Anthropological Research. the Structure of Inquiry - Pertti J. Pelto and Gretel H. Pelto

7/25/2019 Anthropological Research. the Structure of Inquiry - Pertti J. Pelto and Gretel H. Pelto

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ECOND EDITIO



C A M B

,R

I

D G E U

N

I V E R S I T Y P R E S S

C a m b

ridge

L

o

nd

on N

e

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rk

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b

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r

n

e

I

A ssista

nt

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ofess

o

r

N

u

t

riti

o

na

l

Scie

nees

:

r

nd

A nt hropology

U ni versiiy o

f

Connecñeut

PERTI

I

PE LTO

P t

o f C S $ 0

r

oí A nth

r

~fgy and

M

edici

ne

Ur1iversity o f O onn . eeticu t

o f inquiry

Second

edition



L

\mry

e f

C o

ntms

C . d 1

t t f Q & i n g i:

n

P U b : T k a l i ó :o

D a

ia

&loo

.

P:«tti

An:thmpol~ ~~

in déx.

1. M

.

Cfh~ktgy~

'- ·

Anthtopologk~ 69fch.

Gcetd H~

, . jomt

a:uthor.

t

l

TitJe.

.

G N Jf

J. 144 1 9 1 1

301

.

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0

:

1

"0

imN

O~~

~U

8

X p a . p e - ~ mt.4

e J . Pe® 1 9 1 0

Cambridge

Univmtty ~u 1 978

P U B [ . J S H E D B

,

T H B ' PllESS

SY

N D I C A T '

O

'P

T

H E U N

" O C A M B 'I U O O' ' " - 1 ' ' ' ' ' ' ' '' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ~

J

'

'. l

~ Pitt Bu:ilding.

C2mbt~ taP

, Utdt«I

Kin¡dom



Tools

of

research -

1

Participant

observation

Key-inforrnant interviewing

Collection of lífe histories

Structured

interviews

and

surveys

Questionnaires

Concl usions

Emic

, etíc, and the goa l

s

of anthropology

lntracultural variation in ernic

categories

54

55

6o

43

5 1

5 3

Operationalisrn in anthropology

Theory versus reality: the operational cornpromise

Summary and conelusions

U nits observation: emic and etic approaches

The ernic approach

Th e cticists

3

O perationalism in anthropo logical research

Operationalisrn and

intersubjectivity

Operationalism and operationism

l

9

21

21

13

ssess

ing the usefulncss of

definit ions

Seience and anthropology

Science and

history

Science

and

controlled

experiment

s

Science

a definition

A nt h rop o l ogy

and problems of method

o

logy

Conclusions

8

lements of research methodology

T he domain methodology

XIII

• •

ix

Contents



7 Counting and sampling

123

Counting

in cthnographic repo

rts

124

Problems

of represent

ativen

ess : sarnpling 12

7

Patterning and

sampling 38

Summary and

conclu

s

ion

s

39

8 Measurement, scales,

and

statistics

1 4 1

Variables, measurements, and scales 142

Murdock, social

structure

, and the chi

-

square

test 1 47

Tests of independence and measures of association 152

Parametric and nonparametric statistics

Statistical tests do not preve causation 162

More

complicated statistical operations

164

The Mcchl

parados

: sorne problcms in hypothesis testing 172

Special

zed competence in statistics 175

9

Art

and seienee field

w o r k

1 77

Stratcgies in the art of

ficld

w o r k 177

H azards and punishments of

field

w o r k 184

So urces of tensión in field w or k 185

Elcments of

community

study

Ccnsus taking and

mapp

ing 193

Description and hypothesis testing 214

M ulticommunity research projects 21 7

Assistants

Communication among

f ie ldworker

s 221

lnterdi

sc

iplinary research 224

Summary

227

6 Tools of research

- 1 1 :

nonverbal techniques 103

The stream of behavior and

measuremen

t o f social interaction 104

Proxemics , kinesi

cs,

and videotape re

s

earch

Content

analy si

s

of

folktale

s

,

myths

, and other li terature 3

Physical

traces:

ero si

ó

n and accreti

o

n 115

Archives and

other

written r

é

cord

s

16

Techn

i

cal equipment in f ie ld work

1 1

7

M u l t i

-in

s trument research

121

V I

Ratings and rankings

The se11tantic ditierentiaJ technique 87

Ptojective techniques

Other psychological research instruments

lntetactional researcb

tooJs



325

31 0

8

291

2 9 4

2 9 8

304

3 05

3o8

2

5 1

25

1

5

254

25

7

2 7

9

28

23

0

230

243

24

7

•

V ll

Research methods, relevance, and applied anthropology

The

i s

sue of

re lev

ance

Sorne methodologica

l

issu

es

in

applied

re

s ear

eh

R e

l ev ance and

methodo)ogical

rigor

1

1 Building anthropological theory: methods and models

The th e

o

retical framc of refer

ence

: general pa radigms

De du c t i

v e,

inductive,

and abductive r

es

earc

h

s

trategi

es

The r

o

le of models

Models of research design

Statistical

correlations and

cau

s

al m o d e ls

Causal inferences

and

correlati

o

n

pattern

s

Multiplc

hypotheses :

