismdestroysitselfbymeansoftheforcesinherentinitandthatthe

liberation of the proletariat will coincide with the death of capitalism. Later socialist

thinkershavedivested thisconvictionof the fatalisticcharacterassigned to itbycertain

Marxistcircles.Nevertheless,itsessentialnatureremains,asisevidencedbythefactthatit

would not occur to a contemporary socialist to say that the incentive for the social

movementcouldderivefromaninteriorlifebornofimpulsesofthetimesandwhichhas

itsrootsinspiritualreality.

Thementalattitudeofthepersonforcedtoleadaproletarianlifeisdeterminedbythefact

that he cannot cherish such expectations.He needs a spiritual lifewhich emanates thestrength to enable him to sense his human dignity. Being harnessed to the modern

capitalisticeconomicorder,hissoulnecessarily thirsted forsomesuchspiritual life.But


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thespirituallifehandedtohimbytherulingclassescreatedanemptinessinhissoul.The

presentdaysocialmovementisdeterminedbythefactthatthemodernproletariandesires

aquitedifferentrelationshiptospirituallifethanthecontemporarysocialordercangive

him;andthisiswhatisbehindhisdemands.Thisfactisclearly[not]understoodneither

bytheproletariatnorbythenonproletariat.Thenonproletariandoesnotsufferundertheideologicallabel(ofhisownmaking)attachedtospirituallife.Theproletariandoesand

thisideologicallabelhasrobbedhimofbeliefinthesustainingvalueofspiritualvaluesas

such.The finding of away out of the present chaotic social situationdepends upon a

correctinsightintothisfact.Accesstothiswayhasbeenclosedbythesocialorderwhich

hasevolved,alongwiththeneweconomicforms,undertheinfluenceoftherulingclasses.

Thestrengthtoopenitmustbeacquired.

There will be a complete change of attitude concerning this subject when sufficient

importancehas

been

attributed

to

the

fact

that

asociety

of

men

and

women

in

which

spiritual life functions as an ideology lacks one of the forceswhichmakes the social

organismviable.Contemporarysocietyhasbecome illdue to the impotenceofspiritual

life and the sickness is aggravated by reluctance to recognize its existence. By

recognizingthisfactwewouldacquirethefoundationonwhichideascouldbedeveloped

whicharetrulyappropriatetothesocialmovement.

Theproletarianbelievesthathetouchesononeofhissoulsbasicstrengthswhenhetalks

ofclassconsciousness.Thetruth,however,isthateversincehehasbeenharnessedtothe

capitalistic

economic

order

he

has

been

seeking

a

spiritual

life,

one

which

can

sustain

his

soul andmakehim consciousofhisdignity asahumanbeing and the spiritual life

considered tobe ideology isnotable todevelop this consciousness.Hehas sought this

consciousness, and when he could not find it he substituted the concept of class

consciousness.

Hisgaze isdirected exclusively towards economic factors, as thoughdrawn thereby a

powerfullysuggestiveforce.Hethereforenolongerbelievesthattheimpetusnecessaryto

accomplishsomethingpositiveinthesocialfieldcanbefoundanywhereelse.Hebelieves

that only the evolution of the unspiritual, soulless economic life can bring about

conditionswhichhefeelscorrespondtohumandignity.Heisthereforeforcedtoseekhis

salvationinthetransformationofeconomiclife.Heisforcedtoconcludethatthroughthe

transformationofeconomic lifeall the injurieswilldisappearwhichderive fromprivate

enterprise,fromtheindividualemployersegotismandinabilitytosatisfytheemployees

demandsforhumandignity.Thusthemodernproletariathascometoseetheonlyremedy

for the social organism in the transfer of all privately ownedmeans of production to

communityoperationorevencommunityproperty.Thisopinionwaspossiblebecausewe

havedivertedourattentionfromspiritualforcesandconcentratedsolelyontheeconomic

process.

