Antonaras Harvard, Staklo

From Roman to Early Christian

Thessalonik

Studies in Religion and Archaeology

editorsLaura Nasrallah Charalambos Bakirtzis Steven J. Friesen

This volume brings together scholars of religion, archaeology, and art and architectural history to investigate social, political, and religious life in Roman and early Christian Thessalonik, an

important metropolis in the Hellenistic, Roman, and early Christian

periods and beyond. This interdisciplinary book includes studies

of New Testament literature, Roman art historical materials, urban

planning in antiquity, material culture and daily life, pseudepigraphy

and the Letters to the Thessalonians found in the New Testament.

Contributors include scholars from Greece, the United States, and

Canada. This volume is the first of its kind and offers new data and

new interpretations to scholars of ancient religion and archaeology in

general, and Thessalonik in particular.

HTS64

ISBN-13: 978-0-674-05322-9

Cover art from: Courtesy of the Greek Archaeological Service. Mosaic of St. Demetrios and an angel in the north aisle of the Basilica of St. Demetrios, Thessaloniki

Cover design: Eric Mulder

Fro

m R

om

an to

Early C

hr

istian T

hessalo

nik

From Roman to early christian Thessalonik:

studies in Religion and Archaeology

edited by

laura Nasrallah, charalambos Bakirtzis, and steven J. Friesen

distributed byHARVARd uNiVeRsity PRess

forHARVARd tHeologicAl studies

HARVARd diViNity scHool

From Roman to Early Christian Thessalonik

Harvard theological studies 64

Series Editors:

Franois BovonFrancis schssler Fiorenza

Peter B. Machinist

2010 the President and Fellows of Harvard collegeAll rights reserved. except for brief quotations in critical articles or reviews, no part of this book may be reproduced in any manner without prior written permission from the publisher. For permission use, contact Permissions department, Harvard theological studies, Harvard divinity school, 45 Francis Avenue, cambridge, Massachusetts 02138.

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library of congress cataloging-in-Publication data

From Roman to early christian thessalonike : studies in religion and archaeology / edited by laura Nasrallah, charalambos Bakirtzis, and steven J. Friesen p. cm. -- (Harvard theological studies .; 64) includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-0-674-05322-9 (alk. paper) 1. thessalonike (greece)--civilization. 2. thessalonike (greece)--church history. 3. church history--Primitive and early church, ca. 30-600. 4. Bible. N.t. thesalonians--criticism, interpretation, etc. 5. thessalonike (greece)--Antiquities. 6. Thessa lonike (Greece)--Antiquities, Roman. 7. Ecavations (Archaeology)--greece--thessalonike. 8. Architecture--greece--thessalonike. 9. Romans--greece--thessalonike. i. Nasrallah, laura salah, 1969- ii. Bakirtzis, ch. (charalambos) iii. Friesen, steven J. DF261.T49F76 2010 938.2--dc22 2010021681

the paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of the American National standard for information sciencesPermanence of Paper for Printed library Materials, ANsi Z39.48-1992. Manufactured in the u.s.A.

AbbreviationsModern SourcesAA Archologischer AnzeigerAAA Annals of Archaeology and Anthropology AAA Archaiologika analekta ex Athenon (Athens Annals of

Archaeology) AASS Acta Sanctorum (Paris, 1863-1925)AB Anchor BibleAIS Archaeology and Italian SocietyAJA American Journal of ArchaeologyAM Athenische MitteilungenAmerAnt American Antiquity ABD The Anchor Bible DictionaryAEMQ Archaeologikon Ergon st Makedonia kai ThrakARA Annual Review of AnthropologyArchDelt Arcaiologiko;nDeltivonArkaiologikon Deltion ArchEph ArcaiologikhvEfhmevri~Archaiologike EphemerisASMOSIA Association for the Study of Marble & Other Stones in

Antiquity BAR British Archaeological ReportsBCH Bulletin de correspondance hellniqueBcHsupp BcH supplment BHtA British Healthcare trades AssociationBE (Ascough)?BibInt Biblical InterpretationBMGS Byzantine and Modern Greek StudiesBoJ Bonner Jahrbcher BR Biblical ResearchBSA Bulletin de la Socit archaologique Buzantiakav Buzantiakav Byzantion Byzantion, Revue internationale des tudes byzantines CA Cahiers archologiques CBQ Catholic Biblical QuarterlyCH Church HistorycFHB corpus Fontium Historiae ByzantinaeCIG Corpus Inscriptionum Graecarum. edited by A. Boeck. 4

vols. Berlin, 18281877

From Roman to Early Christian Thessalonik xii

CIL Corpus Inscriptionum LatinarumcNRs Centre national de la recherche scientifiqueCRAI Comptes rendus de lAcadmie des inscriptions et belles-lettresDNP Der neue Pauly. Enzyklopdie der Antike. edited by H. cancik

and H. schneider. stuttgart. 1996DOP Dumbarton Oaks PapersEA Epigraphica AnatolicaEHBS Epeteris Hetaireias Byzantinon SpoudonEKM Epigrafev~kavtwMakedoniva~EKM i l. gounaropoulou and M. B. Hatzopoulos, Epigrafev~Kavtw

Makedoniva~.evco~ A v. Epigrafev~ evroia~evco~Av.Epigrafev~ evroia~Epigrafev~evroia~ (Inscriptions of Kat Macedonia. Macedonia. Macedonia. Fasciculus A. Inscriptions of Beroia). Athens: de Boccard, 1999.

FAs Frankfurter althistorische studienGn GnomonGOTR Greek Orthodox Theological ReviewHR History of ReligionsHTR Harvard Theological ReviewHts Harvard theological studiesIG Inscriptiones Graecaeics illinois classical studiesILS Inscriptiones latinae selectae (Berlin 1892-1916) Int InterpretationJAC Jahrbuch fr Antike und ChristentumJBL Journal of Biblical Literature JECS Journal of Early Christian StudiesJFSR Journal of Feminist Studies in ReligionJGS Journal of Glass StudiesJHN Journal of the History of NeurosciencesJournal of the History of NeurosciencesJJS Journal of Jewish StudiesJRA Journal of Roman ArcheologyJRS Journal of Roman StudiesJSJ Journal for the Study of Judaism in the Persian, Hellenistic,

and Roman PeriodsJSNT Journal for the Study of the New TestamentJsNtsup Journal for the study of the New testament supplement

seriesJSOT Journal for the Study of the Old TestamentJWI Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes

xiii

lcl loeb classical libraryLIMC Lexicon iconographium mythologiae classicaeLRCW Late Roman Coarse WareslsJ liddell, H. g., R. scott. H. s. Jones, A Greek-English Lexicon.

9th ed. with revised supplement. oxford. 1996.MH Museum HelveticumMMLA Bulletin of the Midwest Modern Language AssociationMBC Museum of Byzantine Culture

NA Numina AegaeaNcB New century Bible NiBc New international Bible commentaryNovT Novum TestamentumNtAbh Neutestamentliche Abhandlungen NTS New Testament Studiesoct oxford classical texts/scriptorum classicorum bibliotheca

oxoniensisPAE Praktika Archaeologikes EtaireiasPG J. P. Migne, ed. Patrologia cursus completus. Series Graeca.

Paris, 1857-66. PraktAE Praktika tes en Athenais Archaiologikes Hetaireias QDAP Quarterly of the Department of Antiquities in PalestineQR Quarterly ReviewRA Revue ArchologiqueRB Revue bibliqueRE Realencyklopdie fr protestantische Theologie und KircheRend. Atti della Accademia nazionale dei lincei. Rendiconti classe

di scienze Morali storiche e FilologicheRIDA Revue internationale des droits de lantiquit RIG (Ascough chapter) ??RPh Revue de philologie, de littrature et dhistoire anciennesRmMitt Rmische Mitteilungen = Mitteilungen des Deutschen

Archologischen Instituts sBl society for Biblical literaturesBlds society of Biblical literature dissertation seriesSpec SpeculumSCJ Stone-Campbell JournalScrHier Scripta hierosolymitanaSpec Speculum

Abbreviations

From Roman to Early Christian Thessalonik xiv

sNtsMs society for New testament studies Monograph seriesSPhilo Studia philonicaSR Studies in ReligionStudRomag Studi Romagnoli TAPA Transactions of the American Philological AssociationQP Qealonikevwn Povli~QealonikevwnPovli~ TM Travaux et MmoiresTravaux et MmoirestRAc theoretical Roman Archaeology conferencetheoretical Roman Archaeology conferenceTynBul Tyndale BulletinTRE Theologische Realenzyklopdie. edited by g. Krause and g.

