Antibodies drug delivery system

ABDUL MUHEEMM.PHARMA 2ND SEM(PHARMACEUTICS)JAMIA HAMDARD

INTRODUCTION STRUCTURE OF ANTIBODIES HISTORY OF AB ANTIGEN-AB BINDING PRINCIPLE INVOLVED FOR MAB MAB FOR TUMOUR TARGETING LIMITATION REFERENCES

Contents

HOW THE ANTIBODIES ARE PRODUCED?

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INTRODUCTION

INTRODUCTION Antibodies are produced by a specialized group

of cells called B-Lymphocytes.

When an foreign antigen enters the body due immune response B-Lymphocytes develops into plasma cells and liberates antibodies or immunoglobulins of various types(Ig A, Ig D, Ig E, Ig G, Ig M).

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IgG: IgG1 (66%), IgG2 (23%), IgG3 (7%) and IgG4 (4%) , blood and tissue liquid

IgA: IgA1 (90%) and IgA2 (10%), external secretions (stomach, intestines, saliva, tears, etc.)

IgM: 5-10% of total serum Ig [1.5mg/ml serum conc.]

IgD: 1% of proteins in the plasma membranes of B-lymphocytes, function unknown [30µg/ml serum conc.] 0.2% of total serum Ig

IgE: 0.3µg/ml on the surface of plasma membrane of mast cells, play a role in immediate hypersensitivity and denfense for parasite

Classes of Igs

An antibody is a protein used by the immune system to identify and neutralize foreign objects like bacteria and viruses. Each antibody recognizes a specific antigen unique to its target.

Monoclonal antibodies (mAb) are antibodies that are identical because they were produced by one type of immune cell, all clones of a single parent cell.

Polyclonal antibodies are antibodies that are derived from different cell lines. They differ in amino acid sequence.

What are antibodies?

• Each Antigen has specific antigen

determinants (epitopes) located on it. The antibodies have complementary determining regions (CDRs). These are mainly responsible for the antibody specificity.

• Each antigen has several different epitopes on it. They are recognised by many different antibodies. All these antibodies thus produced act on the same antigen. Hence these are designated as polyclonal antibodies.

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WHAT’S THE ROLE OF ANTIBODY IN IMMUNE SYSTEM?

• In general naturally produced antibodies are

non-specific and heterogenous in nature. Hence there are several limitations in the use of polyclonal antibodies for therapeutic and diagnostic purposes.

• Thus there is a need for producing monoclonal antibodies for different antigens.

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WHAT’S THE NEED TO DEVELOP MONOCLONAL ANTIBODIES?

• 1890 Von Behring and kitasato discovered the serum of vaccinated

persons contained certain substances, termed antibodies

• 1900 Ehrlich proposed the “ side-chain theory”

• 1955 Jerne postulated natural selection theory. Frank Macfarlane Burnet expended.

• Almost the same time, Porter isolated fragment of antigen binding (Fab) and fragment crystalline (Fc) from rabbit y-globulin.

• 1964 Littlefield developed a way to isolate hybrid cells from 2 parent cell lines using the hypoxanthine-aminopterin-thymidine (HAT) selection media.

• 1975 Kohler and Milstein provided the most outstanding proof of the clonal selection theory by fusion of normal and malignant cells

• 1990 Milstein produced the first monoclonal antibodies.

History of Mab development

Paul Ehrlich at the beginning of the 20th century theorized that a cell under threat grew additional side-chains to bind the toxin, and that these additional side chains broke off to become the antibodies that are circulated through the body. It was these antibodies that Ehrlich first described as "magic bullets" in search of toxins.

Georges Köhler César Milstein, and Niels Kaj Jerne in 1975 who shared the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1984 for the discovery hybridoma technology

http://www.path.cam.ac.uk/~mrc7/igs/mikeimages.html

The structure of antibodies

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Structure of MAb

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Antigen- antibody binding

Types of mAbs designed• Murin source mAbs:: rodent mAbs with excellent

affinities and specificities, generated using conventional hybridoma technology. Clinical efficacy compromised by HAMA (human anti murine antibody) response, which lead to allergic or immune complex hypersensitivities.

