ANTROPOLOGICAORGANO DEL

INSTITUTO CARIBE DE ANTROPOLOGIA Y SOCIOLOGIA

DE LA FUNDACION LA SALLE DE CIENCIAS NATURALES

MYTH AS HISTORY: THE JIMSON WEEDCYCLE OF THE HUICHOLS OF MEXICO

PETER T. FURSTBARBARA G. MYERHOFF

6. HOW KII3RI TEWIyARI ENSNARES THOSE WHO ARE WEAK 20Datura in Prehispanic Mexico 23Datura in the Southwest and California . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25Peyote, Datura, and Huichol History 26

MYTH AS HISTORY: THE JIMSON WEED

CYCLE OF THE HUICHOLS OF MEXICO

PETER T. FURST 1

BARBARA G. MYERHOFFUCLA Latin American Center

Inhabiting the remote and rugged portions of the Sierra Madre Occi-dental in the states of Jalisco and Nayarit, the 8300 surviving Huicholsoccupy a unique position among Mexican Indians in several respects, butabove all in the area of religion. Their aboriginal religion and world viewappear to have remained virtually unchanged throughout the four cen-turies since the Conquest. Thus the syncretism which typifies other Indi-ans in Middle America is almost wholly absent among the Huichols.Their principal deities are still Tatewari, Our Grandfather (Fire); Ta-yaupa, Our Father (Sun); and numerous water, maize and earth god-desses known collectively as Our Mothers. The Huichol magical worldview2 centers on an intricate philosophical symbol complex unifyingdeer, maize and peyote.1I

Considering the remarkable degree to which the Huichols havepreserved their traditional way of life, and especially their ideology and

1 For the past eighteen months the authors have been engaged in recording and analyzingHuichol oral traditions and mythology as part of a larger study of Huichol religion and ide-ology and their relationship to problems of directed and spontaneous culture change. Theauthors would like to thank the Chancellor's Committee on International and ComparativeStudies of the University of California at Los Angeles and the UCLA Latin American Centerfor the allocation of Ford Foundation grants which enabled them to carryon their field re-search with the Huichols. The present paper is one of a series of studies of Huichol religion,mythology and symbolism resulting from field work in 1966.

""Magical world view" is used here according to the definition given by R. H. andM. 1. WAX, "The Magical World View," Journal for the Scientific Study of Reli"ion, 1962,1: 179-188.

"Lophophora williamsii, a small cactus containing eight alkaloids of which the most im-portant is mescalin. Taken in sufficient quantities, peyote produces visions whose content islargely determined by the user's culture but which almost always appear in or are surroundedhy brilliant colors.

religious beliefs and practices, they have been surprisingly neglected byanthropologists. Only two ethnologists have published extensively onfield work carried out in the Huichol region. The first were the mono-graphs and travel accounts of the Norwegian ethnographer CARLLUM-HOLTZwho worked among the Huichols between 1895 and 1898 underthe auspices of the American Museum of Natural History (LUMHOLTZ,1900, 1902, 1904). The second ethnologist to write about them at anylength was the American ROBERTM. ZINGGwho in 1934 lived in Tux-pan, one of the five Huichol regions, or "communities," in the SierraMadre Occidental (ZINGG, 1938). LUMHOLTZ,however, concentratedon Huichol aesthetics and iconography, and ZINGG'Swork, though usefulfor its purely descriptive aspects, leaves much to be desired by contem-porary ethnographic standards. Unfortunately, it is particularly deficientin the areas of religion and mythology, which permeate every leve.1ofHuichollife.

The French traveller and scholar LEON DIGUET also visited theHuichols and their neighbors and linguistic cousins, the Coras, between1896 and 1900 (DIGUET, 1911). His interests ranged from the Huichollanguage to ceremonial art and he gathered an important collection ofritual objects now in the Musee de l'Homme in Paris. The Germanethnographer and student of Indian religions KARL THEODORPREUSSspent some months in the Sierra around the turn of the century and pub-lished on Huichol religion and mythology in the early 1900s (PREUSS,1908). The work resulting from his field studies, however, principallyconcerns the religion of the Coras (PREUSS, 1912). Though PREUSScollected 69 Huichol texts, including myths and folktales, these werenever published and since the bulk of his notes was reportedly destroyedduring World War II they are lost to us forever. The extent of this losscan be gauged by PREUSS'own statement (1908: 397-8) that

there would seem to be few peoples with so much "living literature"as the tribes visited by me, and even fewer for whom this literaturehas been preserved for p::sterity. However, the editing of these texts,which in their rough state fill more than 5000 notebook pages withinterlinear Spanish translations, should take at least six years.'

In recent years linguistic studies have been carried out among theHuichols by members of the Summer Institute of Linguistics (GRIMES,

'The material Preuss collected included 49 Cora, 69 Huichol and 178 "Mexicano"iNahuatl-speakers) myths and tales (PREUSS, 1908: J 72 ) .

1959,1964; GRIMESand GRIMES,1962; McINTOSH, 1945; McINTOSHand GRIMES, 1954). The Mexican Instituto Nacional Indigenista hasalso conducted some field work (FABILA, 1959). The few remainingfirst-hand scholarly studies of Huichol life are confined for the most partto specialized articles in professional journals or are unpublished. In anycase, until the present authors began their work with Huichol informantsno extensive treatment of Huichol mythology, religion and world viewhad been undertaken.5 Indeed, no current comprehensive Huichol ethno-graphy is presently available, although a combined overview of Huicholand Cora culture by JOSEPH E. GRIMESand THOMASB. HINTON will

•• appear in a future volume of the Handbook of Middle American Indians.I

Myths and traditions collected by 'us and translated G up to the pre-sent include, among others: origin stories such as the birth of the Fireand Sun deities; the theft of fire by the animal people; the deluge andthe remaking of the world; the coming of maize to the Huichols; anumber of narratives on the sacred role of peyote and the deer-maize-peyote symbol complex; the First Shaman (the God of Fire) and shaman-ism in general; and the deeds of the culture hero, the Sacred Deer-PersonKduyumari. All of these are part of a considerable body of sacred myth-ology which the mara'akdme7 chants at the various ceremonies held prin-cipally in the spring, before the clearing and planting of the land, andin the fall, before and after the harvest.

It is during the spring (or dry season) ceremonies that the highlysacred hallucinogenic peyote cactus is eaten by all Huichols, young andold, male and female. The peyote is collected in late December and earlyJanuary by groups of pilgrims who generally walk from the Huichol

'An illustrated volume on Huichol ethnology, world view and mythology by the authorshas been completed and is scheduled for publication in the near future under the auspices ofthe Latin American Center and the Museum and Laboratories of Ethnic Arts and Technology,University of California, Los Angeles.

HThe assistance of Dr. JOSEPH E. GRIMES of the Summer Institute of Linguistics inMexico City is gratefully acknowledged. Dr. GRIMES spent many long, hard hours translatingthe original Huichol texts collected by us and also contributed valuable insights based on hislong field experience among the Huichols.

7 In many respects the Huichol shaman resembles the classical shaman of other primitivepeoples, serving as intermediary between the individual (as well as the group) and the super-natural world in times of crisis and performing magical cures by means of the commonshamanic techniques of blowing, spitting, and sucking. He is also "called" to his professionby the gods ("divine election") and enters a trancelike state during which his soul journeysto the other world. In other important respects, however, he serves as priest, both in relationto the Huichol temple, or tuki, and in organizing and officiating at the sacred ceremoniesduring which he sacrifices to the deities and chants the sacred mythology. Because of thesignificance of the priest-like functions and the predominance of this role over shamaniccuring, we prefer to use the Huichol term mara'akdme rather than shaman in the body ofthis paper.

region to the sacred peyote country (called W irikuta) in the state ofSan Luis Potosi in north central Mexico, a distance of approximately fivehundred kilometers, as the crow flies. Making the journey on foot is pre-ferred both for aesthetic and religious reasons ("walking is more beau-tiful and there is more time to purify ourselves"). It is permissible totravel to Wirikuta by any other means as well, so long as all of the sacredplaces between the Huichol Sierra and the peyote country are visited andacknowledged. These places are named and located precisely on a kindof subjective territorial map which every Huichol acquires from child-hood through hearing the sacred mythology. This prilgrimage, centralto Huichol religion and world view, was briefly described by LUMHOLTZon the basis of statements made to him by his informant but the tripwas not observed by anthropologists until the authors were permitted toparticipate in a sacred peyote journey in December 1966. The observa-tions made and data obtained during this experience were indispensableto an understanding of Huichol Weltanschauung and Lebensanschauungand will be discussed in future publications.

It is obvious that in the collection of oral literature allowance hasto be made for the creative imagination of individual narrators and forvariations and changes which naturally occur in oral traditions over time.This is especially true for the Huichols, who place a high value on cre-ative story-telling and esteem the ability of the narrator, that is, themara'akame, to embellish the basic theme with literary flourishes. Thistendency was noted also by PREUSSwho collected four variants of thesame myth from four different mara'akate (pL) in four different districts(PREUSS,1908: 386). Nevertheless, wherever comparative material wasavailable to us, we were struck by the remarkable persistence not onlyof the basic themes of the sacred mythology but even of many seeminglyminor details. For example, a lengthy myth of the deluge recorded byus differed neither in its major nor many of its subsidiary features fromone collected by LUMHOLTZmore than seventy years ago (LUMHOLTZ,1900: 169-170). This striking conservatism is evident also in art; manyof the designs described and illustrated by LUMHOLTZare still used with-out variation, and their interpretation by modern artists often exactlyparallels those given to LUMHOLTZby his informants. This is so eventhough it is precisely in the past half century, and especially in the pastdecade, that the Huichols have been subjected to greater pressures ofacculturation on almost every level than at any time since the Sierra Ma-dre was brought under control by the Spaniards in the second decade ofthe 18th Century.