Muller. Berlin. 1977 WuNt Wissenschaftliche untersuchungen zum Neuen testamentZNW Zeitschrift fr die Neutestamentlischen WissenschaftZPE Zeitschrift fr Papyrologie und Epigraphie

Ancient Sources Aristides, Apol., Apologycicero, Phil., Philippics, Orationes philippicaeclement, Stromateis, The Stromataepictetus, Epictetus Diss., The Discourses as Reported by Arrian: The

Manual, and FragmentsJosephus, Ant., Jewish Antiquities, Antiquitates judaicae Josephus, J.W., Jewish War, Bellum judaicum Juvenal, The Satires, Satiraeovid, Am., AmoresPhilo, Heir, Who is the Heir of Divine Things?Philo, Embassy, On the Embassy to Gaius, Legatio ad GaiumPhilo, Flaccus, Against Flaccus, In FlaccumPhilo, Abraham, On the Life of Abraham, De AbrahamoPhilo, Confusion, On the Confusion of Tongues, De Confusione LinguarumPliny, Nat. hist., Natural History, Naturalis Historia (Pseudo) lucian, Eikones, Essays in Portraituretacitus, Hist., Historiae, Histories

Chapter eleven

Glassware in Late Antique Thessalonik (Third to Seventh Centuries c.e.) Anastassios C. Antonaras

The invention of glass is widely known through what Pliny claims in his Natural History. ven if his story has een roven technically ven if his story has een roven technically imossile, Pliny connects the invention of glass with the Phoenician coast and natron merchandisers, who sailed from gyt. Today it is elieved that glassresenting along with faience the first artificial, human-made sustanceswas roaly invented in Mesootamia around 2200 b.C.e.2 Colored glass was already widely used in gyt from the second half of the second millennium b.C.e. For many centuries after its invention, glass remained an extremely exensive material, used only as semirecious stone, and later for roduction of secial vessels found only in alaces and temles. From the classical Greek eriod onwards, small glass unguentaria ecame more widely availale than earlier, ut were still roducts for the highest social strata. The invention of glass lowing, a technological revolution which took lace around the early first century b.C.e. somewhere on the Levantine coast, led to a gradual fall in the rice of glass vessels y the

Pliny, Nat. 36.9092. 2 Oenheim et al., Glass and Glassmaking, 0.. 3 tern and chlick-olte,tern and chlick-olte, Early Glass, 20, with exhaustive iliograhy. Iid., 2737, 3. Grose, Early Ancient Glass, 02. tern and chlick-olte, Early Glass, 37.

From Roman to Early Christian Thessalonik 302

mid-first century C.e. and made ossile their use y wider social strata in the astern Mediterranean.6

Although glass vessels had functions similar to ottery ones, glass needs to e treated quite differently from ceramics, and any researcher should kee in mind a few asic differences while studying comaratively these two grous of finds.7 During the entire eriod under consideration, glass was thoroughly recycled. Glasslowers kilns melted all evidence of the true quantitative distriution and the diversity of original forms. Also, it should e ket in mind that all didactic arts of vessels, like rims, handles, and ases, weigh the most and therefore were collected and recycled most consistently, leaving mainly smaller, noncharacteristic fragments on site. Thus archaeological finds do not reflect the everyday life of the period or area under consideration. Rather, they reflect the consistency of recycling. The only excetions come from undistured strata of arutly destroyed and/or aandoned sites, which unfortunately are not the case with the finds from Thessalonik. Grave goods do offer an undisturbed picture of the past, but unfortunately reflect only the burial habits of society and not necessarily everyday life. In addition, ecause the vast majority of excavations conducted in Thessalonik are salvage, we glimpse the always already obscure past through a deforming rism created y the segmented and circumstantial character of the excavated finds. Furthermore, we must also stress that glass ojects were found almost exclusively in graves; therefore they only reresent art of the reertoire of the vessels and ojects used in urial and memorial rituals and as grave goods.

Glass Workshops Fig. . Remains of the local glass working activity have een sotted in three parts of Thessalonik: outside the eastern city walls in a building, which roaly was also used as a worksho for clay lams; in the citys aandoned ulic Forum; and in the aandoned ruins of the Roman ulic athhouse where the asilica Acheirooietos was erected in the mid-fifth century. All finds are generally dated etween the fourth and sixth centuries C.e. Only the

6 Israeli, Invention of lowing, 6; eadem, hat did erusalems First-CenturyIsraeli, Invention of lowing, 6; eadem, hat did erusalems First-Century6; eadem, hat did erusalems First-Centuryeadem, hat did erusalems First-Century .C.. Glass orksho Produce? 67.67.

7 On that matter, see also Antonaras, Uavlina kai keramikav aggeiva, forthcoming. Trowridge,Trowridge, Philological, 067; tern, Roman Glasslowing, . It aears thattern, Roman Glasslowing, . It aears that. It aears thatIt aears that

recycling of glass shards was widely introduced only during the Flavian eriod (6996), along with the sread of free-lowing technique.

Antonaras / Glassware in Late Antique Thessalonik 303

worksho from the eastern necroolis yielded relatively secure information aout its roducts, which roaly consisted of several tyes of lams.9

Raw material, according to its aearance, color, and quality, might have een artly imorted from yro-Palestinian rimary workshos and artly was acquired from recycling of roken ojects, which must have een collected quite thoroughly.

A. Glass VesselsIn the eriod under examination, forms and uses of glass vessels in Thessalonik according to the excavated material could be summarized as follows.0

Fig. 2. After the middle of the second and during the third century, Thessalonik flourished, but, as far as glass finds are concerned, the numer of reserved examles diminished consideraly, as did the numer of

9 Antonaras, Endeivxei~ drasthriovthta~, 273; idem, Ualopoiiva kai ualourgiva, forthcoming.

0 For a thorough and analytical study of glass vessels from Thessaloniks region, see Antonaras, Rwmai>khv kai palaiocristianikhv ualourgiva. For a version of the same studyFor a version of the same study in nglish see idem, Glass essels, forthcoming.idem, Glass essels, forthcoming.Glass essels, forthcoming.

Fig. . Glass orkshos in Thessaloniki. Town Plan and Remains.


forms in use. Mainly tableware is preserved: arybaloid ugs, biconical bottles tableware is preserved: arybaloid ugs, biconical bottlestableware is preserved: arybaloid ugs, biconical bottles is preserved: arybaloid ugs, biconical bottlesis preserved: arybaloid ugs, biconical bottles preserved: arybaloid ugs, biconical bottlespreserved: arybaloid ugs, biconical bottles: arybaloid ugs, biconical bottlesaryaloid jugs, iconical ottles with indentations, and pear-shaped flasks. lso, large, ar-like unguentaria Also, large, jar-like unguentariaAlso, large, jar-like unguentaria, large, jar-like unguentarialarge, jar-like unguentaria jar-like unguentariaunguentaria are found, ossily of estern origin. Finally, during this eriod, if not a it, ossily of estern origin. Finally, during this eriod, if not a itossily of estern origin. Finally, during this eriod, if not a it of estern origin. Finally, during this eriod, if not a itof estern origin. Finally, during this eriod, if not a it estern origin. Finally, during this eriod, if not a itestern origin. Finally, during this eriod, if not a it origin. Finally, during this eriod, if not a itorigin. Finally, during this eriod, if not a it. Finally, during this eriod, if not a itFinally, during this eriod, if not a it, during this eriod, if not a itduring this eriod, if not a it this eriod, if not a itthis eriod, if not a it eriod, if not a iteriod, if not a it, if not a itif not a it not a itnot a it a ita it itit later, souted vessels aear with an inherent sout. These vessels are known, souted vessels aear with an inherent sout. These vessels are knownsouted vessels aear with an inherent sout. These vessels are known vessels aear with an inherent sout. These vessels are knownvessels aear with an inherent sout. These vessels are known with an inherent sout. These vessels are knownwith an inherent sout. These vessels are known inherent sout. These vessels are knowninherent sout. These vessels are known

as ay-feeders ut were roaly used as lam fillers. These vessels were roduced oth in the est and the ast, although their handleless variants, which appear in Thessalonik, seem to be an Eastern product. They continue to e used and roduced in the fourth century, mainly with an alied sout, as well.