• Chimeric mAbs:: chimers combine the human constant regions with the intact rodent variable regions. Affinity and specificity unchanged. Also cause human antichimeric antibody response (30% murine resource)

• Humanized mAbs:: contained only the CDRs of the rodent variable region grafted onto human Framework Regions [FR]

Human mAb :: three currently available approaches to the

production of human monoclonal antibodies are described. These include :-

the hybridoma technique, based on the fusion of antibody-producing human B lymphocytes with either mouse or human myeloma or lymphoblastoid cells;

the EBV immortalization technique, based on the use of Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) to immortalize antigen-specific human B lymphocytes;

the EBV-hybridoma technique, based on a combination of the first two methods.

The EBV-hybridoma system retains the advantageous features of the other two systems while overcoming their pitfalls and may be the current method of choice for producing human monoclonal antibodies with a defined specificity.

Types of mAbs designed . .

Hybridoma technology: In this B-Lymphocytes

and myeloma cells are mixed together and exposed to PEG for a short period.

The mixture contains hybridoma cells, myeloma cells and lymphocytes.

This mixture is washed and cultured in HAT(hypoxanthine aminopterin and thymidine) medium for 7-10 days.

only hybridoma cells remain in the mixture.

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PRINCIPLE INVOLVED IN MONOCLONAL ANTIBODIES PRODUCTION

Immunise

Spleen Cell Myeloma Cell Line

FUSEHAT sensitive

Hybridoma HAT resistant

Stable hybrid myeloma producing desired antibody

SELECT

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Nomenclature of mAbs

ImmunizationCell fusionSelection of hybridomasScreening the productsCloning and propagationCharacterization and storage

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PRODUCTION OF MONOCLONAL ANTIBODIES

Immunize an animal usually mouse by injecting with an

appropriate antigen along with Freund’s complete or incomplete adjuvant.

Adjuvants are non specific potentiators of specific immune responses.

Injection of antigens at multiple sites are repeated several times for increased stimulation of antibodies.

3 days prior to killing of animal a final dose is given intravenously.

Spleen is aseptically removed and disrupted by mechanical or enzymatic methods to release the cells.

By density gradient centrifugation lymphocytes are separated from rest of the cells.

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Immunization

Lymphocytes are mixed with HGPRT deficient

myeloma cells and is exposed to PEG for a short period.

The mixture is then washed and kept in a fresh medium.

The mixture contains hybridomas, free myeloma cells, and free lymphocytes.

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Cell fusion

Dihydrofolate

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Synthesis of nucleotides

TetrahydrofolatePrecursors

Nucleotides---->DNA

HypoxanthineThymidine

De novo synthesis

Salvage p

athway

Aminopterin

HGPRT

TK

The above mixture is cultured in HAT medium for 7-10 days. Due to lack of HGPRT enzyme in myeloma cells, salvage

pathway is not operative and aminopterin in HAT medium blocks the de novo synthesis of nucleotides. Hence free myeloma cells are dead.

As the lymphocytes are short lived they also slowly dissappear.

Only the hybridomas that receives HGPRT from lymphocytes are survived.

Thus hybridomas are selected by using HAT mediumSuspension is diluted so that each aliquot contains one cell

each. These are cultured in regular culture medium, produced desired antibody.

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Selection of hybridomas

The hybridoma technology: spleen cells from immunized mice are fused with the murine

myeloma cells. The several process had been developed at large scale. According to the different cell culture methods, it can calisifed into four

fields

1. Robottle cell culture process.

2. Membrane binded cell culture process

3. Microcarrier cell culture process

4. Suspended cell culture process

Conventional production of mAbs

Screening is done for antibody specificity.For this we need to test the culture medium from each

hybridoma culture for desired antibody specificity.Common tests like ELISA and RIA are used for this.In these tests the antigens are coated to plastic

plates. The antibodies specific to the antigens bind to the plates. The remaining are washed off.

Thus the hybridomas producing desired antibodies are identified. The antibodies secreted by them are homogenous and specific and are referred as monoclonal antibodies.