the strategic

eliminatio

n of

alternativ e

explanat

i o n

s

Methodology

and the culture

of anthropolo gy

A N o tes on research de

sig

n

Forrnulation of a

research problem

Elcments of

a model research plan

B

The Guttman

Scale : a s

pecial type of o

rd inal

measure

C On using computer s

Types of computer operat ion

s

The culture a

nd social organ ization

o

f co mputer u

s

e



.

I X

I n

th e sJx

years

s i

nee the

f ir s t

appeasanee

o

f

th is

book the

·

trend

t

ow ard greater

i

n

terest

i

n

1

meth

odo

l

o

gi

cal iss

u

es

ha

s

conti

n

ued

.

M o s

: t

gr

adl

.mte

progra

ms in an-

1 • t::.

L

• • •

ro po ogy

n

ow

mc1

uue

tra

1

l

1 mg

in

, me s

truc

tu re < J>

s

cie

flO J 1 C researcn

; tra1 n1 ng

t

n

statistics and

eo m

p

uter

use

has

s

teadify and severa bo ek s to

re s

es

rch

p ara

d

i

g , m s and s .

ta t

ist

i

cs-

for ·anthr < > p o lo

g ists have appesred .

Th

e

gr t> w th

of

i

nteres

t i1 1 n1 ethodology ha

s sha

rpen

ed

e:ert~in l

ongs

t an

di

n

g

.

l~ . 1 • •

1

' l •

1 oso

p I 1 1

e

a an

·

m

ues

a

nt

'

ro

po

o .

gy

. :

e ce

ntr

al

oo o ogl-

cal d

e

bate

o

f tite i97os eo

nt

ínues to be the co

nfJ

. t e .t be tween quant

ita

tive meth

o d s

and the

su

p p o

:

s

ed

ly

m

o

re

persc

nalízed and

h

umani

s ;

t

ic

q

u

al

itative

sc

ho

l

ar

s

h

ip

.

C

lo

sel

y I

í

nked

to th i s issue i s the eo ntinuing

d

íscussíon abou t

et

ic

data .

C o n .tra 1 r y

to o ur

e

arl ier expectatíens, tl1 a

t

anth r { } 'po l

o .

g Jcal oonve c satio n re-

, 1

·

I

d

• t

h '

• •

1 1

} '

L .

.t

• •

main

s

: 1

ve1y

an . . a

tt

entíon to

·

emK: .etic 1

s

sue

' .

a

s

• 1venw O '

t

1 ter

útse

1 -

plines

as wel

l

.

R

e

fte ( : : t i

ng on these is

sues , w

e

f in

d that our

v

íews

s

bo

u t th

em are

n

o :

t

much

h

.

L • Tt

d

.

·

' •

e

a

n

ge - u rrom ye a1 s ag

. o

.

nen, as now

,

w e argue 1r a 1 e1 ous o

q

uan

ti

tati

·

ve

a

n

d

qual i

t

a

t

ive

re

se

a

ee

h

.

T

he

pr

ob

l

em

i

s

not

m o

d

e

o

f

d

.

ata

g

at

h er

ing r o use to bu í ld ered ible an

d e

ffeetive

an

· ~

th .ro p o logica

l k

no wled

ge

. T

he g

o

a

l o

·

f

r

eses

rch

to develop

infonnati

o n

. C r e d ihil 1ity, in m atte rs o f human behari

o r

, ean ne

ve

r . r es

;

t finaJl

y

en

puriñ ed num erieal . a

r l

a

l

ysis. Nor can it depend 1 ly on ríeh ve

rba

l

d

eserip t

í

en

t

h

at ig no res un

d

er

l

y ing

q

uestíons

o

f

qu

a

nt

ify a

nd in

tensity . w e e

·

xamine

sorn

e

o

f · the mo st

r

efined statistical o r m ath ;

e

m

a

ti

c

al an

a

lyses

o

f ar1fu · l o · p o log

i

ca

l

dat

a,

w e

o

ften find them l

'

osing their anchorag

e

to l iv e , human

subj.ee

t m a tter.

I

n the p ast

te

n y e

ar

s

o

f

an

t

h

ro

p o l

ogic

a

l

r

esea

r

ch we

h

ave seen

t

he

~ : th th

. . .

l...-.•

t

d..

-

d •

a =

. - . . . tt

1 e s

um

a n

1 J r o

u g .an

t

JCfia · v . 1 o : r are e" '''c '. m e y _

· l 1 J 1 J A ;

w

to quantify in en t

ire

ly

ri

goro us

w ays .