In the course of our work we found that there was one subject theHuichols were strikingly reticent to discuss: datura, or, as it is known inMexico, toloache. Many Huichols will not even acknowledge that theyhave ever heard of it. In fact, it is called kieri in Huichol and in themythology it is personified as Kidri Tewiyari, or DATURA PERSON, whois considered to be the supernatural chief of the sorcerers. ZINGG (1938:212-213) collected fragments of a kieri myth and it was this referencewhich first led us to ask our informant, RAMON, himself an apprenticemara'akdme, about the use of toloache among the Huichols. However,it was not until we had worked with him for over a year that he agreedto tell us stories about kil:ri, and to illustrate them with "paintings" incolored wool yarn, as he had been doing with other myths he relatedfor us. By this time, his early reservations about our motives in aski;gquestions about his religion had disappeared and we had gained his fullconfidence.~

The kieri stories recorded below represent a true cycle - an epicprose-poem describing the birth, life and violent death of Kil:ri T I:wiydri,the evil DATURA PERSON, also known as the "Tree of the Wind," whoseeks through his juices and by means of sorcery to lure the Huicholsaway from using peyote to the use of datura instead. Kil:ri Tl:wiyariis finally vanquished by the horned culture hero Kauyumari (in his formas the anthropomorphized sacred deer) with the aid of peyote, but evenafter his physical destruction he continues to pose a serious threat to thepsychic integrity of the community.

The first story of the cycle relates the magical birth of Kieri T ewi-ydri. He is not born from a mother and father but "from the wind," andeven while he is still a small child, bats, wolves, poisonous vipers andother creatures identified with sorcery, illness and death come flying outof his mouth accompanied by brilliant flashes of color. Sorcerers awaithis coming, for he is destined to be their teacher and chief.

"These early reservations were understandable since our first contact with RAMON camethrough the assistance of a missionary whose liking and sympathy for the Huichols he acknow-ledged but whom he nevertheless regarded as a potential threat to his own religious traditions.In the presence of this missionary he once fielded one of our questions about kieri by statingseriously that kieri was "the sacred flower of the mara'akdme." This, he later explained tous, was a device to protect his religion because he felt missionaries "only want to learn aboutour religion so that they can change it." For further discussion of "Datura Person" Jee p. 56.

This is how it was. We must know it well. We must be ableto know everything. Because the symbols say all that is sacred to us,and the stories I tell you are our stories, our history. What they say,what they carry in their wisdom, that is cur history, and that is whatmust be fully understood. So I tell these things to you, as it was withus in ancient times, as it is now.

This is the story of the Tree of the Wind, the evil Tree of theWind who is called Kieri. Kieri Tewiydri, that Kieri Person. Hewho is known as Tutakuri, whom one called Tutakuri." Kieri andTutakuri, they are the same. How he was bern. How he came up,wanting to be mere than Kduyumari.

How was it when he was born, that Tree of the Wind Person?He was bad, evil, when he was born. He was born from the wind,he was born on the wind. He was not born from his mother, hisfather. He came from the wind, on the wind, an evil wind. Thewind was his father. When he was born sorcerers waited. Five sor-cerers waited, seated in a circle. They waited for him. Somethinghappened, something went on there. Something went on inside himwhen he was born. It moved in him. Something moved inside him.He was transformed.

Bats came out of his mouth. He was just a small child, anunutsi. Yet bats came out of his mouth. They flew out.

Wolves came out of his meuth. He opened his mouth andwolves came out of his mouth. Crawling things came out of hismouth. He saw how he was. He said to himself, "If that is what Iam like, that is what I will be."

He said, "That is what I am going to spend my life doing.I will be a collector of vipers, of poissnous snakes. I will be a masterof snakes, of crawling things. I am going to control them. That IS

what I am going to do."

From then on he grew. He was afflicted with an illness, rightthen, from then on. An illness of the wind. He has a madness inhim, as one says. When he was small, dark things came out of hismouth. Blue things came out of his mouth. Crimson things. That ishow he was. He was like that.

"There is no explanation for the use of this proper name by which Kieri Tewiydri isalso known. It is not impossible that the two protagonists whose struggle is recorded in themyth cycle are historical figures, perhaps the leaders of two rival cults. Kduyumari (whichliterally means "one who does not know himself' or "one who makes others crazy") mighthave been a historical mara'akdme who as a culture hero merged with an original Master ofthe Species (the sacred deer), while T utakuri might have been another mara' akdme who, asleader of a datura cult, merged with the mythological personification of the datura plant asthe chief of the sorcerers (cf.p. 55).

came, he was born. He was evil, the chief of sorcerers. That is howhe was born.

It was seen how he was. Our Mothers saw how he was. Theysaid, "Weare going to watch over what Kihi is saying. What hedoes. Weare worried about it somewhat. We hope it turns outwell."

In the second myth of the cycle, Kieri T ewiydri deceives the peopleby acting like a true mara'akdme. He uses the shamanic drum, sacredceremonial arrows and chants to gain their trust and then feeds themdatura. Drunk with his magic some of his victims become demented tothe point of self-destruction; others learn the arts of sorcery: how to sendillness and death, how to control dangerous creatures such as poisonoussnakes and vampire bats, how to make people, especially women, loseall self-control, how to maim and kill by magical means and how totransform themselves into various animals.

There were others there. They saw how he was. They said, "Ah,we will copy what he does." Even when he was small they saw that.They went around copying him. What Kieri said, what he did. Theycopied that.

They sat in a circle, copying him. He was their chief. Somepeople are like that, they learn from him. They follow his trail. Theyget dizzy and cough. It makes them drunk, it makes them trip allover their feet. They fall writhing.

He sings to them. He uses his arrows, he deceives them. Hesays, "I am the mara'akdme, follow me." He influences them in thisway. He causes them to roll around. So that they are seized by adesire to climb the high cliffs, to fly, to jump down, down, downbelow. As though they were flying. They think they can fly, thosepeople. Learning from him they become sorcerers. They were doingthis thing without taking heed. They were acting under enchant-ment.

Others in those times were not like that. They have the heartof Our Father in them. They have the heart of Our Grandfather inthem. They have the heart of Our Mothers in them. They see thisthing. One says, "Ah, no, if I were to follow that one, if I were tolisten as he sings, if I were to eat those things, it would be bad."

If I am to eat in safety, with a good heart, if I am to have mylife, if I am to have my power, I will have to take my place in the

tuki, I have to take my place in the xiriki. to I have to cross overthere, five times, to Wirikuta, there where one hunts the peyote.I have to put their offerings in their places. It that not right? I saythis to you here, as I sit here telling it to you.

Ah, no, he is not like that. Look, this comes to be that therewere many from the time that he was born. He made them like that.He tells them, "Look, catch that viper. That animal there that comesand goes, it is good. It is geod to paralyze that person. So that hewill fall, from this side to that side. So that he will have sickness.So that he will die." Those others, those crawling things, as he wenttelling them. He was starting them out slowly. "Go catch that littlesnake there," he said, "it is good, it will heed your words, your coiln-mand." He started them on that road. First there is that little snake.Then there are ethers. More things, evil.

He starts to make sounds, he teaches them. They make soundseven like the deer, from far away. They start to call from far away,as someone is dying. They call him, "tsiu, tsiu, tsiu, tsiu." They calllike deer to him who is dying. They start to make sounds like owls,"whooo, whooo, whooo, wheoo." They go, "swish, swish, swish,"through the night. And that sick person over here starts to moan,"dyi, dyi, dyi, that animal has come to eat me, it has come to killme." Because Kieri teaches them these things. He is transformed. Heis transformed. He transforms them. And then is heard a n::ise madeby the fox. Kieri commands him. He starts to say, "cau-u, cau-u,cau-au." It is the fox. When the fox comes up to you and bites,you must die. There is no help for that. It is the spirit of Kieri thatwanders about. It means death. It is when Tukdkame" wandersabout. The fox is there.

Bats, they arrive where there is one who is sick. It is as Kiericommands them, as he taught them, there in ancient times. Whenhe was born. The sick person is lying there, he is asleep. And thatbat comes. He moans, in his sleep, "dyi, dyi, dyi." He moans, "herecomes that animal, here comes another. It will kill me, dyi, it takesmy heart out. Ayi," he cries, "that animal is killing me, it is the Treeof the Wind that is killing me." That is how he teaches them, todo these things.

That person is sick. He starts to have VISIOns,he sees things."Oh," he says, "here comes this, here goes that, ah, take it away, takeit away." He makes him arise, that Tree of the Wind, he makes him

ll1The /Uki is a temple devoted to the major Huichol deities, with Tatewari, Our Grand-father (Fire), residing in the sacred cavity in the center. The' xiriki is a smaller structureerected as an oratory for a specific deity or as a residing place for the soul or souls of ancestors which have rejoined the living in the form of rock crystals. Although exact figures arenot known, there are probably not more than 20-25 temples in the entire Huichol regio",whereas almost every Huichol ranch has at least one xfriki, and sometimes several.