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Screening the products

The single hybrid cell producing the desired antibody

are isolated and cloned.Usually two techniques are commonly employed for

thisa) Limiting dilution method: Suspension of

hybridoma cells is serially diluted so the aliquot of each dilution is having one hybrid cell. This ensures that the antibody produced is monoclonal.

b) Soft agar method: In this method the hybridoma cells are grown in soft agar. These form colonies and the colonies are monoclonal in nature.

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Cloning and propagation

Biochemical and biophysical characterization

are made for desired specificity.It is important to note the monoclonal antibody

is specific for which antigenMAbs must be characterized for their ability to

withstand freezing and thawing.

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Characterization and storage

Encapsulating the hybridoma cells in alginate

gels and using a coating solution containing poly-lysine is employed.

These gels allow the nutrients to enter in and antibodies to come out.

Damon biotech and cell-tech companies are using this technique for commercial production of MAbs.

They employ 100-litres fermenters to yield about 100g of MAbs in about 2 weeks period.

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Large scale production

MAbs derived from mouse are murine derivatives.

As they are not human origin, they show HAMA(human antimouse antibody) response.

To overcome this we need to cleave the antibody into its respective Fc and Fab fragments.

Fab fragments are less immunogenic and their smaller molecular size may facilitate penetration into tumor tissue and result in a longer half-life.

Engineering is needed to reduce the immunogenicity.

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Engineered antibodies

Chimeric antibodies:Hence the murine antibodies are immunogenic to

humans, the obvious solution for this is to clone a fully human antibody. But it has many problems like ethical clearance, difficult to culture, impossible to obtain many of the appropriate antibodies.

To over come HAMA(human antimouse antibody) response, a chimeric antibody is prepared with Fc region of human IgG and Fab regions of murine origin by the use of DNA recombinant technology.

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Engineered antibodies

Mouse

Human

Chimeric

V domains

C domains

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Humanized antibodies: Though chimeric antibodies elicit less HAMA response

than murine antibodies, they are still immunogenic due to their murine regions(30%)

It is came to know that a small portion(CDR) of an antibody was actually responsible for antigen binding.

By this humanized antibodies are prepared by recombinant DNA technology with majority of human antibody framework and CDR’s of murine antibody.

Thus humanized antibodies are 95% homology with human antibodies.

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Engineered antibodies

Mouse

Human

Humanised

hypervariable

framework

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Bispecific antibodies:These are specific to two types of antigens.They are constructed by r.DNA technology.Each arm is specific to one type of antigen.

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Engineered antibodies

Immunoconjugate:For MAb targeted drug delivery, a drug is bound

covalently to an antibody that is chosen to target it to the desired site of action.

Spacer is present between the antibody and the drug.Polymer may be present to increase the no. of drug

molecules attached to the antibody.Drug is non-covalently incorporated into a liposome or

microsphere to which the targeting antibody is bound to the surface—immunoliposome or immunomicrosphere resp.

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Engineered antibodies

Principle involved:As several classes of the drugs lack specificity for diseased

cells, they show their action on other sites of action. Ex: cytotoxic action of chemotherapeutic agents is

directed against any rapidly proliferating cell population.Hence drug targeting is required to overcome this

problem.Targeting is classified into three categories:

1. Passive targeting2. Physical targeting3. Active targeting

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Drug targetting

It is the natural in-vivo distribution pattern of the

drug delivery system. It is determined by the inherent properties of the carrier like hydrophobic and hydrophilic surface characteristics, particle size, surface charge, particle number.

Ex: passive targeting of the lungs is made by modulating the size of the particles to >7µm

passive targeting of the Reticuloendothelial system is made by modulating the size of the particles to 0.2-7µm

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Passive targeting

In this some characteristics of the environment

are utilized for the carrying of the drug to the specific site.

Ex: thermal sensitive liposomes(local hyperthemia)

magnetically responsive albumin microspheres

(localized magnetic field)

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Physical targeting

Active targeting is usually done by cell-specific

ligands. These are specific to specific cell types. But it is limited to small no. of tumor types.

Hence MAb targeting is adopted for active targeting. MAb targeting is done by conjugating the drug antibody of the specific targeting type.

Hence antibody drug conjugates are used as active targeting drug delivery systems.