R a .ndorn- . ~ a m 1 p lin¡ str

at

-egies are bese

t

· w ith

many pra

ctical o~t

.acles;

and att

e

m p t . s

t

o

standa

td iz .

e f ield observations fal l

sh o

n

in m at1 y social s

et

tín g : S . S o . 1 netim e - s

w

e

are

te

m p t

e

d inro . r e lativ

el

y topia of

o bs

erv ati o 1 1 s i 1

1 1

. pl) ·

be

cause

q

uanti6a

. b

le data are more access ib

l

e the

re .

T

h

us

ov erq , uan

t

if i ed

.

0 0 1 1 1

pu

te , riz e d anthr

o

po lo gy quick ly reach

e

s tl)e p o i 1 1 t o 'f di·

mi

a

i s

h

in

g

r

etum

s

i

n

.

bo

t

h

cred

i

bil

ity

a

n

d

us

e

fu

l

n

es

s

.

the seeond



T h

J

d

C

: . . . -h

• 1 ; ·

h f t

·

o ·

. .

IAQ . ton~ qua 1 ia, , ; J v e .uescr 1 p .

v

e m uues o : researc . ,

a

. v e o · en

u c ;

e

1 1

.

_.J

•

1 · .J

:

exto as preservmg a

persoaa .

i

z

e

ingre •

t i ?

·

nt

essen .

tial un

ucersta

nwng

huma

n

behavio

r

(cí H on 1igm a 1 1 n ~ 1 9

7 6 }

.

W h enever

w e

step

nt

o fidd

w

o

rk , w e

are

remi

n

ded the

s

ig n

i6c

a i 1 i

oe o

, f the

h l 1 m a

n factor In al

] our

obserwt ions .

M o

re

tha

, n

othe

r

beh'8vioral

scienti

$ts ,

w e

anthropo

logists

fin

d

tbat

a

per .

sonalised , qttal i 'tative..descr ip

t

ive

re

search per i

od

is essential

to

d

i

$ C O

v

e

r

ing

1(

hence

variabl

e

s sn

d

hypotheses

)

are , even

wh:en w e ap proaeh t

he

6 e l l d

with clear

themetic al i

d

eas

,

Wit

hout den .

y i ng

the

importa

nce of our prees

t

ah

l

ished concep tua

l

framewo.rks

. , w e f

e

el

th

at an i th

r

o po logy is t

be

most

f imda

·

m en

tally in

d

uctive ofthe

se

í eeees ,

The

p e

oonaliz.ed discovezy of

"the way i t rea.

ll

y

ís" in

hun1an com

-

muni

t

í

e

s

i s

o nt

y

a

ste~

:

o

w e v e r

.

M

u

eh of

the

gl

a

m o

u

r

a

nd

'

m

ys

t

ique

anthro

p o

logy i

s found

i

, n th a 't emct

íe

nal

exper

ienee, bu t the

co

m rnitment and

em o ñ

onal un

d

: e r st

and

in

g : t h a t

grow s in fhe course

1of

6 : e

d : res eareb i

s

not e : r 1

o

ug

h

to

asure

t J h a

t

raul

t

h 1 g dala 1

w i

ll be eithe 1 u

se ful

or credible .

The

pexsonal factor

t

h a t

seems cruc ia l i

n

.t

he phases

of w o . r k m u s { brough 1

t

und

er oontro.J

(

no

t

eliminatoo ) in

the l

ater ph~ lsesof

researc

h

. The

reeent h

i : story

of d

e

bates and

disceurs

e on

h

uman hehav

i

o : an

d hist.0 ry have e

entinued s

tren . gthen

the

signific

a

,

nc

e

ofFran

c

is B

aeon

'

s

sssessme

n

t, that the

h u m a

n

min

d

"

as

s

n

une

v

en

inir

ror

dí

:storts the

ray s

o{

obj

ects a

coo

rding to it s .

ow : a 1

f ig ure and seetion, se

th

e

C...

'

...

¡ ,

L~

man

_ . , .

~ n ivrm1ng 1~

n .

· ·

o n

s

m1 x

es

u :

p

1 t s

own na

.·

· .

re

rne na

u r

e

o

th i ngs

" '

(8

qcon. 1~2-l;

f irs

t

·

p ;

ubl ished . ,

1

62

0

)

.

the l . a . & t anal

y

s is we can of eourse do nothing to elimina t e

e

n

ti1el

y

t

h e

d

istortions

of the

huma : n '

The

ch.alleng~ i s to

our o w n

sub jeetiv:e

and

p enonaJ ized f

ee

l

ing

$

a

'

n

d i

m

pressions.