Thisisthesourceofthecontradictoryelementsintheproletarianmovement.Themodern

proletarian believes that he will attain to his rights as a human being through


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25

developmentsintheeconomicfield.Heisfightingfortheserights.Andyet,intheprocess

something appearswhich could neverbe the result of economic activities alone. This

phenomenon,whichisthoughttobetheconsequenceofeconomicfactorsalone,isavery

salient feature of the social question. It is a process which follows a direct line of

developmentfromancientslaverythroughtheserfdomofthemiddleagesanduptothemodernproletariat.Thecirculationofcommoditiesandmoney,therealitiesofcapital,real

estate,privatepropertyandso forth,areallelementsofmodern life.Acharacteristicof

contemporarysocietywhich isnotclearly identified,notevenconsciouslyrecognizedby

theproletarianbutwhichconstitutes the fundamental impulse forhissocialwill, is that

themoderncapitalisticeconomicorder,withinitsownsphereofactivity,recognizesonly

commoditiesandtheirrespectivevalues.Withinthiscapitalisticorganismsomethinghas

becomeacommoditywhichtheproletarianfeelsmaynotbeacommodity.

Themodern

proletarian

abhors

instinctively,

unconsciously,

the

fact

that

he

must

sell

his

labourpowertohisemployer in thesamewaythatcommoditiesaresold inthemarket

place,andthatthelawofsupplyanddemandplaysitsroleindeterminingthevalueofhis

labourpowerjustasitdoesindeterminingthevalueofcommodities.Thisabhorrenceof

thecommoditynatureof labourpowerhasaprofoundmeaning inthesocialmovement.

Noteven thesocialist theoriesemphasize thispointradicallyenough.This is thesecond

elementwhichmakes the social question so urgent; the firstbeing the conviction that

spirituallifeisanideology.

In

antiquity

there

were

slaves.

The

whole

person

was

sold

like

a

commodity.

Somewhat

lessofhim,butasubstantialpartofthehumanbeingnonetheless,wasincorporatedinto

the economic process by serfdom. Capitalism is the force which persists in giving a

commoditynature toaportionof thehumanbeing:his labourpower. Idonotmean to

imply that this has notbeen recognized.On the contrary, it is recognized as a fact of

fundamentalimportanceinthemodernsocialmovement.Nevertheless,itisconsideredto

beofaneconomicnature,and thequestionof thecommoditynatureof labourpower is

therewith turned solely into a question of economics. It is erroneously believed that

solutionswillbe found ineconomic factors throughwhich theproletarianwill cease to

considertheincorporationofhislabourpowerinsocietyasunworthyofhumandignity.

Howmodern economic forms evolved historically and how they gave human labour

powercommoditycharacterisunderstood.Whatisnotunderstoodisthatitisinherentin

economiclifethateverythingincorporatedintoitmusttakeonthenatureofacommodity.

It isnotpossibletodivesthuman labourpowerof itscommoditycharacterwithoutfirst

findingameansofextractingitfromtheeconomicprocess.Effortsshouldthereforenotbe

directedtowardstransformingtheeconomicprocesssothathumanlabourpowerisjustly

treatedwithin it,but towards extracting labourpower from the economic process and

integrating itwith social forceswhich will relieve it of its commodity character. The

proletarianyearnsforaneconomiclifeinwhichhislabourpowercanassumeitsrightful

place.Hedoes sobecause hedoes not see that the commodity character of his labourpoweristheresultofhisbeingtotallyharnessedtotheeconomicprocess.Duetothefact


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ChapterTwo

FindingRealSolutionstotheSocialProblemsoftheTimes

The characteristic element which has given the social question its particular form inmodern timesmaybe described as follows: The economy, alongwith technology and

modern capitalism,has,asamatterof course,broughta certain innerorder tomodern

society.While theattentionofhumanityhasfocusedonwhat technologyandcapitalism

havebrought,ithasbeendivertedfromotherbranches,otherareasofthesocialorganism.

Itisequallynecessarytoattainefficacythroughhumanconsciousnessintheseareasifthe

socialorganismistobecomehealthy.

In order to clearly characterize certain driving forces by means of a comprehensive,

universalobservation

of

the

social

organism,

Iwould

like

to

start

with

acomparison.

It

shouldbeborne inmind, however, that nothingmore than a comparison is intended.

Human understanding canbe assistedby such a comparison to formmental pictures

aboutthesocialorganismsrestorationtohealth.Toconsiderthemostcomplicatedofall

natural organisms, the human organism, from the point of view presented here, it is

necessarytodirectonesattentiontothefactthatthetotalessenceofthishumanorganism

exhibitsthreecomplementarysystems,eachofwhichfunctionswithacertainautonomy.