11 A cannibalistic ogre who wear< the bones of his human victims as clothing.

go out into the wind, hot, sick, into the cold out there. He is killinghim. Then they find him there, lying. Dying. Because the Tree ofthe Wind has it against him. The sorcerers are trying to kill him.Some with knives, others with axes, others with stones, others withthose animals. Where the soul is, they try to grab it as it travels atnight, when one is asleep, they grab it, eat it. They throw him down,they kill him. "Oh my head, oh, oh." That is how this thing is, thatis what they learn from him, all his power, from that chief of thesorcerers. He transforms them, he transforms people. They learnfrom him.

Many people he transforms. He makes them how he wantsthem to be. Some into burros, others into birds, others into butter-flies, flying, flying with a heart. Everything is done by that KieriPerson. He sends them this way and that, from one place to another.In a demented state, crazy. They go to one side, and they return andgo to the other. Some laughing, like contented persons, sane persons.But it is because of the sorcerer. Because he started all this. Ah, thatone, he learns to deceive.

He learns how everything is. The proper forms of speech. Whatone says. As one speaks, "Ah, my older brother, my younger brother,how are you? My younger sister, how are you?" He learned well. Hecomes upon you in no recognizable form. One does not know howhe is inside. The way he is inside his mouth. As we full well know.The vipers are in there, the crawling things are in there. The sick-nesses are in there. The wolves are in there.

He sings to them, he beats his drum, he uses his arrows. Hesays to them, "I am the mara'akdme." He says to them, "As I playthe drum for you, as I sing the chant, you listen. You heed me. I tellyou how it is." He said, "I am greater than Kduyumari." But canthat one be so? Can one be greater than he who has the heart ofOur Father, Our Grandfather, Our Mothers? No, it cannot be so.Can one be greater than he who has the heart of our Father, OurGrandfather, Our Mothers? No, it cannot be so.

So he speaks, deceiving them, lying to those people. He wentaround eating up vipers. He speaks with dark things, he speaks withcrimson things, he speaks with intense colors, really intense. Hespeaks in a drunken way. As they see this, he says, "Oh, I am justa little drunk. I am fine. I know how to do it." There he sits, feel-ing fine, as they say. They do not see how it is, they do not see thesap running out. They do not see him as he is. There he sits, he hasa fine reputation. He sings to them,

This is me, Kieri drunk,I am down below here,I have been commanded,I have been commanded,To be at Tuitdri.

Why am I crazy?That's why I'm crazyI chase after girls,That's why I'm crazy.

Singing that song of his own composition he goes around, allby himself. He takes hold of them, he grabs them, he bites them, hemakes them lose control of themselves. He goes around singing,shouting, "Oh, am I drunk, oh, oh, I am getting around these days,that's how I am." He shouts, "Ah, that is how I am, I am drunk,I feel fine, oh can I dance!" So he sings, making them lose controlof themselves.

He teaches those others. They sit with him, they learn fromhim. They become sorcerers, witches. He speaks to them, "Oh mybrothers, I will treat you fine. You are going to make out fine withme." He says, "If they are like that, I am going to treat them fine.I will treat them according to how they go." He sings, "I go arounddancing, I vomit as I dance, I go around dancing." He does this soas to receive the proper offerings. "Ah," he says, "my face is brilliant,it is properly arranged, it is shining. My face is all painted, it lookslike the Sun." So he goes around singing, he goes beating the drum,he goes deceiving them. That is how he is.

Kauyumari enters the picture in the third story of the myth cycle.He spies on Kieri in order to learn his secrets, for knowledge is powerand Kauyumari will have to muster all of his power in order to defeathis rival. Not only does Kauyurnari realize he will have to eliminateKieri T ewiyari as a false mara' akame and leader of a cult of sorcerersbut the gods themselves encourage the rivals to fight it out.

Ah, others are looking on seeing what he is. Others see this,they hide, watching. They follow him to all these places. What kindof thing is he yelling? "Ah," one says, "look, they are eating snakes,they are eating vipers, they are eating crawling things as they goalong." Kduyumari and Tatewari hide there, watching him. "I willgo up there, I will hide there." Kduyumari speaks. "I will waitquietly. I will see what he does. I will make my decision."

What on earth happened there? As I am telling it to you, thatis how it was. This is the story of the Tree of the Wind and theascendance of the real mara'akdme. The ascendance of Kduyumari.When the Tree of the Wind was born, he wanted to be more thanKduyumari. He wanted to be in competition with him. To beathim. They were rivals and he wanted to defeat him. But no, he couldnet do this. Because Kduyumari is more powerful. Very, very. They

had an ill feeling toward one another. They became enemies. Fromthat day, when he was born, they became enemies. Because one didnot want the other to be more powerful than he. Because Kduyumariaids Tatewari. All those most powerful one. He has his horns. Hehas his arrows. He has his peyote.

They were in competition, rivals. Kieri, that Tree of the Wind,was singing. He deceived them. He sang it wrong. False things. Theybelieved it. Then those most powerful ones, Our Father, Our Grand-father, all those most powerful ones, they asked Kduyumari, "Whydo you let him get the better of you?" They asked, "How is it thathe tries to be more powerful than you? That Tree of the Wind?"They said, "No, it should not be like that." He becomes angry. Andthey said to the Tree of the Wind, "Why is it that you let him getthe better of you? How is it that you let him be stronger?" So theyspoke to that Tree of the Wind, to make him angry. They set themagainst each other so that they had a dispute, so that they shouldmeet in combat. So that Kduyumari should beat him.

Kduyumari said, "Ah, I have been ready for him ever since hewas born." He said, "I will watch him, I will see what it is they do.I will learn his secrets. All his wisdom. What he is thinking, whathe is saying. What he does. How he does these things. Everything,everything." He did that, getting contrcl of it, capturing everything.

He was copying it. He followed him. He saw how he did thesethings, deceiving them. He learned everything, everything. He ac-quired it for himself. He saw where they went, how he travelled.And that other one, he had no knowledge of it. He did not suspect.Thinking he was all alone. That he was the only one who was goingto do these things. He did not know.

Our Father asked, "How can he be this way? How can youlet him be this way?" Our Grandfather asked, "How is that you lethim be this way?" Kduyumari is angry. Oh, he is angry. He says,"I am spying on him. I am learning his secrets." He says, "No, itcannot be this way." He takes his arrows. He says, "It cannot golike this. I am going to see how I can kill him. I must leave himfallen wherever it may be. I will shrivel him up, that Tree of theWind. I will burn him as I have killed him."

So he spoke as he went spying on him. Looking where he cando it. He arrives at the ranch, where they sit in a circle. Where hesings, there he goes spying on him. His paths, where he walks. Thepath by which he enters. He waits for him. He does not come. Thepath by which he leaves. Over here, another path. Ah, where is he?No, it could not be that they were getting the better of him.

He said, "One must take a chance. One must gamble one'sheart in this world. There are some things one must do all alonein this world. I will take a chance to see how I will be able to kill

him. Surely this will be my destiny. Surely it is going to be likethat.

4. HOW KAUYUMARI MEETS KIERI TEWIYARIAND KILLS HIM

The fourth myth records the dramatic encounter between the twoadversaries. At first Kieri T ewiyari attempts to evade his fate by chang-ing his shape, for he has many forms. At last he decides to make hisstand and there ensues a debate in which Kieri claims the support of theSun Father and then offers all his knowledge and power to Kauyumariin exchange for his life. But Kauyumari already knows all he needs toknow of his rival's secrets. He wounds Kitiri with a succession of arrows,while Kieri fights back with all manner of evil things which he vomitsup in the form of brilliant colors. Kauyumari neutralizes his enemy'spower by means of peyote and kills him with a fifth and final arrow inthe heart.12

As I am telling it now, it happened, there in ancient times. Aday comes, an opportunity came. Our Father told him, "Now is themoment. It is not possible that he can overpower you." Our Grand-father told him, "That is how it is. The time has come. You will doit like that." So they said to him, to do it, to do it quickly.

He came into the rancheria. He spied on the paths by which hecame, the paths by which he went. Ah, where is he, where is thatTree of the Wind? He could not see him. He turned into air. Heturned into wind. He blew like a strong wind, he blew from everyside. He turned into one wind, another wind, a third wind, a fourth.He changed into a tree. He changed into air. He changed into aperson. He had many forms. One could not cope with him.

Ah, that Tree of the Wind suspects something. As one says, hedivined it a little bit. He said, "They will take me from here. Theyare coming for me today. In this place, at this time, they are coming.They are going to kill me."

He began to see how they spied on him. How Kauyumari hadnoted everything, everything. With his power, with his arrows. Toget hold of it, to control it. Oh, Kauyumari is greater, he has morepower, he is of Our Father, Our Grandfather. They could not beathim. He said, "If it will be like that, if that is my destiny. I knowthey are coming to kill me." So spoke Kieri Tewiyari, that Tree ofthe Wind Person.

"The sacred number five signifies completion, wholeness, everything being "in its place"in the Huichol world view. In relation to the cardinal points the fifth direction is the center.

They were meeting at last. Kauyumari says to him, "I havebeen ready for you ever since you were born." He was on to himwith his arrows, with the arrows that kill. With his horns, with hispower. Thus they meet, face to face, at last.

That Tree of the Wind Person, he was afraid. He came up athim like a demented man. He said, "You are pointing your arrowat me!"

"Yes, 1 am pointing my arrow at you.""Please do not point your arrow at me.""You are going to die. 1 am going to kill you."

So they spoke. That Tree of the Wind, he was afraid. He wasbegging. "Let me go, let me go! Do not point your arrow at me.Let us talk." And he said, "My Father and 1 are here. 1 am actingunder his orders."