Around the end of the second and during the third centuries, the following the end of the second and during the third centuries, the followingthe end of the second and during the third centuries, the following end of the second and during the third centuries, the followingend of the second and during the third centuries, the following of the second and during the third centuries, the followingof the second and during the third centuries, the following the second and during the third centuries, the followingthe second and during the third centuries, the following second and during the third centuries, the followingand during the third centuries, the following during the third centuries, the followingduring the third centuries, the following the third centuries, the followingthe third centuries, the following third centuries, the following new forms appeared in Thessalonik: bulbous flasks cylindrical, engravedappeared in Thessalonik: bulbous flasks cylindrical, engraved bulbous flasks cylindrical, engravedbulbous flasks cylindrical, engraved flasks cylindrical, engravedflasks cylindrical, engraved beakers as well as indented, ovoid, and conical unguentaria with horizontaland conical unguentaria with horizontalunguentaria with horizontal with horizontal shoulders, which were estern roducts.

In the second half of the third century a new eriod of develoment the second half of the third century a new eriod of develomentthe second half of the third century a new eriod of develoment second half of the third century a new eriod of develomenthalf of the third century a new eriod of develoment of the third century a new eriod of develomentof the third century a new eriod of develoment the third century a new eriod of develomentthe third century a new eriod of develoment third century a new eriod of develomenta new eriod of develoment new eriod of develomentnew eriod of develoment eriod of develomenteriod of develoment of develomentof develoment develomentdeveloment started in Thessalonik. In general this was a prosperous period for the city, as is evident from the erection of new monumental uildings. Its roserity was a result of its strategic osition on the Via Egnatia and its osition on the sea both of these elements, which made Thessalonik important for the

Fig. 2. Drawings of second- and third-century glass vessels.


constant military events of this eriod, led Galerius to choose the city as his imerial caital.

Fig. 3. fter the middle of the third century, the use of glass in Thessalonik was more widespread such glass was now mostly produced as large-sized

Fig. 3. Drawings of late-third-century glass vessels.


vessels, amforisks, jugs, and ottles. These forms, equally widesread in equally widesread inequally widesread in widesread inwidesread in inin eastern and western rovinces, aeared in the mid-third century and seem to have lasted until the eginning of the fifth century. The following tall tableware vessels appear in large numbers: ugs in new shapes, known both from East and West pointed and flat-bottomed amforisks spherical bottles with cut-off rim and constriction at the ase of their neck; sherical and ear-shaed ottles with outslayed rim or funnel mouth, ried and lain ones. Aforementioned forms were widely used and roduced oth in the est and the ast, ut roaly a large numer of them were roduced locally.. lso, flasks appear in many forms: pear-shaped, suat or slender spherical, flasks appear in many forms: pear-shaped, suat or slender sphericalflasks appear in many forms: pear-shaped, suat or slender spherical ear-shaed, squat or slender; shericalear-shaed, squat or slender; sherical-shaed, squat or slender; shericalshaed, squat or slender; sherical squat or slender; shericalsquat or slender; sherical or slender; shericalor slender; sherical slender; shericalslender; sherical; shericalsherical ones with short or long neck; ovular and cylindrical ones, some of which with short or long neck; ovular and cylindrical ones, some of whichwith short or long neck; ovular and cylindrical ones, some of which short or long neck; ovular and cylindrical ones, some of whichshort or long neck; ovular and cylindrical ones, some of which or long neck; ovular and cylindrical ones, some of whichor long neck; ovular and cylindrical ones, some of which long neck; ovular and cylindrical ones, some of whichlong neck; ovular and cylindrical ones, some of which neck; ovular and cylindrical ones, some of whichneck; ovular and cylindrical ones, some of which; ovular and cylindrical ones, some of whichovular and cylindrical ones, some of which and cylindrical ones, some of whichand cylindrical ones, some of which cylindrical ones, some of whichcylindrical ones, some of which ones, some of whichones, some of which were locally roduced. The revailing form of drinking vessels consists of hemisherical owls often earing engraved or alied decoration, while ovular eakers aear only soradically.

Unguentaria too appear among the finds from Thessalonik. These, which are miniature versions of taleware vessels, are sherical with cut-off or outslayed rims or funnel-mouthed. They include ear-shaed ones with outslayed rims, wide and cylindrical ones, ulous ones, and jar-like ones jar-like ones ones with vertical ris. At the same time cuical and doule-faced mold-lown. At the same time cuical and doule-faced mold-lownAt the same time cuical and doule-faced mold-lown the same time cuical and doule-faced mold-lownthe same time cuical and doule-faced mold-lown same time cuical and doule-faced mold-lownsame time cuical and doule-faced mold-lown time cuical and doule-faced mold-lowntime cuical and doule-faced mold-lown cuical and doule-faced mold-lowncuical and doule-faced mold-lown unguentaria aeared. All these forms survived throughout the fourth century. these forms survived throughout the fourth century.these forms survived throughout the fourth century. forms survived throughout the fourth century.forms survived throughout the fourth century. survived throughout the fourth century.survived throughout the fourth century. throughout the fourth century.throughout the fourth century. the fourth century.the fourth century. fourth century. They seem to have originated in the est or even in the alkans, while only seem to have originated in the est or even in the alkans, while onlyoriginated in the est or even in the alkans, while only in the est or even in the alkans, while onlyin the est or even in the alkans, while only the est or even in the alkans, while onlythe est or even in the alkans, while only est or even in the alkans, while onlyest or even in the alkans, while only or even in the alkans, while onlyor even in the alkans, while only even in the alkans, while onlyeven in the alkans, while only in the alkans, while onlyin the alkans, while only the alkans, while onlythe alkans, while only alkans, while onlyalkans, while only, while onlywhile only onlyonly a few aear to e of oriental origin.few aear to e of oriental origin. aear to e of oriental origin.aear to e of oriental origin. to e of oriental origin.to e of oriental origin. e of oriental origin.e of oriental origin. of oriental origin.of oriental origin. oriental origin.oriental origin. origin.origin.

Fig. . Wide use of glass vessels in Thessalonik continued in the fourth. Wide use of glass vessels in Thessalonik continued in the fourthWide use of glass vessels in Thessalonik continued in the fourth century. essels are mainly yro-Palestinian or imitate yro-Palestinian are mainly yro-Palestinian or imitate yro-Palestinianare mainly yro-Palestinian or imitate yro-Palestinian or imitate yro-Palestinianor imitate yro-Palestinian imitate yro-Palestinianimitate yro-Palestinian yro-Palestinianyro-Palestinian forms. essels for serving liquids aear in a great variety of forms, namely. essels for serving liquids aear in a great variety of forms, namelyessels for serving liquids aear in a great variety of forms, namely liquids aear in a great variety of forms, namelyliquids aear in a great variety of forms, namely aear in a great variety of forms, namely ugs and flasks. Drinking vessels consist of owls, oth shallow and deeer vessels consist of owls, oth shallow and deeervessels consist of owls, oth shallow and deeer consist of owls, oth shallow and deeerconsist of owls, oth shallow and deeer owls, oth shallow and deeerowls, oth shallow and deeer deeerdeeer ones, and tall conical eakers without ases, which were roaly used also and tall conical eakers without ases, which were roaly used alsotall conical eakers without ases, which were roaly used also conical eakers without ases, which were roaly used alsoconical eakers without ases, which were roaly used also eakers without ases, which were roaly used alsoeakers without ases, which were roaly used also without ases, which were roaly used alsowithout ases, which were roaly used also ases, which were roaly used alsoases, which were roaly used also, which were roaly used alsoroaly used also used alsoused also alsoalso as lamps. The following bowls appear: free-blown hemispherical ones, and lamps. The following bowls appear: free-blown hemispherical ones, andlamps. The following bowls appear: free-blown hemispherical ones, and. The following bowls appear: free-blown hemispherical ones, and The following bowls appear: free-blown hemispherical ones, and mold-lown ones with a honeycom attern. Present also are calyx-shaed owls and short cylindrical ones with scalloed rims.