These three complementary systems can be characterized as follows. The system

consisting of the nerve and sense faculties functions as one area in the natural human

organism.Itcouldalsobedesignated,afterthemostimportantmemberoftheorganismin

whichthenerveandsensefacultiesaretoacertainextentcentralized,theheadorganism.

Aclearunderstandingofthehumanorganizationwillresultinrecognizingasthesecond

member,what[I]wouldliketocalltherhythmicsystem.Itconsistsofrespiration,blood

circulationandeverythingwhichexpressesitselfintherhythmicprocessesofthehuman

organism.

The third system is tobe recognized in everythingwhich, in the form of organs and

functions, isconnectedwithmetabolismassuch.Thesethreesystemscontaineverything

which, when properly coordinated, maintains the entire functioning of the humanorganisminahealthymanner.*

*Thearrangementmeanthere isnota spatialdelimitationof thebodilymembers,but isaccording to the

activities(functions)oftheorganism.Thetermheadorganismisonlytobeusedinthatoneisawarethat

thenervesensefacultyisprincipallycentralizedinthehead.Ofcoursetherhythmicandmetabolicfunctions

arealsopresent in thehead,as is thenervesense faculty in theotherbodilymembers.Nevertheless, the

threefunctionaltypesare,accordingtotheirnatures,sharplyseparated.

Inmybook Von Seelenrtseln [Note 4] I have attempted to characterize, at least in

outline,this

triformation

of

the

human

natural

organism.

It

is

clear

to

me

that

biology,

physiology, natural science as a whole will, in the very near future, tend toward a

considerationof thehumanorganismwhichperceiveshow these threemembers the


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headsystem, thecirculatorysystemorbreastsystemand themetabolicsystemmaintain

the totalprocesses in thehumanorganism,how they functionwithacertainautonomy,

how no absolute centralization of the human organism exists and how each of these

systemshas itsownparticularrelation to theouterworld.Theheadsystem through the

senses, thecirculatoryorrhythmicsystem throughrespirationand themetabolicsystemthroughtheorgansofnourishmentandmovement.

Naturalscientificmethodsarenotyetsufficientlyadvancedforscientificcirclestobeable

tograntrecognition,sufficientforanadvanceinknowledge,towhatIhaveindicatedhere

whichisanattempttoutilizeknowledgebasedonspiritualsciencefornaturalscientific

purposes.

Thismeans,however,thatourhabitofthought, thewholeway inwhichweconceiveof

theworld,

is

not

yet

completely

in

accordance

with

how,

for

example,

the

inner

essence

of

naturesfunctionsmanifests itself in thehumanorganism.Onecouldverywellsay:Yes,

butnaturalsciencecanwait,itsidealswilldevelopgraduallyanditwillcometoapoint

whereviewpoints suchasyourswillbe recognized. It isnotpossible,however, towait

wherethesethingsareconcerned.Ineveryhumanmindforeveryhumanmindtakes

part in the functioning of the social organism and not only in theminds of a few

specialists,mustbepresentatleastaninstinctiveknowledgeofwhatthissocialorganism

needs. Healthy thinking and feeling, healthy will and aspirations with regard to the

formationof the socialorganism, canonlydevelopwhen it is clear,albeitmoreor less

instinctively,

that

in

order

for

the

social

organism

to

be

healthy

it

must,

like

the

natural

organism,haveathreefoldorganization.

Ever sinceSchfflewrotehisbook about the structure of the social organism, attempts

havebeenmadetoencounteranalogiesbetweentheorganizationofanaturalbeingthe

humanbeing,forexampleandhumansocietyassuch.Thecellofthesocialorganism

hasbeen sought, the cell structure, tissues and so forth!A shortwhile ago abookby

Meray appeared,Weltmutation (WorldMutation), inwhich certain scientific facts and

lawsweresimplytransferredtoasupposedhumansocietyorganism.Whatismeanthere

has absolutely nothing to do with all these things,with all these analogy games. To

assume that in theseconsiderations suchananalogygamebetween thenaturaland the

socialorganismisbeingplayedistorevealafailuretoenterintothespiritofwhatishere

meant.Noattemptisbeingmadetotransplantsomescientificfacttothesocialorganism;

quitethecontrary,it is intendedthathumanthinkingandfeeling learntosensethevital

potentialities incontemplating thenaturalorganismand then tobecapableofapplying

thissensibilitytothesocialorganism.Whenwhathassupposedlybeenlearnedaboutthe

natural organism is simply transferred to the social organism, this only indicates an

unwillingness toacquire thecapacity tocontemplateand investigate thesocialorganism

justas independentlyasisnecessaryforanunderstandingofthenaturalorganism.If,in

ordertoperceive its laws,oneconsiders thesocialorganismasan independententity inthesamemannerasascientificinvestigatorconsidersthenaturalorganism,inthatinstant

theseriousnessofthecontemplationexcludesplayingwithanalogies.