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Active targeting

Toxin conjugates (immunotoxins) EX: diphtheria toxin, Ricin have been

conjugated to the tumor specific antibodies Ricin has two chains. Amoung these A-chain is

cytotoxic and B-chain is non-specific. Hence B-chain is removed and the toxin is conjugated to tumor specific antibody. Thus we increase the specificity of the toxins by using MAbs as active drug targeting systems.

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Drug conjugates

Drug immunoconjugates:

Agents like chlorambucil, methotrexate and doxorubicin are conjugated with tumor specific antibodies.

Ex: doxorubicin-BR96 immunoconjugate for Lewis antigen found on the surface of tumor cells.

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Drug conjugates

They are homogenous in nature.They are specific to a particular antigen with a

particular epitope. Ex:Rituximab (Rituxan®, anti-CD20) is a good

example – this antibody is used for the treatment of lymphoma.

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Advantages of Monoclonal antibodies

mAbs Treatment For Cancer Cells

ADEPT, antibody directed enzyme prodrug therapy; ADCC, antibody dependent cell-mediated cytotoxicity; CDC, complement dependent cytotoxicity; MAb, monoclonal antibody; scFv, single-chain Fv fragment.

Carter P: Improving the efficacy of antibody-based cancer therapies. Nat Rev Cancer 2001;1:118-129

Dale L Ludwig, et. al. Oncogene(2003) 22, 9097-9106

Strategy of a Direct or Indirect Induction of Apoptosis in Targeted Cancer Cells

1. mAbs target growth factor receptors to exert a direct effect on the growth and survival of the cancer cells by antagonizing ligand-receptor signaling.

2. mAbs can target to cell surface antigens and directly elicit apoptotic signaling.

The first approved mAbs was OKT-3 [1986], which is a murine IgGa2 protein to deplete T cells in patients with acute rejection of renal allotransplant.

Until Feb 28, 2005, 18 mAbs were approved by FDA, which were applied in the treatment of organ transplant, Cancer, Asthma, Hematopoietic malignancies and psoriasis.

Jancie, M Recheit, etal. Nature biotechnology, 2005, Sep,Vol. 23, No.9

Stamatis-Nick C. J Allergy Clin. Immunol, Oct. 2005

FDA Approval

Prevents acute rejection of kidney transplants

Prevents autoimmune destruction of islet cells in type I Diabetes mellitus

OKT3

Cell Depletion

Rituxan, Campath (naked)Myelotarg (drug)Zevalin, Bexxar (radioisotope)

Blocking receptorsHerceptin

Attacking vasculatureAvastin, Erbitux

Vaccination against idiotypePanorex?

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Monoclonals for tumour therapy:

As they are specific to a particular antigen, they cannot distinguish

molecule as a whole.Some times they cannot distinguish groups of different molecules. Ex:- presence of retro viruses as a part of mammalian

chromosomes is not distinguished.Mice used in MAb production carry Adenovirus, Hepatic virus,

Retrovirus, reovirus, cytomegalovirus, thymic virus.The presence of some of these viruses is detected in hybridomas.

This poses a great danger since there is no guarantee for MAb produced is totally virus free.

For this reason US food and drug administration insists that MAb for human use should be totally free from all pathogenic organisms including viruses.

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Limitations

North Carolina-based PPD has established a joint venture with Taijitu Biologics to develop and commercialize a technology platform for the discovery of first- and best-in-class monoclonal antibody therapies in collaboration with MAB Discovery GmbH in Munich. The joint venture will provide drug discovery services based on this technology platform to global biopharmaceutical companies, enabling them to discover best-in-class monoclonal antibodies against both novel and validated targets.

Latest News

Biotechnology by U. Satyanarayana Harper's Biochemistry 26th edition Carter P: Improving the efficacy of antibody-based cancer

therapies. Nat Rev Cancer 2001;1:118-129

Dale L Ludwig, et. al. Oncogene(2003) 22, 9097-9106

Jancie, M Recheit, etal. Nature biotechnology, 2005, Sep,Vol. 23,

No.9 Stamatis-Nick C. J Allergy Clin. Immunol, Oct. 2005

www.wikipedia.com www.google.com

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