To do th

is the resea

rcheJ ,

.

pro.vides h

islhe

r

a

ud ience

i

oformat

io n

ab'lut the

dence on

w

.h ich d .escriptive generali

zati : o n

s

a

r re b itsed , . t

o the

full

es

textent p o : ss i -

b

l .e. an ethnog

r

aph i

e

~

'

fa

c

t

'' a:rise

from

first

-h&nd ,o bs,ervation

of

a gjv en

.J ' fu • , . ,

twioe, ten

t

im.es? , . t is

t t

on

ho w

.

many

su

. c

h ,

state

'

ments doe

s it de

p e

nd ? Ho

w

wet

e the

statemen

ts

ma.de?

The em

ic

" '

eti.c

controver~

h

a

s

further hei¡htened our aw ar

eness

of the fun

. .

d amental

e

l

usi

vene

ss

of

de

6

n.itions

a

'n d co ncepts

.

Overreliance

on the

·

pe

rsonal

fa

ctor in 1 researcb ean that th '

e a

nthro p o logist, a . stran ,ger

to

the l o ca l oom -

m u

n

1 f y

,

as

1

.

mp o

~

tS

or

,

er

e

-

ni.,1.0fl

S

an

ings

.

a

wu

·

rea

1 1 ( ¡

on

havi

o rs and even , fs th a t may h

~

ive qui te a diHerent , signi6eance from the emic,

insi.d

er-

s

p o

in

t of

vi

ew

. 0n tn

e othe

, r ha

nd

,

a peop

l · e *

s enúc

p o i 1

1 t

of

view

m a

y be

o f ' ljmited uS:efultless (or even l imit , e : d dependin¡ on one

's fucus

of

research . An in

sider can

j

ust

a8 biaied

or

unawate as

. an

outsider eo11ceming

aspe - c ts o

f loat

J be

hav ior

and cultu

re

.

f irstste'p toward .

a

.dequate

c

r

ed i l b

i l ity of

a

.nthro pologica l data

still d

.

ep e

nd

s

on clear de6n

it i

o n

s

of

bas

i

e

ooncept

s

,

the

fun

d

ame

n

tal

unit

s

o

,

r

bui

ld

ing

bloek

s



aroun

d w lli

· ch . o

u

t

observatio

:ns

are organiz

ed

.

S

o

m

e

times these i te

m

s and obser-

· vat

i

ons

ne

ed to be

c Q un

; te d

;

o ften the wr

iations

rn

ust

be r

eoorded to sorne

extent mea:- s ured . This meth o d o log

ica1

p roeess

is o

ften such a thorough

mixture

of q

,

ualitative and quantitati

ve

as -

p e

- c t s : that the distinction beecmes mean

í

ngless ,

Fudhermore,

ev

en the most r

ef in

ed

nusn

eri

e

al observat í ons must

fitted

into a

m atrix o f

h

uman behsvior (and a brosder theoretical framework) that

i

s fun . da

.

menm

J l y ncnquantitativ

e f

- 0 r a

li pr

actica

l purpo

ses.

I n ti 'le

p

ast

few

years , s

i

n

ee the f i

rs

t edit i

o

n

o

f there

l

ia

s

been con

s

iderable sou

l s

'C a rch

ing

conce

rni

ng ap p

lied or

ac

tion

a .nthropology

.

W it

h m

o

re

experi

enee in spplied res

e

srch, w e now feel th

a

t the methodolog ic

,

al

r

equirements

of applied w

ork are not

alwa

ys same

as in

academ

ic anth

ropo l

-

o

gy

.

P

rse

t

i

ca

l

,

co

mreenity-or

i

ented

act

i

on re

se

arch

o -

ften

h

as

s

e

v

ere

tim

e

c

on . .

stm

.

n

t

s ~ appli

ed

p ro jects in the

in

ner cit

ie

s, in

h

eslth

c a r i

e s

y st

ern

s

, in sehool

s,

or

i1 1

v

arí

ous

eeono m ic

deve

lopment p r

o ,

grams , oft

e

n

do

no

t

stan

d

sti l t for

l

ong .t

e

rm

re

s

e

arch , In o rder to useful , · data

are

needed rigl1t

a

w

a

y -

i .v

ith in a few dtty s

or

M

sny a

i

nth ro po · logim w il l balk at the id

e

a o

f

• • q u i

ck

a

nd d irt

y

'f

r

e

s

eareh . S o rne

: a cti

o : n .

an

· th rop olog

i s

t

: s see

t

h

eit

ro le

s in o rg a :ni

zing

the

ac

t

i

on rath er than

in

p

r

ovid

in

g

use

fu

l

resea

r

e

h

d

.

ata

.

.

H o w e

v

e

r

,

al

i

a

p p li

ed

p

r

o

ie

ct

s

mu

s

t

ha

v

:

e so

rne

m i

nim u tn

o

f ccnc

r

ete inf

ormat

io n

;

all

p ro j

ects and

p ro

gr

arns rnod

ify t

h

e

i

r

seo

p e

and style in res

p o n

se to

f

eedback f rom their envircnme

nts

(soci

al

and ph

y

sica l~ .

a

nd

m u

st p ro vide

the

se data during the continuing J i fetime o f any

p ro

i

e

ct .