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Itmayalsobe imaginedthatwhat ispresentedhere isbasedonthebeliefthatthesocial

organismshouldbeconstructedasanimitationofsomebleakscientifictheory.Nothing

couldbefartherfromthetruth.It ismy intentiontopointoutsomethingquitedifferent.

The present historical human crisis requires that certain sensibilities arise in every

individual,thatthesesensibilitiesbestimulatedbyeducation,i.e.,theschoolsystem,asisthelearningofarithmeticalfunctions.Whathashithertoresultedfromtheoldformsofthe

socialorganism,withoutbeing consciously absorbedby the inner lifeof themind,will

ceasetohaveeffectinthefuture.Acharacteristicoftheevolutionaryimpulseswhichare

attempting to manifest themselves in human life at the present time is that such

sensibilities are necessary,just as schooling has longbeen a necessity. From now on

mankind shouldacquireahealthy senseofhow the socialorganism should function in

orderforittobeviable.Afeelingmustbeacquiredthatitisunhealthyandantisocialto

wanttoparticipateinthisorganismwithoutsuchsensibilities.

Itisoftensaidthatsocializationisneededforthesetimes.Thissocializationwillnotbea

curativeprocessforthesocialorganism,butaquackremedy,perhapsevenadestructive

process,aslongasatleastaninstinctiveknowledgeofthenecessityforthetriformationof

thesocialorganismhasnotbeenabsorbedbyhumanhearts,byhumansouls.Ifthissocial

organism istofunction inahealthyway itmustmethodicallycultivatethreeconstituent

members.

One of these members is the economy. It will be considered first because it has so

evidently

been

able

to

dominate

human

society

through

modern

technology

and

capitalism.Thiseconomic lifemustconstituteanautonomousmemberwithin the social

organism, as relatively autonomous as is the nervoussensory system in the human

organism.Theeconomy isconcernedwithallaspectsof theproduction,circulationand

consumptionofcommodities.

Thesecondmemberof thesocialorganism is thatofcivilrights,ofpolitical lifeassuch.

Whatcanbedesignatedas thestate, in thesenseof theold rightsstate,pertains to this

member.Whereastheeconomy isconcernedwithallaspectsofmansnaturalneedsand

theproduction,circulationandconsumptionofcommodities, thissecondmemberof the

socialorganism canonly concern itselfwithallaspectsof the relationsbetweenhuman

beingswhichderivefrompurelyhumansources.It isessential forknowledgeabout the

membersofthesocialorganismtobeabletodifferentiatebetweenthelegalrightssystem,

which can only concern itself with relationsbetween humanbeings that derive from

human sources, and the economic system, which can only be concerned with the

production, circulation and consumption of commodities. It is necessary to sense this

difference in life in order that, as a consequence of this sensibility, the economy be

separate from the rightsmember, as in thehumannaturalorganism the activity of the

lungs inprocessing theoutsideair isseparatefromtheprocessesofthenervoussensory

system.


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Thethirdmember,standingautonomousalongsidetheothertwo,istobeapprehendedin

thesocialorganismasthatwhichpertainstospirituallife.Tobemoreprecise,becausethe

designationsspiritualcultureoreverythingwhichpertainstospirituallife,areperhaps

notsufficientlyprecise,onecouldsay:everythingwhichisbasedonthenaturalaptitudes

ofeachhumanindividual;whatmustenterintothesocialorganismbasedonthenaturalaptitudes,spiritualaswellasphysical,ofeachindividual.Thefirstsystem,theeconomic,

isconcernedwithwhatmustbepresentinorderformantodeterminehisrelationtothe

outerworld. The second system is concernedwithwhatmustbe present in the social

organism in respect to human interrelationships. The third system is concernedwith

everythingwhichmustblossom forth fromeachhuman individualityandbe integrated

intothesocialorganism.