Fig. 5. Unguentaria appear in a great diversity of sizes and forms: as small amhorae, craters, and jugs; as handleless and iconical, squat and sherical, ear-shaed, cylindrical with short and tall neck; as square odied with tall or short neck; and as jar-like. Glass was also used for the roduction of lams, was also used for the roduction of lams,was also used for the roduction of lams, also used for the roduction of lams,also used for the roduction of lams, used for the roduction of lams,used for the roduction of lams, for the roduction of lams,for the roduction of lams, the roduction of lams,the roduction of lams, roduction of lams,roduction of lams, of lams,of lams, lams,lams,, like the three-handled hemisherical and calyx-shaed owls. the three-handled hemisherical and calyx-shaed owls.the three-handled hemisherical and calyx-shaed owls. three-handled hemisherical and calyx-shaed owls.hemisherical and calyx-shaed owls. and calyx-shaed owls.and calyx-shaed owls. calyx-shaed owls.calyx-shaed owls.-shaed owls.shaed owls. owls.owls. A secialA secial grou consists of octagonal jugs, lain and with olique riing, which aearoctagonal jugs, lain and with olique riing, which aear jugs, lain and with olique riing, which aearjugs, lain and with olique riing, which aear, lain and with olique riing, which aearlain and with olique riing, which aear and with olique riing, which aearand with olique riing, which aear with olique riing, which aearwith olique riing, which aear olique riing, which aearolique riing, which aear riing, which aearriing, which aear aearaear to e local roducts of the late fourth to fifth centuries. e local roducts of the late fourth to fifth centuries.e local roducts of the late fourth to fifth centuries. local roducts of the late fourth to fifth centuries.local roducts of the late fourth to fifth centuries. roducts of the late fourth to fifth centuries.roducts of the late fourth to fifth centuries. of the late fourth to fifth centuries.of the late fourth to fifth centuries. the late fourth to fifth centuries.the late fourth to fifth centuries. late fourth to fifth centuries.centuries..2

Antonaras, Glass Lams, forthcoming.Antonaras, Glass Lams, forthcoming.. 2 Idem, New Glass Finds, :3.:3.


Fig. . Drawings of fourth-century glass taleware.


Fig. . Drawings of fourth-century glass vessels.


Fig. 6.6. At the end of the fourth and during the early fifth the end of the fourth and during the early fifththe end of the fourth and during the early fifth end of the fourth and during the early fifthend of the fourth and during the early fifth of the fourth and during the early fifthof the fourth and during the early fifth the fourth and during the early fifththe fourth and during the early fifth fourth and during the early fifthand during the early fifth during the early fifthduring the early fifth the early fifththe early fifth fifth centuries, tall conical tall conicaltall conical beakers with ring bases, indented bowls, and tall cylindrical flasks appear in Thessalonik. These may have originated in the northwestern provinces.

Fig. . In Thessalonik. In Thessalonik during the fifth and sixth centuries, quite ossily the fifth and sixth centuries, quite ossilythe fifth and sixth centuries, quite ossily fifth and sixth centuries, quite ossilyand sixth centuries, quite ossily sixth centuries, quite ossilyossily several forms of the fourth-century taleware, like jugs, ottles, and drinking forms of the fourth-century taleware, like jugs, ottles, and drinkingforms of the fourth-century taleware, like jugs, ottles, and drinking of the fourth-century taleware, like jugs, ottles, and drinkingof the fourth-century taleware, like jugs, ottles, and drinking the fourth-century taleware, like jugs, ottles, and drinkingthe fourth-century taleware, like jugs, ottles, and drinking fourth-century taleware, like jugs, ottles, and drinking, like jugs, ottles, and drinking

vessels, survived. The latter were also used as lams. The well-known form of stemmed eakers revails. The other forms of glass lams known from theThe other forms of glass lams known from thehe other forms of glass lams known from the other forms of glass lams known from theother forms of glass lams known from the forms of glass lams known from theforms of glass lams known from the of glass lams known from theof glass lams known from the glass lams known from theglass lams known from thelass lams known from theknown from the from thefrom the the area of Thessalonik are eually well documented all over the MediterraneanThessalonik are eually well documented all over the Mediterranean equally well documented all over the Mediterraneanequally well documented all over the Mediterranean well documented all over the Mediterraneanwell documented all over the Mediterranean region (i.e., three-handled stemmed eakers, hemisherical or calyx-shaed stemmed lams, and ointed cylindrical vessels with a smaller or larger kno forming the ase).).3

Examples of vessels found throughout the inhabited areas of Thessalonik of vessels found throughout the inhabited areas of Thessalonikof vessels found throughout the inhabited areas of Thessalonik vessels found throughout the inhabited areas of Thessalonikvessels found throughout the inhabited areas of Thessalonik found throughout the inhabited areas of Thessalonikfound throughout the inhabited areas of Thessalonik throughout the inhabited areas of Thessalonikhabited areas of Thessalonik areas of Thessalonikareas of Thessalonik of Thessalonik are few and date in the second half of the fourth and in the fifth centuries. few and date in the second half of the fourth and in the fifth centuries.few and date in the second half of the fourth and in the fifth centuries. and date in the second half of the fourth and in the fifth centuries.date in the second half of the fourth and in the fifth centuries. essels for carrying liquidslike jugs, dee and shallow owls, and others for drinkingrevail. ome ear engraved decorations, indicating their use y the wealthier eole. These engraved vessels, which are roaly mainly of Italian origin, also show Thessaloniks relationship to Rome and the Italian eninsula in general. Although agan themes occur, mainly Christian or nonreligious, geometrical themes revail. The most interesting fragments are the following:

Fig. .. Deicted on a fourth-century sherical ottle is a hunting scene with a female, most likely Diana, with a ow, hunting two deer assisted

3 Idem, Glass Lams, forthcoming.Idem, Glass Lams, forthcoming.

Fig. 6. Drawings of late-fourth-century estern glass vessels.


Fig. . Drawings of fifth- and sixth-century glass vessels.


y dogs. The scene takes lace among ushes and trees, and the deer are running toward a stretched net. Aove the scene a artly reserved inscrition reads: USUCI PIE . . . HS META . . . /WN PIE Z . . . S. Although it has it hasit has hashas een ulished with the lacunae filled with Christian words, like ulished with the lacunae filled with Christian words, likeulished with the lacunae filled with Christian words, like with the lacunae filled with Christian words, likewith the lacunae filled with Christian words, like AGION, etc., I find this reconstruction quite, if not highly, inaroriate, given the agan scene covering the vessels ody. o, it seems more roale that the text with the wish for this certain Usuvci(o~), owner of the ottle, could e filled with the words TWN SWN, or TWN OIKEIWN, or TWN SWN OIKEIWN PANTWN, or, given the size of the vessels missing part, evengiven the size of the vessels missing part, eveneven with the names of these OIKEIOIa attern well known from other similar finds.6 Therefore, the inscription might be reconstructed as follows: Usuvci, pive zhvsh/~ meta; tw`n sw`n oijkeivwn pavntwn. Pive zhvsh/~. Hesychios,, drink; may you live with all your intimates. Drink; may you live; may you live with all your intimates. Drink; may you livemay you live with all your intimates. Drink; may you live you live with all your intimates. Drink; may you liveyou live with all your intimates. Drink; may you live live with all your intimates. Drink; may you livelive with all your intimates. Drink; may you live with all your intimates. Drink; may you livewith all your intimates. Drink; may you live all your intimates. Drink; may you liveall your intimates. Drink; may you live your intimates. Drink; may you liveyour intimates. Drink; may you live intimates. Drink; may you liveintimates. Drink; may you live. Drink; may you liveDrink; may you live All other decorated vessels (shallow owls and lates) are oen-shaed.7

Fig. .2. On a late a standing figure is reserved, holding a lant in the right hand which looks like a oy (?) and showing what would aear to e the seed od. Perhas also from the same vessel is a herringone and reserved around the rim and arts of what once were eight-ointed stars.9

rchaeological Museum of Thessalonik, reg. no.rchaeological Museum of Thessalonik, reg. no. MQ 722. For the vessels formthe vessels form form see Isings,Isings, Roman Glass, 2223, form 03; Antonaras, Rwmai>khv kai palaiocristianikhv ualourgiva, 3222, form . For Dianas reresentations on glass vessels, see hitehouse,3222, form . For Dianas reresentations on glass vessels, see hitehouse,hitehouse, Roman Glass, :, no. 5 oeschcke and Willers,:, no. 5 oeschcke and Willers, Beschreibung rmischer Altertmer, vol. 2, late 2; Fremersdorf, Die Rmischen Glser, :5, plate . Extremely similar xtremely similar is the entire hunting scene deicted on a second-century b.C.e. faience Calathos found in a grave at Neapolis, Thessalonik, where the hunter is also identified as Diana: Daffa-, where the hunter is also identified as Diana: Daffa-, where the hunter is also identified as Diana: Daffa-ikonanou, Duvo emeivsakta aggeiva, 2697, fig. 3, late 6.3, late 6.