T

he w hol

e

pro cesa

o

f it 1

t

elii

g

eiit dat c a

util

iiatro n -

suppo

' 5 e

rl l

y the ~

1 a } J . .

mar'k

of

th

e

h u m a n

a

nim

a

l - for m u

e

h m o r

e anthropel

o g ical attent

io

n

.

And

so

rne o

·

f ' that attenti

o

n

tak

es the f

o rm o

f direet ae ticn researeh in a v ariety of

pract

ic

a

l

p

r

o

jec

ts

.

Actio n

ant

li

rop o lo

.

gy often

includes

ano

th

e

r

sig 1 1

i

fi

ca i 1 t featur

e

- that the

stu . died

ar

ise

f

rom

a

p

a

r

tic

u lar. to c

a

l

iz

ed

c

o

nte

x

t

, .

a

nd th e proj -

ec t s

o

me c

o

nlmuni

ty g rou

p. mem

b

ers

o

f the

, gr

o

up m

ay

b

e th c

·

c

hi

ef

so urces o f the questio n

s

. T h at i s · v . ery differerr

t

hom the

~ cho

larly s i

t

u , a

tio

n in

w l1 i . c

h th

e

researc

h

qu

est

io ' l

1

s

and strategies arise

f

ro in tl 1 e es

mbl

is

hed

l a

n ~

thro

p o

~ o gic al culture · - t

l 1

e

bo o

b and journals a

n

d

ac a

d em ic s .

e

ruin ars

.

T o

exp lo

re fu l l y the

me

,

thodo

l

ogi

~

d

l r

am

. if

ic

atio ns of

th e

se d i ffer~

r 1 ce

s

w

o

t

t :

ld

ca

l

J

f

o

r

e n

ti

re

v

o

lume

d

ev o

t

ed

to

a

p

p

l

i

e

d

an

th

c

o

pol

ogy .

W

e

h

a

\ , (

e

o n

l

y .

t

ott

c lled l

on thes

e p o i nts in

th i s n

e

w

ed itio

n

t but Cl1 ap t

er l

o

i

s

inteo

de

-

d t

o p o

i 1 1 t

ou t the iniportance o f further m

e

t

ho d o l

o

g ica l exp loration i : t

' l i

appl ied co n-

;

tem

T

he ·

e

ar lier ed it i

o

n of

th i

s bo ok W3

$

already a joi

nt p ro d

u

c

t n

1

1 1 1 . an

y

respects

.

S . i '

nee

t

h

e i

1 th e

re

sear

c

h

a

nd

th i

nk

irtg l

e

ad i

1 1 g

t

o

a

re v ised

: editio

f I ba

ve

inv o lved a

t - e a m e f fo ·

rt

th a

t

' W e · fee1 fully

ju

s ti

fi

es jo int al

1

. ' t l 1

ors

h ip . A t

th

e same t

in

1 e f w . e l1 a

v e

d

i s

c

us

s

e

d

m

ethod

o

l

og

i

c a

J

i

s s

u

es

w

itl

1

a gr

eat

m

a

n

y

peo

pl

e

,

in

c

lud

i

n

g a

n

ew

gen

. . .

X I



. .. .

1

e

mbarked on

1 tny anth r

epologie

a

research

ventare

- the

f i

e

ld

w

o

r k

.

f

or

m

y

P h

.

D

. d

isse

rtatio

tl

-

1

h s

d

h

sd

1

ferm

a

l

t

r

a

i

n

i

n

g

in

t

li

e

Jo

g

ic

and stru

etu

re o f socia

l

s

ciences

r

e

s eareh . M an

y

o

f

peers have

deseri

be

d a

s

i . m

1 ila

t l

ac

k

o

f

m

ethodo l og i cal

prepsr

e

d

nes

s

in the

y e

ars of th

eir

do

ctoral

cand

i-

O

ur

generati

en

o

f

anthropologists

;

traíned in ttte i95os,

leamed

the de -

seri

ptive a

nd

t l 1 eor:

etica

l contr ibutio n

s of our

p r

ede

c

essors ,

b

ut

not h

ow

th

ese

a

nthropologice l contributions achieved. w e

r

e n .ot unccneemed

a

bo u t

he

w fi

d

d research is

carri

ed

out- i

n faet w e

w e re

al

m o s t

fra

~ i : t

ic

to f i nd

out

-

bu

t

w e

w

er

e

as s

ured

b

y

our

t

eac

h

ers

th.at

ce

uld

l

t

< > a r n

t

he

m

yster

i

es

o

f

f i

e

ld

w o r k

o

n J

y thr

ough p e

rsona

l

imn1

e : r s

io

n

i

1 1 the

p r

actically

iadescríbab

l e

bu t ro m ant

i-

edl

y

a

llur ing

1

C o

mplexities

of ttte

f ie

ld.