Just as it is true thatmodern technology and capitalism havemoulded our society in

recenttimes,

it

is

also

imperative

that

the

wounds

necessarily

inflicted

on

human

society

bythembethoroughlyhealedbycorrectlyrelatingmanandthehumancommunitytothe

threemembersofthesocialorganism.Theeconomyhas,ofitself,takenonquitedefinite

formsinrecenttimes.Throughonesidedefficiencyithasexertedanespeciallypowerful

influenceonhuman life.Untilnowtheothertwomembersofsocietyhavenotbeen ina

position toproperly integrate themselves in thesocialorganismwith thesamecertitude

andaccordingtotheirownlaws.Itisthereforenecessarythateachindividual,intheplace

wherehehappenstobe,undertakestoworkforsocialformationbasedonthesensibilities

describedabove.Itisinherentintheseattemptsatsolvingthesocialquestionsthatinthe

presentand

in

the

immediate

future

each

individual

has

his

social

task.

Thefirstmemberofthesocialorganism,theeconomy,dependsprimarilyonnature,just

as the individual, in respect towhat he canmake of himself through education and

experience,dependsontheaptitudesofhisspiritualandphysicalorganisms.Thisnatural

basesimplyimpressesitselfontheeconomy,andtherebyontheentiresocialorganism.It

isthereandcannotbeaffectedessentiallybyanysocialorganization,byanysocialization.

Itmustconstitutethefoundationofthesocialorganism,asthehumanbeingsaptitudesin

variousareas,hisnaturalphysicalandspiritualabilities,mustconstitutethefoundationof

his education. Every attempt at socialization, at giving human society an economic

structure,must take the naturalbase into account. This elementary, primitive element

whichbindsthehumanbeingtoacertainpieceofnatureconstitutesthefoundationforthe

circulation of goods, all human labour and every form of culturalspiritual life. It is

necessary to take the relationship of the social organism to its natural base into

consideration, just as it is necessary to take the relationship of the individual to his

aptitudes intoconsiderationwhere the learningprocess isconcerned.Thiscanbemade

clearbycitingextremecases.Incertainregionsoftheearth,wherethebananaisaneasily

accessiblefood,whatistakenintoconsiderationisthelabourwhichmustbeexpendedin

ordertotransferthebananasfromtheirplaceoforigintoacertaindestinationandconvert

themintoitemsofconsumption.Ifthehumanlabourwhichmustbeexpendedinordertomakethebananasconsumeritemsforsocietyiscomparedwiththelabourwhichmustbe


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31

expended inCentralEurope todo the samewithwheat, itwillbe seen that the labour

necessaryforthebananasisatleastthreehundredtimeslessthanforthewheat.Ofcourse

thatisanextremecase.Nevertheless,suchdifferencesintherequiredamountoflabourin

relation to the naturalbase are also present in thebranches of productionwhich are

representedinanyEuropeansociety, notasradicallyaswiththebananasandwheat,butthedifferencesdoexist.Itistherebysubstantiatedthattheamountoflabourpowerwhich

men must bring to the economic process is conditioned by the natural base of their

economy. InGermany, for example, in regions of average fertility, thewheat yield is

approximatelyseventoeighttimestheamountsown;inChiletheyield istwelvefold, in

northernMexicoseventeenfold,andinPerutwentyfold.[Note5]

Theentirehomogeneousentityconsistingofprocesseswhichbeginwithmansrelationto

nature and continue through his activities in transforming the products of nature into

consumablegoods,

all

these

processes,

and

only

these,

comprise

the

economic

member

of

ahealthysocialorganism.Thismember iscomparable to theheadsystemof thehuman

organism which conditions individual aptitudes and, just as this headsystem is

dependentonthelungheartsystem,theeconomicsystemisdependentonhumanlabour.

But the head cannot independently regulatebreathing; nor should the human labour

systemberegulatedbythesameforceswhichactivatetheeconomy.

Thehumanbeingisengagedineconomicactivityinhisowninterests.Thesearebasedon

hisspiritualneedsandontheneedsofhissoul.Howtheseinterestscanbemostsuitably

approached

within

a

social

organism

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[Antroposophy][Rudolf Steiner][en] Rudolf Steiner - Basic Issues of the Social Question