Petsas, Anaskafhv panepisthmioupovlew~ Qessalonivkh~, 3, plates and ,plates and , and , and , and 29,and 29, 29, fig. allas,. allas, allas,; Pallas, Les Monuments palochrtiens de Grce, 7. Pallas sees EUSUCI PIE . . . .HS META . . .. . . WN PIE Z. . .S and reads it as: EUYUCEI. PIE ZHSHS META TWN AGIWN. PIE ZHSHS (7 n. 63). Feissel reads it as7 n. 63). Feissel reads it asn. 63). Feissel reads it as. 63). Feissel reads it as. Feissel reads it asFeissel reads it as USUCI PIE ZHSHS META TWN AGIWN PIE ZHSHS and suggests the fourth century as a ossile date. Idem, Recueil des inscriptions chrtiennes, no. 27.

6 Cabrol and ecler, ie zeses, col. 33 uth, Drink may you live! 3,, where exhaustive iliograhy on that issue can e found; Fremersdorf,Fremersdorf, Die Rmischen Glser mit Schliff, 99, late 2; 2773.

7 Isings, Roman Glass, , form 6; Antonaras, Rwmai>khv kai palaiocristiamikhv ualourgiva, 333, form 6.

rchaeological Museum of Thessalonik, reg. no. MQ 2960. 9 For similar lants on rock crystal vessels, see Fremersdorf, Antikes, Islamisches und

Mittelalterliches Glas, nos. , , plate . For parallels in glass: aolocci,For parallels in glass: aolocci, I vetri incisi, 55, 5 Rui,i,i,, Rimsko staklo u Srbii staklo u Srbiistaklo u Srbii u Srbiiu Srbii SrbiiSrbii, 5 no. 5, plate 3:.5 no. 5, plate 3:.


Fig. . ngraved glass vessels.


Fig. .3. From another late20 a male, eardless head in rofile is reserved, over which letters ZH can e read; these are art of an inscrition, roaly a salutation in the form of pive zhvsh~, which was equally used in agan, used in agan,used in agan, in agan,in agan, agan,agan,, ewish, and Christian scenes. and Christian scenes.and Christian scenes. Christian scenes.Christian scenes. scenes.scenes.2 The late seems to e a roduct of a Roman worksho from the second half of the fourth century.22

Fig. .. e find yet another fragment of a late,23 on which the letter H can e read, along with an uncertain motif. The decoration on the fragment could e the leg of a throne or of a cathedra.

Fig. .. The est-reserved samle resents a young, eardless, standing est-reserved samle resents a young, eardless, standingest-reserved samle resents a young, eardless, standing-reserved samle resents a young, eardless, standingreserved samle resents a young, eardless, standing samle resents a young, eardless, standingsamle resents a young, eardless, standing figure with a nimus and holding a long staff with his right hand, which ends u in a chrism.2 Around the nimus can e seen the letter M, and ossily a second one, hardly visible today. The figure is flanked by two tabulae ansatae (talets with handles), ossily standards, laced erendicularly at each side. This late is likely the roduct of a Roman worksho at the end of the fourth to the early fifth centuries. This worksho is known from several ieces that share the same Christian themes in their detailing, themes similar to that of the aforementioned late.2

Identifying the figure is not an easy task, and only a few suggestions on the figure is not an easy task, and only a few suggestions onfigure is not an easy task, and only a few suggestions on is not an easy task, and only a few suggestions onis not an easy task, and only a few suggestions on not an easy task, and only a few suggestions onnot an easy task, and only a few suggestions on an easy task, and only a few suggestions onan easy task, and only a few suggestions on easy task, and only a few suggestions oneasy task, and only a few suggestions on task, and only a few suggestions ontask, and only a few suggestions on that matter will e made. This kind of staff can e seen held y Christ and. This kind of staff can e seen held y Christ andThis kind of staff can e seen held y Christ and t. Peter, less often y t. Paul or t. ohn the Forerunner.26 Also, saints highly venerated locally are given this insignium, like t. Laurent in Galla Placidias mausoleum or in a glass owl from Ostia.27 Finally, if indeed the letter M aove his head is an indication of his name, then ossily he could e identified with the Archangel Michael or some other saint with an M in his name. Tabulae ansatae, ossily standards, which are resented around the figure, have also een oserved in association with other archangels, and lead to the identification of the admittedly wingless figure with Archangel Michael.2

20 rchaeological Museum of Thessalonik, reg. no., reg. no., reg. no. MQ 297. 2 Cabrol and ecler, ie zeses, col. 33 uth, Drink may you live! 3,,

where exhaustive iliograhy on that matter can e found.22 On this worksho see Paolucci, I vetri incisi, 762. For a thorough study of the

workshos active in Rome during the late fourth and early fifth century, see agu, Un iatto di vetro, 337.337.

23 rchaeological Museum of Thessalonik, yet unregistered, presented in ntonaras,, yet unregistered, presented in ntonaras,, yet unregistered, resented in Antonaras, Rwmai>khv kai palaiocristianikhv ualourgiva, as vessel no. 3. 3. 36.

2 Museum of Byzantine Culture, Thessalonik, reg. no. 3., reg. no. 3., reg. no. 3. 3. 327/. 2 Paolucci, LArte del Vetro Inciso, 272; also, agu, Un iatto, 337. 26 chfer, Die Heilige, 33. 27 Paolucci, I vetri incisi, 2, fig. . 2 I would like to thank Dr. Charalambos Bakirtzis for suggesting to me this interpretation


Fig. .6. Among the nonfigurative themes, we distinguish a Greek cross inscried in a round medallion,29 while all the others are just dots, facets, and ands engraved solely or in cominations that sometimes create more elaorate atterns.

Regarding the decorative techniques resent in our material and their overall distribution in Thessalonik, we could summarize our remarks as follows. Almost exclusively free-lown, lain, undecorated vessels were used. Few forms of fully mold-lown, or more usually, di mold-lown occur; these are concentrated mainly in the fourth to fifth centuries. Di mold-lowing offered an easy and inexensive way of decorating vessels with riing, usually olique or occasionally vertical. From the late third to fifth centuries, few vessels are incised, mainly with simle ands, while only a handful ears more comlicated figurative decoration. An even smaller numer of vessels ears alied decorations, mainly consisting of simle threads or dots, alone or in clusters of contrasting colors, while only a coule of vessels were adorned with inching.

Fig. . This figure summarizes the above data and visualizes in charts the sreading of different grous of vessels y century. Results of the writers research on glass finds from Thessalonik dating from the first century b.C.e. to the sixth century C.e. will e used.30 From this figure, we can oserve that in the second and the eginning of the third centuries the total numer of forms and vessels, comared to that of the first century, diminishes significantlyreresenting 7. ercent of the total numer of forms and just7. ercent of the total numer of forms and justof the total numer of forms and just 3 ercent of vessels. hile taleware still revails, the numer of vessels for serving liquids increases and the numer of unguentaria drastically diminishes. Additionally, souted vessels and ossily lam fillers aear for the first time. Among the vessels of this eriod those whose origin can e traced aear to e western roducts. From the middle of the third until theFrom the middle of the third until the the middle of the third until thethe middle of the third until the middle of the third until themiddle of the third until the of the third until theof the third until the the third until thethe third until the third until the until the early fifth century, the spread of glass vessels recovers in Thessalonik. large numer of unguentaria aears, although taleware nevertheless revails even for carrying liquids. A few transorting vessels and some lams are also resent. essels of this eriod reresent fifty ercent of the total numer offifty ercent of the total numer of of the total numer of forms and fifty ercent of the total numer of vessels discussed here. It seemsfifty ercent of the total numer of vessels discussed here. It seems It seems that imorts from the ast revail, esecially from yro-Palestine, while at of the indeterminale motifs of the tabulae ansatae/standards. Rectangular standards on tall shafts can e seen held y archangels in the mosaics of . Aollinare in Classe.

29 For arallels see arag, see arag,see arag, arag,, Glass essels esselsessels, late 2/; Iliffe, Tom at l assa, 9;2/; Iliffe, Tom at l assa, 9;; from a grave of the last decade of the fourth century, reresented in Paolucci, I vetri incisi, 7273, fig. 36.36.

30 Antonaras, Rwmai>khv kai palaiocristianikhv ualourgiva.


Fig.

9. Di

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the same time the total numer of local roducts also rises consideraly. Later, during the fifth and sixth centuries, lams dominate among the indeed quite scarce numer of finds. Lams, reresenting three ercent of the total numer of forms and 2.7 ercent of the numer of vessels studied, demonstrate one of the main needs that glass ojects fulfilled throughout the Byzantine era. No securely dated seventh-century finds have yet been unearthed or ulished.