"I am going to kill you."

That other one says, "I might have known that this is what youare like. Let us see what Our Father says about it. What his atti-tude is."

Kauyumari speaks. "Ah yes, let us see what he says about it.Let us see where he dwells. Where does he dwell, anyhow?"

"Where 1 was born. 1 am of Our Father."

Kauyumari says, "Where were you born anyhow?"

"I was born in a cliff." So speaks the Tree of the Wind, whowas born on the wind.

"Ah, so that is how it is. As you say." And he says, "Why haveyou acted badly toward us? You have acted badly. Your thoughtsare bad. That is why 1 am going to kill you."

"Our Father would not harm me!"

"You have not truly learned about Our Father, Our Grand-father. You have not taken their true paths, their true ways. You donot listen to Our Mothers. You' have not followed Our Grandfather.You have not listened to them. You have an evil heart. That is why1 am going to kill you."

He says to him, "Tell me your secrets. Tell me all your secrets."He tells him, how he does it, how he does this and that. Kauyumarihas noted it all down. He has it all, he controls it. He says, "Yes, 1know your life. How you are. You have acted badly and that is why1 will shoot an arrow into you."

He has his bow ready. He has his arrow ready. He says, "Ah,how delicious the blood of the Tree of the Wind! How well it

tastes." He pulls the arrow through his mouth, wetting it. He says,"This is how 1 want to take you now. Because you are very bad."

The Tree of the Wind creeps away, he tries to escape. He grabshim, pushes him from side to side. He says, "No, you are not goingto escape. 1 will kill you, 1 will shrivel you all up." He tells him,"No, 1 am not going to forgive you, I will not let you go." Hepushes him here and there he brings him over here. "Now you willsee how it is going to go with you." And the Tree of the Wind says,"Please do not kill me. 1 turn my whole life over to you. All thesouls 1 have under my power 1 give to you."

Kduyumari says, "No, 1 need nothing from you. 1 have no partin what you do." The Tree of the Wind begins to cry, "Let me go,let me go, please".

"This 'please' will not work. There are no favors here. Let ithappen what is going to happen."

He tries to escape. He retreats.

Kduyumari speaks after him, "Go ahead, try to escape, 1 shallkill you wherever you are. My arrows will find you, wherever youare." So he speaks, pointing his arrow at him. To shoot him there.

That other one turns back, with pain in his heart. His hardheart softened. He looks about. No one. All have deserted him. Allthose sorcerers, those who were with him, they have left. No onestayed. He saw how it was, as he stood there.

"I am speaking, I, Mdxa Kwaxi,'3 Kduyumari. My arrow knowsyou." In saying this, he draws his bow. He lets his arrow fly. Kdtsa!It has found him. It has hit him.

"Aaaaaaaahhhhh. . . he has hit me. . . aaahhhh, so that is whatyour arrows are like!"

The arrow has hit him on one side. He is down, down on hishands and knees, "Aaaahhh, he hit me, aaaahhhh what pain!" He istrembling, that one, he is vomiting up deadly things. .. He is col-lapsed. "Ah, you are killing me, 1 am dying. 1 am going." He vomitsup yellow things. .. He vomits up green things ...

Another arrow. It hits him on the other side. "Aaaaahhhh,please don't kill me! Aaaahhh, what pain, what pain!" He vomitsup poisonous things. Crimson things come out of his mouth ...blue things come out of his mouth.

13Tamdtsi Mdxa Kwaxi, Our Elder Brother Deer Tail, a deity who merges with Kduyu-mari but who is also named as a separate member of the family of gods, all of whom areaddressed or referred to by kinship terms. There is no word for "god" or "gods" as such inthe Huichollanguage. Despite the use of kinship terms, such as Our Grandfather, Our Father,Our Mother, etc., the gods are neither affinally nor consanguineally related to one another.

Kduyumari begins to choke, to cough. "Oh, strong, bitter,horrible." He coughs, he chokes. Then he takes out his peyote,ground like pinole. He puts it on his hands, his mouth, his face.He stops choking. The peyote has more power, it stops the badthings of the Tree of the Wind.

Kduyumari says, "So much the less will I let you go. Becauseit is a bad thing which you are doing:' And he looses anotherarrow at him. Zinnnnnnnngggg! Kdtsa! Into the other side. Onearrow, two arrows, three arrows. He says, "This is so you will sufferfor your sins."

"Ah, he hit me again, uuuuhhhhh, there is another one stuckin here. I am full of them, look at me, I am stuck full of yourarrows. Ah, what pain! So that is what your arrows are like, whatyou are like. I am growing cold. Look what you have done, lookwhat your arrows have done. My knees are weakening. I am col-lapsing:' So he speaks, that Tree of the Wind. One arrow, twoarrows, three arrows in him. "Ah," he says, "I am still alive, I havestill some things in me to throw at you."

"Throw them if that is what you are like." That other onegives one mighty heave, he vomits up purple things, black things,yellow things, crimson things. But Kduyumari, with his power, withthe peyote, he is not harmed by them.

He says, that Kieri Person says, "I will go to the wind, I willnot die. Here I will not die. I will go there, by my own efforts, tothe place where I was born, to the place where I came from. I willtransform myself. .. aaahhhhh... he got me again, there, anotherarrow:' The fourth arrow was in him. He vomits, he howls, hescreams, he yells. Those animals, these foxes, those wolves, thoseowls, those vipers, they yell. One, two, three, four arrows.

Kduyumari says, "Ah, he is evil, that one. I can taste hisbloed. His blood, it tastes well, how sweet the blood of KieriT ewiydri:' He draws another arrow through his mouth. The fifth.Zinnnnnnggggg. .. Kdtsa!

"Ah, he has got me!" He falls forward, he crumples. Still talk-ing. "This is what you might have expected. This is how it must be.This is my destiny. This is how far my life has reached. You surelyhave more power, through Our Father, through Our Grandfather.You surely have more power." So he spoke, dying, the fifth arrowin his heart. He is on his back, looking straight up.

It has worked out well. "My Divine Mothers, My Grandfathers,the ones who are all around, in their places, in their present abodes.It has worked out well. I, Kduyumari, am speaking to you. I laydown your arrows, I put them in their places."

That is how it is. That is just how it is.

In his death agony Kihi T ewiyari afflicts mankind with a multitudeof diseases which he scatters into the world in the form of brilliant, shim-mering colored lights. The fifth story in the cycle thus accounts for manyof the illnesses which plague man, his crops and his animals. It also de-scribes how it was that when Kieri T ewiyari falls dead with the fiftharrow of Kauyztmari in his heart he does not really die. Rather, he istransformed ioto a plant, the "Tree of the Wind," another name fordatura. As the Tree of the Wind Person he establishes himself in thecountryside, and here he is followed by those whom he has bewitchedand those who, as sorcerers, acclaim him as their teacher and leader.

This Kieri, who is called Kieri Tewiydri, who is called Tuta-kuri, was born. He was born far, far away, where only the windis, where the wind speaks. Where the wind says xeriririririri, wherethe wind speaks like that. He was bern on the wind. After he wasborn he did those things of which we speak. After he had donethem he thought, "Ah, perhaps 1 am going to die. Oh, this mustbe my destiny. 1 must be dying." Right there where he was, inTuitdri, he spoke those things.

Those others with him, those sorcerers said, "If he dies, we aredone for. When we are done for, what in the world are we goingto do? What will we do?"

Kieri tells them. He says, "Oh, it looks as though 1 will die.You will know it. When 1 die, 1 will cry the way a deer cries, likea screech owl cries, as a red-tailed hawk flies over the countryside.As the fox cries, that is how it shall be. When someone dies, thatis how it will sound, how he will hear it."

He told them, "I will whistle like a deer, five times," tsiu, tsiu,tsiu, tsiu, tsiu. 1 will range over the countryside like that, whistlinglike a deer, so that he will know it. Thereafter, like the owl cries, thescreech owl, going hikuri xua, hikuri xua, hikuri xua (that's it, that'sit, that's it). And the one who sits over there, the red-tailed hawk,who says kwiiiii, kwiiii, kwiiii xui'a, xui'a. There also, the one whogoes heuuuu, heuuuu, heuuuu, as he goes ranging over the coun-tryside. And another one sitting there, cduuuuuuuu, cduuuuuuu, thefox, as he comes up close to you, there ... "

That is from when he died, when he told them these things,those sorcerers. So when one dies today one hears these sounds, onesees these animals, many fierce animals. They are of the sorcerer,those bats, the fox, the wolves. They remain here on this earth fromthat time, the time that he died.

Those others, they saw it when Kieri became ill, when he hadthose arrows in him, those arrows of Elder Brother Kduyumari. He

beat him with his power, with the peyote, with his horns, with hisarrows. As he said, "Ah, my heart aches, oh, my head aches, oh-oh-oh," he cried like a fox, he cried like an owl, he cried like a jaguar.Like different animals, because he was the Tree of the Wind. Hecarries many things, many things, because he is a sorcerer, he is thechief of the sorcerers. They follow him. That is how when he dieddifferent things came from him, from his mouth. He threw themout, he vomited them. From his mouth he threw out colors. Thepeople who remained covered their faces with their hands, becausethey could not bear to see that. He threw glimmering lights, bluethings, yellow things, crimson things, black things, all these he threwout. He threw them out into this world, he threw them at Kduyu-mari. But that one had more power.