M uc · h the Io r

e

abeut

f idd

r

ese

are

h tha

t

w e p

ieked

llp

i 1 1 f

o

r 1 nally ·

i

n o

u r

gtad

.

ua

t

e · s t . 1 . 1 d e i 1 t da

ys was

co ncemed w ith the

gentle ar ts

o

f rapport build ing and

ro

le pl~ y ing in f ie ld 5ltuat i

1

o n · t . W e w ere not

s

o

mueh co neern

e

d ,

n

or were our

mentor

s, w i

t l 1

rules oí evid

e

nee,

q

u

estí

o ns of

'

. . M u e r t

"

d

' •

•t i· bi

' : t . . d .

-L l

a ..

~

represen

w r

1 v eness ~ v a i : 1 1 . ly., r e íia . . an

· e

ot[ 1 er r e 1 a

· tcu

-L

. .

tc

•

•

L

d '

tb

•

l •

me

n

, s

u

sc ien

me

l

nqu1ry

.

r

1

1

c

1

1

o u

r

me

n

s

m

o

·

er

s

o c

ia

:

scie

n

ces

t

o be

p reoc

e

up ied ,

I can

r

ecai

l

no

discuss í

on or even

m entien

of

th

e

i

dea

"f. . .

-

• 1 · . . b

1

1 t•

•

h h 1 d

v

ana 1 e s ·

1

1

n

t .

a

. ay s .

I

to o k up m

y

6 rst po ,

s

it i o - n o f teaebing antJ 1

ro

polo gy a newer generat í

c

» , l

developed an interes t

i

n

teac.h

ing research

m e thod

s to

gradu

ate s t - u

d

e

nb

. 1

q

ui

c

k ly

found

,

h

o w e v

er, that

diseussio

n

s of

anthro

p o lo

gi

ca

l meth

ods

w er

e few

and '

fa

r between

:

in

our

prof.e

. s sio 1 1 ,

a

l w r it ing and that to exam i 1 1 e ma

n

y proble : m s

of

tl1e so c i

a

l

se 1

ie nces

it

w a

s

necessar

y to

tu

r

:

n

t

o

· .

a

fa

ir ly v o

lun1 ino u

s l

iter

: atu ·

re

in

socio

l - 0 g

y

and

~

y

c

h

o

lo

gy

,

.

much

o

í

wh:ich

h

a

d

to

r : c

i

n

'

terpre

ted

·

t

o

fit

t l 1 e

oo

n

-

t - e . K t

of o

u

r

c1 oss-cu

l

tura 1 re

sea

rc

h

ioterests . 1 n re ; etrn

t

ha

s be en a

s . tea

.d

y . 11ereate in the

a

mount of anthropoJogica l d iseussio n o f r~earch

me

: tho d . s .

T l1

is

acc ·

u

r

n

ulati

ng

J iteratu 1 r - e i

nc

l

udes ma1

1 y p er

sonal

ized a

e o o t tnts of field ex·

p e

rien

ces

that p ro

v

ide us e . f

u

l inf u ·nnatio n

abou

t w hat a

nth

ro pol

o

gists do · in f i " C l d

r

esearc

h

. and ·

ho

w

t

hey c

o

llect

s

pecific ty

pes o

f

i n

forma

:

tio n . TI1e

re stil

l .

s

eems to

n

ie, how ev

er

,

to

b

e a seri

o

us shortage

o

f

m

a

te

rial o oncerning

t

he 1 o g ic al

s

teps

and

1

r :

eq

u

i

r

e 1

ne

n

t

s

w h

e

r

e

b

y

e thnogr

a

p h

e

r

s

co

nv

e

rt

th

,

e

s .

t

uff

o

f

ra

w

ob-

s

er

v

ation



M an

y

pe

o pJ

e h e l

ped

me "

~

e

t

his

book

.

A t v

ariou

s

stages in i ts pre

patation

portion

s

of the

m ,an

u

scrjpf we

r

e

r

e

,

ad

and

co m n1 ented o . n by H a .ro l

d

D

r

i\

rer ,

Theodore

Grav .

es

>

M

y les H

o p p e r .

J

a

me

s Jacquith. Phil ip Kilbr

i

de

.

R

o bert

Mu·

w

ell . R a .ou l

N

ar o ll,

P h

ili .p N ewrr1.an

,

R i c h : a . r d P o llo ac, M icha.el Robbins,

R

onal

d

R - 0 h

ner

, ,

and D o o g

las W h i te . l o w e

them a

l l

m an

y thanks

for th e i r s U ' g

-

The resear

- c h p

ro jects that provided m 1uc

h o

f

th e

experien

c

e

o n

w

. hich

this

b ook dlep.ends i

n

vo lved m an .y g:mdtiate s )t

t 1

dents, s

orne

of w h o s

e

: r

ese

a

rch

eo

:

n .

tl'il 1 > utio

n

s

a :

re disc

wsed

io th

; e O

f

1these

J am partic

u

la

r

l

y gr.ite{ul for

the

ex

ce

lle

: nt f ie l d w ork .ami cr

it

i

ca

d

i . s :cw s i .

o n

of John

Loi

i

e

r, J . A n .thon

y

~redes,

J

o

.

hn

Pogg

ie ,

J

r . , steph-en

S

chensul

~

and

t B

a

r

bara

S i

m

o n .