Fig. 0. As has already een mentioned, the majority of the extant material was found in cemeteries. Therefore, the surviving samles elucidate the general reertoire of vessels used during urials as grave goods and during the memorials (i.e., mnmosyna).

outed vessels, seudoierons, or rather lam fillers, as well as examles of the entire reertoire of glass lams have een found in large quantities at the necropoleis of Thessalonik. These finds witness to the well-attested custom of letting a lam urn over the grave for the first forty days after the urial and additionally on secial occasions and fixed dates during the year.3 everal graves were equied with a secial rectangular niche (lucernarium) where the lam was laced.32

The resence of unguentaria and artly of larger, close-shaed taleware vessels (e.g., ugs, flasks, and bottles) is connected with the mutually pagan and Christian custom to anoint the deceased ones, mutual to the extent that the fathers of the Christian church castigated it.33 Also, the vessels must have held oil used in the symolic act erformed y the riest when he oured it crosswise over the corse at a funeral in order to show that the deceased lived and died in accordance with the sacred canons.3 Additionally, this custom was connected with an attemt y the deceaseds loved ones to render the frequently luxurious urial garments useless and thus to discourage the desecration of the grave.3

3 Koukoules, Buzantinw`n bivo~, :. For an early reference on the continuous urning of a lam on a grave, see Egerias Travelss Travelss Travels TravelsTravels, 232, 7.3. 232, 7.3.232, 7.3.

32 Marki,Marki,, H nekrovpolh th~ Qessalonivkh~, 6, 20, where local examles are cited; Makrooulou, Grave Finds, 6. For reresentations of urning lams and candelara in wall paintings from tombs in Thessalonik, see Mark, H nekrovpolh th~ Qessalonivkh~, , figs. 35, plate 5 , fig. 3, plate .

33 Koukoules, Buzantinw`n nekrika; e[qima, 30, es. 9, 3. All the information from this article with new thoughts on that matter can e found in nglish in Kyriakakis,Kyriakakis,, Byzantine Burial Customs, 3.Byzantine Burial Customs, 3. urial Customs, 3772.urial Customs, 3772. Customs, 3772.Customs, 3772.

3 Kallinikou, O cristianiko;~ nao;~, 606; Koukoules, Buzantinw`n nekrika; e[qima, 3; Loucatos, Laografikai;, 7.

3 Kyriakakis, Byzantine Burial Customs, 5 ntonaras, Early Christian Gold-, arly Christian Gold-arly Christian Gold- Christian Gold-Christian Gold- Gold-Gold--mroidered ilks, 7; idem, Late Antique Gold-mroidered ilks, 9. ilks, 7; idem, Late Antique Gold-mroidered ilks, 9.ilks, 7; idem, Late Antique Gold-mroidered ilks, 9., 7; idem, Late Antique Gold-mroidered ilks, 9.7; idem, Late Antique Gold-mroidered ilks, 9., 9. 9.


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Taleware fragments, found in and around the graves or scattered around at the necropoleis, are connected with the memorial ceremonies and the meals (makaries) that Christians offered aove the graves.36 All aforementioned vessels, used for the urial or in the cemetery, were not suosed to e rought ack to the deceased ones house, as they were not considered clean anymore.37 This elief could artly exlain the fact that vessels found in the graves are usually comletely new, earing no traces of use, even if they are sometimes found roken.3 It seems that these vessels were ought to e laced in the graves. To some extent, this ractice exlains their often lower quality or evidence of a few faults, such as ody deformations or oor alance, that might have excluded them from the normal market.

Also, one must kee in mind that such vessels had other uses, for examle, in medicine or alchemy. Although these uses were once quite common, they are scarcely traced in archaeological finds. For evidence of such uses, we must rely on the scant and circumstantial finds suorted y the information reserved in ictorial and written sources.

In conclusion, we should note that glass vessels covered just a small art of the uses and needs that were mainly served y clay vessels. Glass was utilized by the wealthier social strata or, in special instances, by multiple lower-strata users who ordinarily covered their needs with clay and wooden vessels. Alying our scarce knowledge aout the rice of glass in the eginning of the fourth century,39 we can calculate that a glass ottle would cost ten times the rice of a similar ceramic vessel, around five to ten

36 For that reason several wealthy graves, found in both necropoleis of Thessalonik, had atop of their barrel-vaulted ceiling a flat surface, where memorial banuets could take place (Mark, H nekrovpolh th~ Qessalonivkh~, , 209). For relevant finds from other Greek sites see Laskaris, Monuments funraires palochrtiens, 26. Memorial meals were well attested in Macedonia during the Roman eriod, ossily connected with the Italian colonists, in the form of parentalia and Rosalia, which also involved meals in the cemeteries (see Ascough, A Question of Death, 3, with relevant references). For Thessalonian associations and their imortance on urials and memorials, see igdelis, Epigrafikav Qessalonivkeia, . For presentations of memorial banuets in Thessaloniks tombs, see Mark, H nekrovpolh th~ Qessalonivkh~, 0, figs. 77, lates bg. On reresentations of urial anquets on agan altars, see Adam-eleni,Adam-eleni, Makedonikoiv Bwmoiv, 69, where examleswhere examles from Thessalonik and ancient Macedonia in general are discussed in detail.

37 Loucatos, Laografikaiv, 779. 3 For relevant archaeological evidence from Thessaloniks necropoleis, see Makropoulou,

Tafikav eurhvmata, 26667; eadem, Grave Finds and urial Practices in Thessaloniki26667; eadem, Grave Finds and urial Practices in Thessaloniki eadem, Grave Finds and urial Practices in ThessalonikiGrave Finds and urial Practices in ThessalonikiGrave Finds and urial Practices in Thessaloniki (fourthfifteenth century).

39 On Diocletians edict of 30 C.e., see Giacchero, Edictum Diocletiani. On rices ofOn rices of glass ojects, see arag, Recent Imortant igrahic Discoveries, 36; and tern,arag, Recent Imortant igrahic Discoveries, 36; and tern,36; and tern,tern, Roman Glasslowing, 66. 66.


denarii, equal to the rice of a workers meal or one-fifth to one-third of his daily wages.0 Glass vessels, or at least the lain ones, were sold y the ound, just like glass tesserae and window anes. Thus, the workmanshi of the glass-worker offered no added value to the roduct.

Also, it is quite easy to conclude that glass was favored for some uses like unguentaria and medicine recetacles. In contrast, they were only excetionally used as storage vessels or as vessels for long-distance trade. Finally, in the case of taleware, glass, clay, and metal vessels were used side-y-side in anquets or were interchanged according to what was socially dictated or requested for every instance.

B. Window PanesUse of glass window anes is well attested from the first century C.e.2 In Thessalonik, though, unlike other Macedonian sites like hilippi,3 few finds of this kind are ulished (fig. ). These finds date around the fourth century. Due to the small size of the preserved fragments, their manufacturing technique is difficult to determine. evertheless, it is quite certain that muff-rocess or cylinders technique revailed, as no fragments are found with the characteristics of the ulls-eye technique or of roduction in a mold. esides, in Late Antiquity the muff-rocess was almost exclusively used to make windowanes. efore closing this chater, this chater,this chater, I should stress that the paucity of finds does not really reflect the extent of the use of glass window anes ecause recyclin was commonlace at the time. As is only logical, ut also suorted y archaeological finds, roken window anes were meticulously collected after the aandonment or the

0 The average bottle or ug widely used in ate ntiue Thessalonik weighs ca. 5 gm. o if a ound (327. gm.) costs twenty or thirty denarii, deending on the quality of glass, a vessel of that kind would cost five to ten denarii.

arag, Recent Imortant igrahic Discoveries, 36; tern, Roman Glass-lowing, 66.

2 For the latest and most u-to-date information aout glass window anes in the Medi-terranean world, see discussions in De Transparentes speculationsTransparentes speculations speculations, 2.2.

3 Pelekanidis, H e[xw tw`n teicw`n, 79; rer., idem,79; rer., idem,, Studien zur Frhchristlichen, 3606, fig. 9; Kourkoutidou-ikolaidou, itraux alochrtiens Philies, 27796; Antonaras, arly Christian Glass Finds, 9, fig. 2.