He was dying, he seemed to be dying. "Ah, my stomach hurrs.It is certain I am going to die. They have beaten me, here in thisworld." So he spoke. It could not be that he should be more pow-erful than Our Father, Our Grandfather. More powerful than ElderBrother Mdxa Kwdxi, who is Kduyumari. Ah, different voices cameout of him. That of the deer, crying, tsiu, tsiu, tsiu, tsiu, tsiu, fivetimes. He acted like the fox, like the screech owl, like the barn owl.It meant he was going to die. That is why now owls make thissound, that is why when he died all this remained.

Ah, his death is terrible, terrible. He acts like all these animals.Many things to hear, many things to see. Through his mouth, fromhis eyes, his nose, his ears, through his feet, through his hands, fromeverywhere he throws out these things, terrible things, brilliant col-ors, shimmering lights. He throws them like dust. It is the mostterrible thing on this earth.

They are diseases, these things he throws out as he dies, ill-nesses. Dizziness, catarrh, paralysis. All these things he throws out.The animals that attack the maize, that eat the meat of the maizeso that only the spirit is left. Well, everything, it is from the samecause. When you come near him, out there where he is, where hegrows, he throws dust at you. You cough. You have to cover yourface. The diseases come at you, caused by the evil wind that hethrows. In this manner he gives illness to people, he gives death.

When he died, he did not die. Only his soul returned to thewind, where he was born. When he died, when the arrows of Kdu-yumari killed him, he became transformed. He travelled to a cliffto grow there, to be transformed as a tree. Because Our Grandfather,Our Father, would not admit him anywhere. "You are evil, this iswhy you remain here in this world." He arrived at the cliff and hissoul fell there, fell like a stone. He transformed there into a treewhich began to grow, grow upward until it reached the fifth level,a tree with five branches. Then the wind took compassion with him,he blew him here and there, to the five sides. He said to him,"There, in those fields, there it is green, there you can grow."

There he went, into those fields. There went those who ac-claimed him, the sorcerers. There they went. Asking as they went,as they followed him, "Where has that tree gone, where is it now?"So that they could go where that Tree had gone, so that they couldfollow him, follow his ways. Having followed him, they said, "Ah,here you are." He said, "Yes, I am here, what can I do for you?"In some such way. Playing his violin, he sang, "Out here in thefield I turn green, the field I am green, full of life."

From there he arose, following his path, playing his violin,deceiving people. He was not yet tame. At first he was like a wildanimal, dodging every hand that tried to touch him. Full of hate,hating everyone. But slowly he began to be tame, until at last it waspossible for all of us to see him. But that was just acting, so thatin this manner someone might follow him, be ensnared by him.In this manner he deceived people. Ever since it has been the mostterrible thing on earth.

That is why if we had followed him in those days, if we hadmade this union with him, there would be no mara'akdme, onlypersons who are sorcerers. But as Our Father, Our Grandfather, didnot permit this, it could not be so. It could not happen that way.

6. HOW KIl3RI TEWIYARIENSNARES THOSEWHO ARE WEAK

Though vanquished by Kduyumari with the aid of peyote, banishedfrom the company of good men and forever identified with the blackarts, Kieri T ewiydri continues to pose a certain threat to the psychic in-tegrity of the community, or rather, to certain individuals within it. Thefinal story of the cycle is a reflective description of the kind of person-ality likely to fall prey to the bewitching power of Kihi and the psycho-logical and physical dangers faced by those who forsake peyote for datura.

Well, let's see. This is the story of Kiiri, the Tree of Wind,how he acts now, the tree of the Huichols who are sorcerers, thosewho became transformed. Those who are weak. Those who triedto go on the road of the mara'akdme, who stumbled, who did notreach the ultimate stage." Those who want to do evil. Those who aredeceived. That is the tree which makes and unmakes. Because hepossesses a gum, a sap which he expels. He has five branches whichare its five symbols. Some come to this tree which makes and un-makes them. They come because he helps them do things. Badthings. Evil things. They think they can fly but if they do, they fall

"The self-training period of the mara'akdme is nem'nally five years. It may actually takelonger hut it always involves a minimum of five pilgrima:;cs from the Huichol territory to thesacred peyote country in San Luis Potosi.

and die. Because there are Huichols who are able to achieve theultimate stage as they have promised to Our Father, Our Grand-father, and there are others who never come that far. Because whenthey come to the bridge and they see the animals down below, thosethat want to devour them, they are afraid. They turn back. Theylack balance. They do not wish to fall. Then they turn back. Andthose that do not attain the ultimate state, they still have somepower but not enough. So they come to this tree, and this Tree ofthe Wind deceives them, ensnares them. Because they come, as onesays, in a half-crazy state. They walk by themselves, alone in thebarrancas. And this same tree, which is considered their chief, as itwas in ancient times, this tree flies to them and bewitches them be-cause they were noptable to reach the ultimate stage. They have notcompleted their vows to Our Grandfather, Our Father. So the treecan influence them, bewitch them. Even though they have not kepttheir promise, this tree does, because what the tree promises, the treefulfills. But it is evil. That is how it is.

And when that happens, those who are being instructed inthese things dance and sing and play a tune. They are like crazypeople. They start to go out and out toward him because they seethe Tree of the Wind is coming, the Tree which is a person, asorcerer, who is going to take them. But this is at night, when hetakes them. They follow this tree which takes the appearance of aperson. It is a man, this tree, and they follow that so-called person.He is the one who guides them forward. Those who did not fulfilltheir vows, those who are weak, they go following him onto thehigh cliffs, as though they could fly, and it seems that they willthrow themselves over that cliff. From time to time, he, that Treeof the Wind, feeds them the Kihi leaves, which he tells them arelike little tortillas, delicious to eat. He keeps giving them theseleaves to eat, and that person, that Tree of the Wind, is very happy,very elated, because they become ever more lost. Because he hasturned them crazy, mad.

So the chief, himself, that chief of the sorcerers, that Tree ofthe Wind, he himself takes them out and they stay there for fiveto six to seven days, eating out there in the Sierra by themselves.They are all alone and sometimes, when they climb the cliff as hecalls to them, when they are about to jump down from the greatrocks, down into the awful abyss, into the barrancas, because theythink they have wings and can fly, that person takes this thing awayfrom them. He unmakes it, as one says. But only for a very smallwhile. For two or three minutes he takes it away, this madness. Thenthey reflect and ask, coming to, "Where am I? Oh, where am I? Oh,very far, very far away. Our Father, Our Grandfather, look how far!What am 1 doing way out here?" But then they get lost again be-cause that tree, the Tree of the Wind, does not leave them alone.That evil Tree of the Wind does not let them go, and he sings veryhappily because he is leading them to and fro, hackwards and for-

wards. He plays and sings as he did in ancient times, playing theviolin, playing it very well, a pretty song, but intense. And so thisis why some who do not reach the ultimate stage, who did not fulfilltheir vows, become liars, deceivers. Others become evil-looking andothers evil-minded, with evil in their hearts, toward everyone, theirrelatives, their own people, everyone. And that should not be so.Because when you have agreed to train to be a mara'akdme youshould go through to the ultimate stage. As you have seen withme, the way I am training, that is the right thing. Not everyonewho cannot reach the ultimate stage, who does not travel on thatroad, becomes a sorcerer. But seme do. Some do because it is truethat when one has failed to travel the entire road, one becomesvulnerable to the tricks of that tree. Because one wants to have thatpower, but it cannot be the power of the mara'akdme. That is howit is.

That tree uses great care. He sends word with a little arrowfrom afar, from far away. It is a little arrow, and that tree must beobeyed. It must be obeyed and one must fulfill one's duty to it, onceone is on that side, that other side. But look, many among us mightthink that this is a friendly thing, good for one, something thatcreates pleasant feelings with one's people, one's relatives. Somethingto make one live well and contented, something to see with, some-thing to eat and drink well, to give one good sleep and tranquilityon one's journeys. But no, this thing is dangerous. One must recog-nize it for what it truly is. To understand what is happening. Thething one must recognize is the song. The song he uses to ensnarethem, to make them lose their heads. As if they were lost. Theybegin to go when they hear the first sound. Then comes the secondand they take leave of their senses and become as drunk. Then thethird and after this they see the tree net as a tree bur as a person,the person which is the tree of the Wind, transformed, as he wasin ancient times when he was killed by Kduyumari, when he madethe diseases. And then the tree begins to invite them, to call, "Come,come, let us go, let us go, to such and such a place." And he withhis violin, and the other one, the Huichol, follows him and says,"I have been invited, he has invited me," and he says, "let's go," andfollows him, until they finish with that song. And he says, "Thereis that Tree of the Wind," and if he is one who has not reachedthe ultimate stage, if he could not be a mara'akdme, if he madethat vow, he says, "I did not fulfill my promise and now he hasdriven me mad, in my thoughts he has misled me, he has bewitchedme with his thoughts and with his heart. And here I am now. Highover the rocks, yelling and shouting." That is how it is.

So that is the story of Kihi, this Tree of the Wind. Sometimesit is a man and sometimes it is a woman. It is both. It is a manwhen the one to be bewitched is a woman. It is a woman when thatone is a man. It is only the sorcerers who use the kieri. They useit in their evil work, as a means of defense against the mara'akdme

and for everything else. They learn from this Kieri. They learn badthings in those days. Kieri begins by telling him this and that andthe other thing. He does everything he is told. First Kieri takes them.Then he brings them back. Then they are sorcerers. This Tree of theWind person, he has this sap which he expels. People cough andstrangle and retch when they get this sap. It is bad, hot, like veryhot chile. Very hot, very bitter. You feel it in your chest. It isbad, bad.