Over the

pa r st f

ew

years

ha:ve

h a

d

innum er

able

con\ r

e

rs

atio

- ns 'v

i

t l 1 .

an-

t

hr

o

p o lo

g . - i

s

t

sf

st

l

cio l

o g

·

ists

,

p . t y

c

ho

t

o

g

ists,

a

nd

ot

}

)e

'

r

s - 0 c

ia

l

sci

e

nt

i s : t

s about

1

\

nthropo l · ogical genera liz at r . o ns and mo

r

e eomple x the

ore

- tica

l st

ruc

t

ur~ can built

up onl

y

through c

arefuJ o

p era

tio

nal

i z :

i 1 lg , ofb

a& c ·

eencepts

-

th- e bu

il

ding b loeks of all

tl

1eory

.

Su

oo

essful

d

ere

r

i

p tio

n and

h

y po

th

esi

. s

t

e

s

t

itig

d e p e n

d

< >

n fue i

ud

i

e

o

u

s

m

ixin

g

o

f

quan

-

.: . , , . . t · _J 1 · ~ ~

...l..

• 'l

m aten

ai

s .

m q a

es .

genera l

, the reader

thes

e p.ages w

ill

note that m y p o int of v ie w quite

e

el

ecei

c,

l p

ut

e : m

:

p :

lia

s

i

' S

o

n

q ua

;

ntifre

a

tion

and

statist

ics

, ,

b u t I

a

l

so

feel

s t rongly

that man

y of

the

more

qual i i ta tiv e

a

sp e c i ' S

o , f a

nt

h rop o l

o - gica í working

s ty l~ af C essentíal

to

efíecti

ve

research

.

1 (

I were

t

o pidk

o

ut sorne main

thernes

of

fo1

1 • ~ 1

-.

• •

1

m

y a

. rgu

m

1 en

;

t, w o r ~ tng µ r : l'nc1p

1

es w o

, ui

re -ceiv e spe.eut

,

em ; ; ~ iasis:

ruques

.

In

th

¡

s

boek

I

f

ocus

dis cuss

ian en what 1

cons

í

der

to tl1e essenñal

elernents

of

p :

e

par

ing and

m a ,

n

, : ipula

ting

the s

upporting ev i

d

ence from whieh

bo

t

h

beh

.

d

. _ _ d

.

enera 1 z - a .

1

:0ns a , '

U

· uman

ut

1 iVtor are , some

po1nts

t : J . s - c u

s

-

s i en of

res

esrch fogic must

te

uch

b

ase in the r~ · l

at

iv el :y concrete de tai l . s

o

f

speci6

c

t o o . I s c

bservabon

- esample

,

int

e

rv iewi ii

g

, o

bserving

eeremo

-

d

' --L

h

ma be av

mr

, an '. su rvey researen , my m sm l

nte

.nti'On

tS

to examine t e

d

-e

-

.

..

r, h

.

l : L . • •

. e t : a

s or

parti

cwar

eeses

rc

. · _ .

mstnnnents

o n

y to the

rm

mmum

e){tent neees

sary

for

loo k i ng

a

t h o w

these

basic observat ion

s

can be

sy

stemat.ic a l iy tmnsla .

ted in

' t O

• •

•

i t . a .

_

_

.

,

soooc

w

iui.u

gen"Cra.

t . z a tion

s.

M o

s

l o

f

tl 1

e

p

rincip J es

of

researc

h

rn

e , th-odology

that

I ineorpo.rate m

to

th is

boo

k

nave been amund

i

n

the soc

ia

l sciences

f - 0 , r

a

long time

, a

nd th

e

y

have

been

succe~ully

utilized

.

a

number

of

anth

r 0 c

p o

logi

s ts . Thus, i

n

w titing t l 1 is book

have tried to serve mainJy

as

a

eomp i ~ e : r

of

m

.

eth

od oJog i cal

principie

s snd tech-

X J V

PREFACE TO

T

H E F

IR.ST

EDITION

into

. abst

ract

anthropo

. fogrca J , conc

ep tu

a

l struc

turee

,

This the

do m

ai

n

of

methodology . , as contr11sted \ V i t b the c o n c r e t e , how -to-do-ü

realm

of f i 1 eld teeh-



Th

e

: f i

r

st

pr

eblem d i rects atrentio n . to the

t

eehniques

and

co ndit iot

is

neees-

sary fo r exploration eur pher1omen

al W

orld . lf w

e w ís

h

•

Io r esarnple, to ga

i . n

se

me

n

ew

i i

rlo

rmatio 1 1

about st

.