Romiooulou, Romiooulou, Nosokomeivo ACEPA, 22, late 9a, where considerale quantities 22, late 9a, where considerale quantitieslate 9a, where considerale quantities9a, where considerale quantitiesa, where considerale quantities of window glass were found in the deris of a third-century ath house, ossily art of a Roman villa. Also, similar, still unulished, material has een unearthed in the Roman villa. Also, similar, still unulished, material has een unearthed in the Roman villaAlso, similar, still unulished, material has een unearthed in the Roman villa under Galeriuss alace, dated to the second half of the third century. I exress my thanks to the excavator of the site, Mrs. Marianna Karaeri, for sharing this information with me. Karaeri, for sharing this information with me.Karaeri, for sharing this information with me., for sharing this information with me.for sharing this information with me. sharing this information with me.sharing this information with me. this information with me.this information with me. information with me.information with me. with me.with me. me.me..


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ruining of a uilding. The fragments were re-melted, as their mass equaled that of several costly glass vessels.

C. Jewelry Glass was used early as a sustitute for colorful semirecious stones already in ancient Mesootamia and haraonic gyt and may have een invented for this urose. During the early imerial eriod, fancy, colorful gems were created, develoing the Hellenistic tradition of the originally colorless gems and reresenting ojets dart er se. uyers in Late Antiquity would not ay the same rices for glass jewelry as for the crafted gems natural rototyes, as consumers were well aware of the chea and easy methods that the roduction of glass jewelry involved. Thus, roducts had to e chea. Plain artifacts were created often as inexensive and massively roduced sustitutes and handy solutions of adornment addressed to the wider, less wealthy social strata.

The greatest portion of finds from Thessalonik can be dated to the late third to sixth centuries (figs. 23). It aears that Thessalonians, just like other astern Mediterranean eoles, used larger eads and endants as central ieces for necklaces. Pendants were looed and dark colored with trails or secks in contrasting colors. At least three to four variants of these pendants exist: ar pendants,6 sometimes in an elongated7 or simlified version; juglet endants;9 and the oular disk endants with stamed motifs.0 Also, endants in the form of simlified glass drolets occur. Large-sized beads are also found freuently. Most were probably used as central

Makrooulou, Kosmhvmata, 669; idem, 669; idem, ; idem, Palaiocristianikav kosmhvmata, 662.

6 aer, Ancient Glass, 77 nn. 3323; Makrooulou, nn. 3323; Makrooulou, 3323; Makrooulou, Makrooulou, Kosmhvmata, 6, late 2, end of third to early fourth century.

7 Bead no. BYM , in the permanent exhibition of the Museum of Byzantine Culture, Thessalonik.

aer,aer, Ancient Glass, nn. 093, late fourth to sixth century. nn. 093, late fourth to sixth century. 9 Bead no. BYM , in the permanent exhibition of the Museum of Byzantine Culture,

dated to the fourth to early fifth century.0 alantis, Anaskafhv sto oikovpedo, 3, fig. 3, ca. mid-fourth-century flat, looped discs

with impressed motifs on the one side. No Christian or Jewish motif survives in Thessalonik, only a lion eneath a crescent and the sun or sol/luna, which is the most oular motif on these endants. The lion reresents the celestial rotective ower while the sol/luna motif over its head, which was used throughout the Byzantine period, denotes that God was the ruler of time. For analogous finds, see also Philie,For analogous finds, see also Philie, Le monde Byzantine, 373; and aer, Ancient Glass, 79, lates 2930.

These are later, degenerated and simlified versions of earlier, more elaorate eads in the form of glass drolets dated in the late fourth, fifth and sixth centuries (see aer, Ancient Glass, nn. 22). nn. 22).


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pieces or pendants and are characterized by their biconical or globular shape and their dark-colored ody usually decorated with white trails2 or secks.3 lso, sometimes large-sized beads are long and cylindrical, occasionally even looed, segmented, and atterned y the segmenting mold, gilded, or

2 Iid., 02, fig. 7; 3 nn. 7072., 02, fig. 7; 3 nn. 7072. 02, fig. 7; 3 nn. 7072. 3 Iid., 27, 29, third to fifth century. Iid., 03, 3 nn. 737. On the graves dating, see alantis,, Anaskafhv, 63, ca.

mid-fourth century. Rod-formed, wound, looed ead, insired y the looed endants, all of which were imitations of precious, metal amulets, like the golden one from Thessalonik. ee Qessalonivkh, , fig. : 5, no. :.

aer, Ancient Glass, 333 nn. 33. Identical example from Romano-Byzantine 333 nn. 33. Identical example from Romano-Byzantine necroolis at Castra, see iid.,, 32, fig. , second row from ottom. Long, cylindrical eads,

Fig. 3. Glass Jewelry, thirdfourth century. Museum of Byzantine Culture, Thessalonik.


just lain, long, smooth or sirally-ried ieces. Ried sacersroughly circular lano-convex ojects with two arallel erforations, an aarently orth alkan or Central uroean imortresent glass imitations of jet rototyes.6 right, ut simle glass eads in striking colors were occasionally used in earrings as stone sustitutes.7

All methods of ead forming known from other sites are also resent among finds from Thessalonik (e.g., winding, folding, molding, segmentation, drawing, etc.). Generally, these finds indicate their ovious connections with eastern Mediterranean roduction centers. eads of the following shaes appear: smooth and ribbed (melon-like) globular, ovoid, ear-shaed shaes;9 smooth, ried, and atterned cylindrical, cuical, hexahedron-like,60 hexagonal, and multifaceted6 shaes.

Often, necklaces consist of a few eads, eight to fifteen, roaly arranged immovaly in redefined distances on the string. Also, eads are used in great numers, comined with a few stonesone or amer onesto achieve esecially tasteful creations. In some cases almost the entire necklace consists of small, identical eads, interruted y a few larger, more elaorate ones. In other cases almost every bead is uniue, both in size and color, forming a dazzling product.62

racelets Glass angles of the earlier angles of the earlierangles of the earlier of the earlierof the earlier the earlierthe earlier earlierearlier La Tne period do not occur in Thessalonik orperiod do not occur in Thessalonik or do not occur in Thessalonik ordo not occur in Thessalonik or not occur in Thessalonik ornot occur in Thessalonik or occur in Thessalonik oroccur in Thessalonik or ancient Macedonia in general.63 They aear for the first time around the thirdThey aear for the first time around the third segmented and atterned y the segmenting mold, ending in collars, with granular attern on their ody, imitating granulation of their metal rototyes.

6 Iid., 66, 76 nn. 6, 7, fourth century, ossile eastern uroean or Pannonian roduct.

7 For examles dated from the third to seventh centuries, see Ross,Ross, Jewelry, Enamels, and Art, 3, no. 79P, late 99; Kyraiou,3, no. 79P, late 99; Kyraiou, Kyraiou, Greek ewelry ewelryewelry, 5, no. 5 apanikola-Bakirtzi,apanikola-Bakirtzi,panikola-Bakirtzi, Everyday Life in Byzantium Life in ByzantiumLife in Byzantium in Byzantiumin Byzantium ByzantiumByzantium, 2 nn. 2, , no. 76.

An interesting multicolored ead decorated with drawn-trailing, made ossily in the first century was used later in a comosite necklace. For arallels, see aer, Ancient Glass, 0, 7 nn. 999.

9 Folded, ear-shaed or cylindrical eads, similar in technique, ut not in colors with gytian date eads, of the second century (see iid., nn. 60ac).

60 eads nos. YM 0/6 and YM 2/ in the ermanent exhiition of the Museum of Byzantine Culture, Thessalonik.

6 alantis, Anaskafhv, 33, late , dated to the first quarter of the third century; also, aer, Ancient Glass, 7 nn. 9.

62 For color hotos of necklaces see Antonaras, 2003Glass, illustrations of forty-eighth to fiftieth weeks.

63 Haevernick, Die Glasarmringe. enclov, Prehistoric Glass in Bohemia, 2.


century C.e. and are of dark-colored glass usually called lack, although the color is in fact urle or dark green, only aearing lack due to the thickness.6 They appear in circular, semicircular, and flat, band-like cross-sections. They were made by two techniues: There are seamed examples, made from drawn out canes of glass, and seamless ones, made with the erforation and centrifugal rotation of a hot mass of glass.6 The majority are lain, while a few examles ear ressed, geometrical decorations in the form of olique riing. They were usually quite wide, ca. 67 cm, ut They were usually quite wide, ca. 67 cm, utThey were usually quite wide, ca. 67 cm, ut whether they were worn around wrists or at the uer art of the arm is not attested archaeologically. They had een sustitutes of similar exensive jewelry, most roaly imitating jet rototyes, which were in fashion during the fourth century. 66

Glass rings arly imerial glass rings known in the western art of the emire are not present in Thessalonik.67 In Late Antique sites of central Macedonia, a coule of glass rings were unearthed, suorting the suosition that they must have been sold in Thessaloniks market as well. What do occur in Thessalonik are glass gems, used in many cases as sustitutes for semirecious stones in rings, oth in cheaer creations6 and in elaorate golden examles as well.69 Of course it should e ket in mind that the same gems were also used for the emellishment of other luxurious minor ojects.