For the mara'akame who is a true Huichol, there is only thehikuri, peyote. Th,e mara'akame does not have anything to do withkieri. Peyote is the heart, the heart of the deer, the heart of themaize. It is both, it is the deer and it is maize. It is our life. It hasmore power. Elder Brother Kauyumari killed Kieri Tewiyari, thatTree of the Wind Person. He fought him with peyote. He couldnot resist. Only the mara'akame can unmake one who has been en-snared by Kieri. Only the mara'akame knows. That is how it is, asI have told it to you.

After hearing the stories in their entirety, it seemed to us that herewas a myth cycle which might possibly be read as history. The Huicholstoday are peyote users par excellence and no datura cult as such is knownto exist among them or their immediate neighbors, though according tothe myths some individuals ("sorcerers") do make use of it. The threatof Kieri T ewiydri to the community is treated with deadly seriousness andunequivocal hostility in the myth cycle. In part this is explainable by thedeep commitment to peyote of the narrator, and indeed, any mara'akdmeor other religious Huichol. But it can also be interpreted historically.Stories of the evil sorcerer Kieri T ewiydri and the terrible effects, im-mediate and long-range, of eating datura are not often told, but whenthey are it is especially in those ceremonies which involve peyote, suchas the peyote pilgrimage itself. Hence one might assume some historicalrivalry between two cults, or at least between shaman priests adheringto one or the other at some time in the past, since there is no datura usingmara' akdme in the present.

Datura in Prehispanic Mexico

SAFFORD,in his classic study of the genus DATURAand its use inOld and New World magic, ritual and medicine, lists a number of vari-eties or species which are native to Mexico and with were used rituallyand medicinally in prehispanic times (SAFFORD,1922:537-567). Likethe Old World DATURAS,including the metel nut and the famous man~drake root, the Mexican Daturas owe their unique narcotic and thera-peutic properties to certain midriatic alkaloids, especially hyoscyamine

and scopolamine, contained chiefly in the petioles, midribs and secondarynerves of the leaves, as well as in the pistils of the flowers and in themature seeds.

The common term tolodche is derived from the Nahuatl tolodtzin,literally meaning "inclined head," because one of the Datura species towhich it was applied, Datura innoxia Miller of eastern Mexico, has nod-ding seed capsules. The flattened seeds themselves resemble miniaturehuman ears, hence another Aztec term, nacazcul. Still a third name wastlapatl, but this was applied primarily to the Datura stramonium ofeastern Mexico, the same species which in the United States came to becalled Jimson or Jamestown Weed. .

The latter name has an interesting history. According to SAFFORD(1922), its origin lies in an incident during Bacon's Rebellion at Jame-stown in 1676 when British soldiers who were sent to quell the rebellioncollected the leaves of Datura stramonium and cooked them as a potherb - with predictable results. The soldiers claimed later that it hadbeen an honest mistake, but it is also possible that they had learned ofthe narcotic effects of the plant from the local Indians who used it intheir ceremonies. The datura of the Huichol myth cycle is not actuallythe true Jimson weed but the closely related species Datura meteloidesDunal, and for this reason we have translated the name Kieri T ewiydrias Datura Person rather than as "Jimson Weed Man" as did ZINGG( 1938). It should be noted that the Solanum family to which the genusdatura belongs also includes another narcotic plant, tobacco, as well assuch important food plants as the tomato, potato. and egg plant.

The most widely used the Mexican daturas seems to have beenDatura meteloides, which was also the species utilized by the Zunis andother Southwestern Indians (both prehistorically and in recent times)and by some of the Indians of California, especially the Shoshoneans. Itis this plant which the Huichols call Kieri, or Tree of the Wind. SAFFORD( 1922) states that the seeds of Datura meteloides were called ololiuquiby the Aztecs, while the plant itself was known as coatlxoxouhqui,roughly translatable as Green Snake Weed. Other students, however,identify ololiuqui as the seeds of various species belonging to the convul-vulaceae or morning-glory family of plants which, like the daturas, arealso psychotropic. Both datura seeds and morning-glory seeds seem tohave been used by the Aztec priesthood of the Sun to place themselvesin narcotic trances or to induce oracular visions. According to Sahagun'sinformants, "sorcerers" administered ololiuhqui in the food and drink oftheir victims, causing them to have "visions of terrible things," but how

much bias is involved in this version is difficult to say. One would beinclined to question whether a plant so sacred would have been used inblack magic and other evil works at the same time that it was employedin the service of the Sun diety. SAFFORD(1922: 551-552) quotes aninteresting early description by JACINTODE LA SERNAwhich illustratesthe esteem in which psychedelic seeds (either datura or morning-glory)were held:

These seeds, especially the ololiuhqui, they hold in as great rev-erence as though they were God, burning candles before them andkeeping them in small petaquillas, or boxes, expressly made for thispurpose; and they place sacrifical offerings to them on the altars oftheir oratories or on the canopies over them or in other sacred placesin their houses, so that when a search is made for them they cannoteasily be discovered; or they may place them between the idolillosof their ancestors, which they leave to guard them, or, as it were,chained to them. And all this they do with such respect and rev-erence that when those who keep this seed in their possession arearrested or are asked for the paraphernalia with which they performthe ceremony of this drink, such as the tecomatillos, or little gourdsor cups used to hold it, or for the seeds themselves they protest mostvehemently that they have no knowledge of the matter whatever, notso much from fear of the judges before whom they are arraigned asfor the reverence they feel for the sacred objects which they do notwish to affront by a public demonstration of the ceremonial use ofthem ...

Some of this sounds almost like a contemporary description of theveneration of peyote among the Huichols.

Toloache is still widely used in Mexico today, not only ritually byvarious indigenous groups but also as an aphrodisiac or magical lovepotion, as well as for various physicall ills. Toloache roots, seeds, driedflowers or leaves can be obtained at any curandero's or herb doctor's stallin most Mexican markets.

Datura in the Southwest and California

The use of Datura meteloides evidently extended far to the northand northwest at least as early as the Pueblo period which ended aboutA.D. 1300, since both its seeds and seed pods have been found in consid-erable quantities in Pueblo stone structures in southwestern Utah (SAF-FORD,1922:553). It is also said to have been used by the modern Paiu-tes, at least in the last century and early part of this century. MATILDACOXESTEVENSON(1904) described its importance among the Zufii ofNew Mexico and SAFFORDprovides the interesting additional informa-

tion that some of the well-known flower designs which students of theZuni and Hopi have identified as the "squash blossom" is in reality theflower of Datura meteloides. The Indians, of course, are only too pleasedto perpetuate the erroneous nomenclature since the datura flower is verysacred to them. And as the Navajos copied the same flower from thePueblos for their silver jewelry, it follows that some of the famous silver"squash blossom" necklaces in reality represent the flower of the hallu-cinogenic datura.

The context and technique in which the California Indians usedDatura meteloides differs fundamentally from its utilization in Mexico.Almost everywhere among the California tribes (mainly the Shoshonean-speakers but also some Penutians) the taking of datura seems to havebeen limited to a single ritual context, that of boys' initiation ceremonies,and to a single group, the initiates themselves, which sets this datura-using area clearly apart from Mexico and even the Southwest. Accordingto KROEBER0925: 856) it is possible that the datura cult as such mayhave succeeded in gaining a foothold at least among the Southern Cali-fornia tribes only in historic times, that is, since the establishment of themissions, becauses European influence had by then already sapped thestrength of older religious cults.

Peyote, Datura, and Huichol History

It is possible to treat the kieri myth cycle simply as a set of moralitytales which point up the superior qualities and power of peyote andwhich relate the heroic and moral qualities of the culture hero Kduyu-mari. If, alternatively, one reads these myths as history (which in itselfdoes not negate their value as morality stories), there are several possibleinterpretations of its significance. In order to evaluate these it is neces-sary to place the Huichols into some sort of historical perspective, how-ever conjectural. And more than a conjectural history we are not able togive them, since even comparatively recent times lack reliable documen-tation.

The first European contact with the Indians of Jalisco and Nayaritoccurred 1524 expedition of FRANCISCOCoRTES DE SAN BUENAVEN-TURA,a relative of HERNAN CORTES,who ostensibly came in search ofthe legendary Amazons. The actual conquest of the area (excluding themost rugged parts of the Sierra) was not achieved, however, until theinfamous NUNEZ DE GUZMAN burned and pillaged his way throughJalisco and Nayarit to Sinaloa in 1530-31. The conquered territory with

its decimated and demoralized Indian population then became theSpanish province of Nueva Galicia.

The early sources do not mention a people called the Wixarika,which is the actual tribal name which the Huichols use for themselves.This is hardly surprising since a number of frontier tribes in the generalarea of the modern states of ] alisco, Zacatecas, Aguascalientes, etc., wereknown to the Aztecs, and subsequently to the early Spaniards, under thecollective name of Teochichimecas, to distinguish them from the Chichi-meca tribes who were held in slightly higher esteem. The Chichimecas,loosely translatable as "lineage of the dog," were seen by the Aztecs andother sedentary cultivators of the Valley of Mexico as northern "barbar-ians" who had adopted some of the customs of civilization. The Teochi-chimecas were viewed as wild hunters and collectors living in beehivehuts and brush or rock shelters.

Some Teochichimeca peoples evidently had a peyote cult which inits known aspects resembles that of the modern Huichols. For example,there is a brief but suggestive description of a Teochichimeca peyotegathering ceremony in Book Ten of Father BERNARDINODESAHAGUN'SHistoria General de las Cosas de Nueva Espana (The Florentine Codex).The peyote gatherers are described here as circling the peyote and weep-ing profusely as they do so, which is precisely what the modern Huicholsdo when they discover the first peyote on their pilgrimages. Unfortu-nately the 16th century account does not identify the particular tribenor its precise location, although it seems likely that the setting was notfar distant from the sacred peyote country, the high desert of San LuisPotosi.

The noted Mexican ethno-historian WIGBERTOJIMENEZ MORENOhas suggested that the Huichols are related to the Guachichil, a Teochi-chimeca hunting tribe which once lived in the general region of Zaca-tecas but which has disappeared (JIMENEZ MORENO, 1943:41-44, 128-130). Their neighbors were the Uto-Aztecan-speaking Uacateca and Te-pehuans, both late arrivals; the latter now persist in southern Durangoand northern Nayarit, west of their former homeland and north of theCoras and Huichols, both of whom also belong to the Uto-Aztecan lan-guage family. "Huichol," the name the Spaniards applied to the peyote-using Indians they met in the Sierra (and possibly earlier in the Chichi-meca frontier country north of Guadalajara) certainly sounds more likF'a corruption of "Guachichil" than it does of "Wixarika."

There is no evidence whatever to support the claim of some writenthat the Huichols migrated into the Sierra from the coast. On the con-

trary, the Huichols themselves have a vague tradition according to whichthey came from the east or northeast into their present homeland afterfirst settling for a time in the region north of the barrancas formed bythe Santiago River, a few miles north of the present city of Guadalajara.There is archaeological evidence of a prehispanic occupation of the val-leys and mesas of their present territory in the Sierra de los Huicholesand also of the Mesa del Nayar of the Coras but this is evidently pre-Huichol and pre-Cora. The movement into the Sierra by the Huicholsthemselves seems to have been rather late, perhaps motivated by a desireto escape from the effects of the Spanish conquest.

Our informant RAMON mentions one specific origin tradition ac-cording to which the "ancient, ancient Huichols" lived by hunting deer,rabbits, rats, birds and other game with bow and arrow and by utilizinga wide variety of plants, such as the maguey and nopal cactus. As heputs it,

In those times they grew nothing, nothing. They did not knowabout maize, about beans, about squash. They did not have anyanimals, just the dog. Everything they ate was wild. It grew wild.They had no houses then, only shelters made of brush to keep themwarm, only caves. They wore no clothes, as they do now. Only skinsand maguey fibers.

When asked where the Huichols lived in those times he pointedeastward and said, "In the desert, far away, in Zacatecas, and in San LuisPotosi." These, he said, were stories which his grandfather had told him.The tradition of an origin in sacred caves in north-central Mexico, whichsome writers have mentioned, was not known to him.

The authors' participation in the peyote journey northeastward fromJalisco through Zacatecas to San Luis Potosi has convinced us that thetradition of a desert homeland and a migration from east and west is amatter of history as well as myth. Not only is the route across Jalisco andZacatecas into the peyote desert of San Luis Potosi retraced step by stepin the mythology and in the corresponding ritual peyote pilgrimage, butevery major feature and many minor ones along the way - especiallymountains and perpetual spring and water holes in the desert - areknown by Huichol names and sanctified as the "places" of the gods.

It would seem that the ancestors of the modern Huichols migratedoriginally into the arid inner plateau of north· central Mexico from somenorthern homeland, possibly located in the Southwest of what is now the

United States. As heirs to the old Desert Culture they would have huntedsmall game and collected wild fruit, living in encampments of circularbeehive-shaped huts, as well as brush and rock shelters. These, along withstone tools, are in fact, mentioned in myths and traditions we collected.They may have lived in the north-central desert region for a consider-able time until internal and external pressures, and the vacuum left tothe south by the collapse of the great Classic civilizations of Mesoamer-ica, swept them up in the ensuing confusion of "barbarian" invasions,migrations and displacements which marked the onset of the post-Classicperiod in the 9th-10th Century A.D.

At some point in time and space they came into contact with sed-entary agricultural people on the ever-shifting frontier between thefarmers of the south and the hunters of the north, eventually, adoptingmaize cultivation themselves as their mainstay of life. Where and whenthis might have been is impossible to say, especially since there is in-creasing archaeological evidence that at various times the northern fron-tier of prehispanic civilization extended much further north than it didat the time of the Conquest, and that areas formerly thought to havebeen either uninhabited and even uninhabitable or purely Chichimecacountry did in fact support sedentary agricultural groups with a well-developed ceramic art and technology.

Therefore one cannot rule out the possibility that the ancestral Hui-chols became cultivators, or were at least acquainted with the techniquesof cultivation, before their settlement in far-western Mexico. What isdefinite, however, is that even though on the economic level the transi-tion from hunting to farming took place many centuries ago, on theideological level it is far from completed even now. Essential elementsin the Huichol culture today unmistakably suggest the retention of aconsiderable component of a hunting ideology. Most important amongthese is the mythology with its stories of the first times in which menand animals were one - a typical feature of hunting mythologies. Other"archaic" elements are the emphasis on the deer as the sacred animal,companion of the deities and of the mara'akame; the indispensability ofthe hunt of the deer and its blood to the success of agricultural pursuitsand all ceremonial activities in the agricultural cycle; the running downof the deer and the use of nets and noose traps in ceremonial deer hunts;the propitiation of the slain animal (and even the harvested maize) bythe hunter who speaks to it and explains why it had to die; the pursuitof the sacred peyote cactus with bow and arrow, as on an actual huntand the oneness of the peyote with the deer (as well as with maize);

the oneness of the culture hero Kauyumari with the Sacred Deer; 1~

the importance of deer horns in relation to shamanism and the peyotecult, ete.

This view of the Huichols as a culture in transition, from relativelyrecent hunters of the arid and semi-arid desert to maize cultivators, wouldalso account for the sacredness in which they hold all bodies of water,but especially the extremely rare water holes and perpetual springs lo-cated so far from their present homeland in the deserts of Zacatecas andSilo Luis Potosi. It would also accord well with the absence of a stratifiedsocial system, the relative lack of political centralization and the indepen-dence of local groups, all features characteristic of the Huichols and ofcourse all more typical of people who live by hunting and collecting thanthat of those who cultivate the soil. Even the circular dwellings which,though rare today, were still common in the time of LUMHOLTZ,couldbe derived from the beehive-shaped huts used by many of the northerndesert hunters as late as Aztec times.

With this admittedly hypothetical history in mind, we may nowconsider at least three alternate explanations of the Kiiri myth cycle. Thefirst is that the ancestral Huichols originally knew neither datura norpeyote until they came into contact with both somewhere along thenorthern frontier of Mesoamerican civilization. In that case there couldhave been a protracted rivalry between adherents of these two halluci-nogenic agents, which induce entirely different psychic states/6 untileventually peyote, with its capacity to give one an expanding vision - aview of the entire world gently opening up before one - gained theupper hand and became a psychological focal point of the culture.

The second alternative is that the ancestral Huichols were datura-users before they turned to peyote either through contact with a peyotecult or as the result of independent experimentation with the halluci-nogenic cactus which they found growing in their desert environment.Eventually the older datura cult might have been replaced by peyote,and very much in the same manner that early Christianity relegated theolder religions of pre-Christian Europe to the position of witchcraft, sothe ritual use of datura came to be identified with black magic andsorcery among the Huichols.

to Indeed it is hard not to recognize in Kauyumari -especially in his most frquent]yinvoked form as the anthropomorphized Sacred Deer- that familiar supernatural being of sClmany hunting cultures, the Master or Owner of the Species.

H;That the Huichols are well aware of these differences is obvious from the myth inwhich datura users are described as being seized with madness, loss of control, a desire tofly and even involuntary suicidal impulses. Datura can, in fact, be dangerous; the Luiseiioof California, for example, speak of fatal overdoses in initiations of boys.

The third possibility is that the desert-dwelling ancestors of theHuichols were traditionally adherents of peyote but that datura beganto threaten the stability of the peyote cult after contact with datura-usinggroups. In that case the myth cycle can be read to mean that the peyotecult proved strong enough to resist the encroachment of datura, but thatperhaps some shamans did adopt datura and left, taking part of the tribewith them. Having deserted the true religion - the peyote cult - theywould understandably be anathemized as sorcerers. For in one of thestories of the cycle we learn that even though Kduyumari killed KieriT ewiydri after first neutralizing his evil power (datura) with peyote,Kieri did not remain dead. Rather, he transformed himself, and as theTree of the Wind - the hallucinogenic plant of sorcerers and blackmagicians - flew away into the fields, followed by those who hadearlier acclaimed him as their "chief."

It is this last alternative which to us seems the most plausible. Firstof all we know that certain "wild" tribes of the north-central deserts,among them the Teochichimecas whom we assume to be the ancestorsof the Huichols, were peyote-users.17 On the other hand, the sedentaryagricultural peoples of central and eastern Mexico appear to have useddatura as their main ritual hallucinogenic. Also, the extent of the integra-tion of peyote in Huichol culture and its utilization by men, women andeven children indicates a very long history.ls Further, the priority ofKduyumari, who here personifies the peyote cult, is made explicit inthe Kieri stories (as it is also in other myths). When Kieri is born, forexample, he "wants to be more than Kduyumari." In another story ofthe cycle, Kduyumari says, "Ah, I have been ready for him ever sincehe was born," and this he also repeats to Kieri when they meet in face-to-face combat, from which one might assume that datura was theintruder.