In Late Antiquity, unlike the early imerial eriod, glass ring gems usually are lain with no intaglios or other decoration excet for their vivid color. They are small, lenticular, or lano-convex ieces, occasionally in the shae of a yramid, sometimes found in graves with no metal remains of their

aer, Ancient Glass, 93, 9.6 Qessalonivkh, 23, 32, hoto 33. Kyraiou,Kyraiou, Greek ewelry, 0, no. 9. Makrooulou,

Kosmhvmata, 6, late 3, examles dated to the second half of the fourth century. 6 aer, Ancient Glass, 93. Antonaras, Use of Glass, 333. secially for later 93. Antonaras, Use of Glass, 333. secially for later, 333. secially for latersecially for later

examles see Antonaras, Uavlina mesobuzantinav braciovlia, 233.233.. 66 alantis, Anaskafhv, 3, 33, fig. 0, late , jet racelet from a grave dating from

the first half of the fourth century.67 tern, Roman, Byzantine and Early Medieval Glass, 37 no. 20, with exhaustive

relevant iliograhy. 6 apanikola-Bakirtzi,apanikola-Bakirtzi, Everyday Life, 2, no. , a seventh-century coer alloy

examle.69 alantis, Anaskafhv, 3, plate , BK 5, double, golden ring with green glass

gem, from the first half of the fourth century. Also, Makrooulou, Kosmhvmata, late .


original setting. They are identical to the ancient Greek and early Roman gaming ieces, which are not found in Late Antique graves or strata.

ome larger, elongated ieces found in several sites at the vicinity of Thessalonik, testify for the use of hyelia for the decoration of larger metal ojects, furniture, ook inding, or other luxury-tye ojects.

namel nother form in which glass was used in ate ntiue Thessalonik would e that of enamels. This technique, already fully develoed from classical antiquity,70 has een soradically traced among our finds. For examle, we can find enamels among early third-century jewelry in the form of micromosaics7 and later as a single layer of glass that covered a greater area, as on golden earrings with emerald-green inlays.72

Our jewelry finds come almost exclusively from graves, as they were well-looked-after valuales in eoles everyday lives. A few of the excavated graves, however, have yielded some jewelry. This rather small numer of finds might e connected to a ragmatic aroach y the family of the deceasedthat something valuale should not e uried in the ground and e lost for future generations. This aucity of jewelry finds could also e connected with the Christian familys eliefs. Generally seaking, it aears that Christian folk indeed resected and followed atristic regulations aout urying their eloved ones without secial adornments, rather than urying them in luxurious vestments.73

In conclusion, we could say that in Thessaloniks glass ewelry we recognize imports and prototypes deriving from the evantine coast, which is something natural and already noted in glass vessels. e see quite clearly a different aesthetical approach among Thessalonians: a tendency towards olychromy with the use of several different, smaller eads, sometimes in large numers, which was not so usual in the ast and could e connected to local or western traditions. e may assume that our finds were mainly local roducts, as it was easy to roduce glass eads and racelets in simle, oen

70 Mikou-Karachaliou, Greek Jewelry, 229, 6, fig. ; 7, fig. 26. 7 Copper alloy brooches covered with enameling, nos. BK 5 and BK , in

the permanent exhibition of the Museum of Byzantine Culture, Thessaloniki.72 Golden earrings, no. Ko 2/, in the ermanent exhiition of the Museum of

Byzantine Culture, Thessaloniki.73 Patristic texts focus mainly against the use of luxurious vestments and lacing of money

in the graves (ohn Chrysostom, PG .23, 9.6, 0.2, .23). o clear reference on9.6, 0.2, .23). o clear reference on. o clear reference on jewelry was traced, ossily ecause they were not laced in graves anyway and therefore no need arose to castigate the custom. ee Loucatos, Laografikaiv, 777. 777..


kilns or even braziers, andor as sidelines of the glass workshops, which were active in the city at that eriod. e also see connections with the northern and central arts of the alkans.

D. Mosaics Glass was also used in ate ntiue Thessalonik in the form of tiny tesserae, which were used to form mural mosaics. ide use of wall mosaics, as attested in Thessaloniks early Christian churches, demanded huge amounts of glass. Today, mosaics survive at the walls of the Rotunda, Acheirooietos, t. Demetrios, and the Latomou monastery. An average tessera weighs ca. . gm and covers 0.70.9 sq. cm. If we add the seam around each one of them, we see that they covered ca. sq cm with ca. .2 gm of glass. o, for every square meter of mosaic, aroximately 2 kgs of glass were needed. The Rotundas wall mosaics originally would have covered ca. sq m. If we multily this figure y twelve, then we see that for Rotundas decoration alone some seventeen tons of tesserae were needed out of which roughly thirteen tons would have een made out of glass. Tesserae were often cut on-site from large glass cakes.7 It is not known whether such cakes were formed in the city or imported from elsewhere. In the case of Thessalonik, musivarii were roaly working with cakes made with imorted raw glass, which ossily were locally shaed. uorting this hyothesis is the fact that the shaing of the cakes is a simle rocess, which did not require any secial technical skills. In contrast, the work of coloring is difficult; it needs to e done skillfully and in great quantities in order to get homogeneous coloring in large enough atches to cover entire commissions.7 The only ossile excetion might e resented y the gold-glass tesserae, which required a certain degree of specialization in their production and might be products of specialized workshops. Such gold-glass tesserae certainly arrived on site either in cakes, or, less roaly, in tiny already-cut cues.

ConClusionAs far as glassmaking and glass roducts in Late Antiquity are concerned, and glass roducts in Late Antiquity are concerned,and glass roducts in Late Antiquity are concerned, glass roducts in Late Antiquity are concerned,glass roducts in Late Antiquity are concerned, roducts in Late Antiquity are concerned,roducts in Late Antiquity are concerned, in Late Antiquity are concerned,in Late Antiquity are concerned, Late Antiquity are concerned,Late Antiquity are concerned, Antiquity are concerned,Antiquity are concerned, Thessalonik presents a uite common case, which is not distinguished at all from other contemorary, major Mediterranean uran centers. Glass was

7 For similar finds from Philii, see Antonaras, arly Christian Glass Finds, , fig. 9.

7 James, Byzantine Glass Mosaic Tesserae, , esp. 3.James, Byzantine Glass Mosaic Tesserae, , esp. 3., Byzantine Glass Mosaic Tesserae, , esp. 3.Byzantine Glass Mosaic Tesserae, , esp. 3. Glass Mosaic Tesserae, 297, es. 39.Glass Mosaic Tesserae, 297, es. 39. Mosaic Tesserae, 297, es. 39.osaic Tesserae, 297, es. 39. Tesserae, 297, es. 39.Tesserae, 297, es. 39. 297, es. 39.es. 39.. 39.


used in Thessalonik by builders for glazing windows and for decorating the walls of ulic uildings. Glass was also frequently used in the form of lams to light the interiors of oth ulic and rivate saces. Thessalonians of almost all social strata used glass articles to adorn themselves or their ossessions. ut most of all, glass in the form of vessels found its lace in their households: on the table, not only to pour and to drink, but also to transport and to reserve holy sustances, medicaments, cosmetics, and ointments.

Glass, in one or another form, was used y increasingly greater segments of Thessaloniks society, as its price was uite low and local workshops were active, covering artly the needs of the local market. In Late Antiquity, glass roducts reached a degree of distriution which was not surassed until the advent of the eighteenth-century Industrial Revolution or the cataclysmic social and economic changes in the lifestyle of southeastern uroe in the first half of the twentieth century.

To conclude this overview, the most tantalizing fact, at least for archaeologists, should be emphasized. We must be aware that the exact dimensions of the use of glass will never e revealed, as the vast majority of the evidence is lost forever. These were recycled in the form of chea glass shards, easy to otain and to melt, which found new life within glassmakers voracious melting ots.


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