17 Peyote has also recently been discovered in prehistoric rock shelter sites located nearthe confluence of the Pecos and Rio Grande rivers in southwestern Texas; some of theseshelters contain paintings which students of rock art suggest might have been connected withpeyote rituals (DAVID S. GEBHARD, 1967, personal communication).

"The common name peyote comes from the Nahutl peyotl, by which the plant wasknown in prehispanic times among the Aztecs and other peoples of Central Mexico. TheHuichols, however, have rheir own aboriginal term, hikuri, which has also been adopted bytheir neighbors, the Coras, and by the Tarahumaras of Chihuahua. The latter regard the plantwith great fear and awe, which is partly attributable to the comparative recency of the useof peyote among them. For the Huichols, on the other hand, peyote stands at the very centerof religion and ritual, together with the deer and maize, with which it is identified; thereis no fear of it whatever and even small children are introduced to it to accustom them toits bitter taste. As a matter of fact, If a small child takes to peyote readily, despite its un-pleasant taste, adults often regard it as d sign that it may be called by the deities to becomea mara'akdme.

Peyote, of course, is a desert species with limited distribution. It isfound primarily in regions which were once inhabited by fiercely inde-pendent tribes, whereas several varieties of datura were (and are) easilyavailable throughout Mexico. As a matter of fact, we have good archae·ological evidence that peyote was important also in much earlier timeseven in the tropical regions of Colima (as well as in Michoacan andGuerrero), for a plant which appears to be peyote is represented on ce·ramics dating back at least to the early centuries A.D. Colima is evenmore distant from the peyote deserts of the north than is the presentHuichol region, but then, the whole history of trading and diffusion, inMexico as everywhere else in the world, shows that when people wan,something badly enough they are willing to pay almost any price in life,limb, time and treasure to obtain it. Of course, for the Huichols both theprecise locale for hunting and collecting peyote are dictated by religionand mythology and thus are not to be altered in any way. For themneither the peyote which grows in other desert areas north of theirpresent homeland nor that available in various markets is conceptuallyor even functionally comparable to that which they collect on their time·consuming and extremely strenuous pilgrimages to San Luis Potosi.

In addition to the historical reasons already mentioned for favoringthe third alternative, there are a number of elements in the Kihi cycleitself which seem to link datura to the various kinds of influences whichmay have reached the ancestors of the Huichols along with the tech-niques of agriculture. One of these is the cult of the Sun. As mentionedearlier, datura was used by Aztec priests of the Sun. There are also someallusions in the Kieri cycle to a relationship between Kihi T ewiydri andthe Sun Father (Tayaupd). For example, at one point in the confronta-tion between Kduyumari and the sorcerer Kieri the latter claims thathe is of the Sun Father and that the Sun Father would not permit himto come to harm. Kduyumari does not reject this, and there follows anexchange in which he questions his enemy about what he knows of theSun Father and his dwelling place. There is also a mention of the godsencouraging the conflict between Kihi and Kduyumari, and while ournarrator insisted that they did this only to ensure Kieri's downfall, itmay also be that someone in the pantheon might have been on Kieri'sside, at least in part. It certainly was not Tatewari, the God of Fire, FirstShaman and leader of the first peyote pilgrimage. T atewari establishedthe peyote cult and in the Kihi myths it is he who aids Kduyumari inthe latter's efforts to learn all of Kieri's secrets before destroying him.But it might well have been the Sun. A datura-Sun association is alsosuggested by ZINGG 0938: 212-3 ), whose informant told him that the

Sun Father protected "Jimson Weed Man" and would not allow him toremain permanently dead after Kauyumari had killed him. RAMON

denies that this could be so, since Kieri T ewiyari was an evil sorcererand the Sun Father would not have protected such a person. But herewe must remember that in RAMON'S home territory (San Sebastian)the Sun Father shares first place in the pantheon with Tatewart, whereasthe Sun does not have such an exalted position in some other Huicholregions. Even in RAMON'S Kibi stories, however, the attitude of the Sunis at least in doubt.

It is also true that in general the Huichols seem to be ambivalentin their beliefs about the Sun, even in those regions where the Sun deityis of great importance. RAMON himself admits that unlike Tatewart, theFirst Shaman and Fire God who is always benevolent so long as theproper sacrifices are made to him, the Sun Father sometimes exercizeshis power to send illness or misfortune quite arbitrarily. It is then upto the mara'akame to discover why he has done so. Interestingly, the Sun"Iso has two different and unrelated names, Tayaupa, Our Father, andTawixikia. It may be that the present concept of the Sun deity combinestwo different layers of tradition, one older, dating to a pre-agriculturaltime when the Sun God might have been less important, and the otheradopted with modifications from neighboring sedentary cultivators andperhaps even from the Aztecs. It is of course also possible that there wasno Sun cult at all in pre-agricultural times, when the old god of fire andthe earth goddess Nakawe might have been the chief deities.

The characterization of Kieri as the "Tree of the Wind" also seemsto point in the direction of the Aztecs. The name seems puzzling, sincethe wind is not generally associated by the Huichols with anything del-eterious (for example, the sacred world directions are called "the fouror five winds"), unless one relates it to the typical rural Indian-Mex-ican fear of the illness-causing "aires," or bad winds, which float aboutat night and in the early morning hours. This belief is a survival inimpersonal form of the ehecatl cocoliztle (winds of sickness) of theAztecs who also personified a similar concept in cosmology and art asthe ciupipiltin, female deities with fleshless skulls who travelled aboutin the air striking children with sickness, especially the respiratory kind.

In this connection yet another tantalizing clue comes from theAztecs. In Book Four, Chapter 21, of the Florentine Codex, Sahaguntells us that those born under the sign of Ce Ehecatl, One Wind, aredestined to become sorcerers. If they are of the nobility, they can becomewerewolves and also take on other forms at will. If they are ordinary

mortals they are likely to be part sorcerer and part rogue, who danceabout with their own kind as they embark on wickedness and mischief.Kieri embodies both these characteristics. He can transform himself intoall manner of shapes, from person to tree to animals, and he is also awoman-chasing rogue who uses music and dancing to deceive and seduceothers into following him. And not only is he called the "Tree of theWind," but he was even "born from the wind," as the myth tells us.This seems to link him rather persuasively to some such concept as theAztec association of the birth date "One Wind" and black magic.

In view of all this, it is suggested that a cult of the Sun deity mayhave been introduced to a peyote-using proto-Huichol people in com-paratively recent times, probably together with agriculture itself, and thatthis cult of the Sun god, with its strong emphasis on sacrifice, may havebeen accompanied by a datura cult. While the Sun god could be inte-grated successfully (though with a certain degree of ambivalence) intothe existing family of deities because of his importance to the success ofagriculture, datura could neither co-exist with peyote nor replace it. Forwe may assume from the contemporary accounts that peyote held muchthe same position in the religion and world view of the hunters of thenorth-central deserts as it does today among the Huichols who may wellbe their direct descendents. If we suppose that the Kieri myths have his-torical validity, it is this interpretation which to us seems most acceptable.

The death of Kieri Tewiydri, as visualized in a wool yarn "painting" by the Huichol artistRamon Medina Silva. While the fox, the animal of sotcety and death, cries from the tacksat the uppet left, Datura Man, lowet right, falls backward. The victotious cultute HeroKduyumari, identified by the antlers of the Sacred Deer on his head, stands in the center.Uppet tight, the symbol of the datuta plant which Kieri Tewiydri personifies and into whichhe changes as he dies. Between Kduyumari and the dying Datura Man are colored shapesrepresenting the diseases which Kieri, as the chief of the sotcetets, spits and vomits into theworld in his struggle with Kduyumari. These "paintings" of colored wool yarn ptessed intoa layer of bees' wax were made as illustrations of myths dictated to the authors by theartist. From the collections of the UCLA Museum and Laboratoties of Ethnic Arts &TechnQlogy. Original size, 60 x 60 em.

Wool yarn "painting" by the Huichol attist Ramon Medina Silva of the mortal battle be-tween the culture hero Kduyumari and Kieri. TewiJ!dri, Datura Man. Left, the culture hero,wearing the antlers of the Sacred Deer, with his bow and arrow. Right, Datura Man,toppling backwards with Kduyumari's first arrow in him (the fifth arrow kills him). Fromhis mouth emerge five strings of brilliantly colored lights, symbolizing both the psychologicaleffects of datura and the evil and diseases Datura Man vomits into the world. Below Kdu-yumari stands the basket of the mara'akdme, the takwdtsi, in which are kept the sacredshamanic paraphernalia. The deer antlers identify it with Kduyumari, who is variouslyenvisioned as a person with deer horns, the Sacred Deer itself and the shamanic basket.Above the takwdtsi, between the two antagonists, is a small flower-like symbol representingthe peyote with which Kauyumari counteracts the power of datura. Original in the collec-tions of the UCLA Museum and Laboratories of Ethnic Arts and Technology.

This wool yarn "painting" by the Huichol artist Ramon Medina Silva il1usttates the powetwhich Kieri TewiyJri has over men and women who al10w themselves to be deceived byhim. A woman stands on a high rock reaching out for the leaves and juices of the daturaplant while Kieri floats above her urging her to eat, for the plant is "nourishing, liketortil1as." Under the influence of datura, the victim is driven mad or becomes a witch;only the mara'akJme is able to restore him or her to sanity. From the col1ections of theUCLA Museum & Laboratories of Ethnic Arts and Technology.

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