e

ll

ar

bod

ies and

t

heir

behz

rv

io r

it

l i k . ely

that a

t

desc-0pe w o u l

d

be

a

handy fo

o

l in th is s

e

srch or

i

nf

ormatioa . man

fer

·

en

. t :

domaíns pbenom

e 1 1 _ a i

n

e

ur

un i

versa

eacb

requir

e

th

eir s

p

- e c i a l tool

s

and

t

ech n í ques far pthering knowledge about them . The s t : u d

y

of bacteria and

nther mieroo rganisrm requires a

mieroscope, tbe

examins

t

ion

eleetriea

l

c

ir-

cu

itr

y

requires various

m

eters . and

o t _ h e r

dev

ie

es , get

ti

ng kno.w'ledge about the

an

-

atomie

al chara

cteristics

an

ima)s requires

a

u

~

gi

ca

l teehniques and too l

s f

or

l

ook í

ng at features are

gener11tly híd

d

en

When i

t

c

o

mes

to

s

tudy

ing

human behav íc

r the m atter o f re

search

i n-

. ........... """ • 1

· ·

t t t d

. M .

J • e :

stmraems I : S a .

a i J

ne · 1 1 1 , eren t . · p flm a

ry .

uaw in u1c socia seienees

t

l1

ree

seur

cee

( 1

)

d

ir .

ectly oh

servi

ng

hu

man

bebavi

or •

1

(.i)'

li

s

tening to and notín

g

the

eontents

o f

human

S 'P"Ch,

ami

(

3 )

t

h - e

products

of human

'

b e J

hav

.

.

i

or . . . .

p.articuJarly

those

products fo und in

ar

eh ives , , museums , reeo

rds, snd

W

e - use the

cxp ? eQ i : o .

n ~ "'true and

. u H f u

l

inf -0rm

a

- t i . o n . i

n

q

u .o

taü

o :

n ' D l

ar

b i

n O .JÚ'tl

to

in d

ica

- t e lh

at

.

although

w e

pn.eml ly assume thc praenc

e

of

a

~

'®

e i :

et~. mt

l W O ' t l d ~ ~ thc troth •

'

o : r

•

th . e

~ bg.ut tbe r

a

wotld

aR . always s.eoi at 1

d

interpt:dm m9N o í oor ®ser:v : a f lon~ l~1

1

lp

m

mt

.

O W

oori

~

al

c:att¡-

ori~, and

o u

r

gen .

a-al theasoti

~al

oot look. :H$ce \\~can, nev

er

esmh l l i s . ~ l

an

y finaJ

a

bsolt

1 ~

tmth

.

"

O n

the o

ther l1and .,

s

,c

iaittBc

i

nfur

matio

n

v

ati

e's

w i

th

tep f

d lb d

qtee

df

p r ó x i o mati

o :

ntn

s

omt postu l a t : é d a 1

bt&]utt

t

r

uth . In

genu~l.

thoogh. th~ tr u th

\>alii

e of o ttr inf

~

rm a ~

t

io : : n best

m

easu red erit~

a of

usdu]nt$$ . . . . i

n

prc c :li

e

t1 ngan 1 1 exp lai ni

n . g

o u ·

r

~inc

e n

tlte

nahl : ral w trt: ' l d

.

o f ' usefWnm a . r e d erW ,a i b l e f 1 o

n\ t

heoteti

cat

domai m o f sci

en

~ e a n d

f t

:

o.m

poople

'

$

pract1

~

al

expe

r

i

uices and

·

pr

o b

l

ems.

In

s

imple, p ersonalized

t :

erms the essene

e resea

reh meth 1txlo

l

ogy líes in

s

eekin:g

answers

to

·

t

he

follow

i

ng

b

asíe

ques,t ion

:

H ow

·

e

an

w e

find

"

true

and

u

s

eful

í

nfo

r

-

matien" about a part

icu

lar dema

i

n of phenornena

i

n our uni

ve

rse? This fun-

d am

.

enta

l question

ínvolves í tw

o

closeJ l y re l

a

ted problem s ,

1 H ow can w e personalJy i

nvestiga

t c .

sorn

e domain

o

f p f 1 e

n

o nlel1 a i

n

erd er to o h tai

n

:true

and u

sefu

] inform

.

a

t

ion?

H

:

ow ca

n we k :no.w, sorne ass : - u r a :nc · e

,

wh

a

t

ether p c r r son

s

( r

esearehers) me

an

w hai

th

ey assert

p

ro µ o s

iti

o ns

a

l > . out

inf

o

tm

a

tion

, an

d

how can w e judge w he tl1

e

· r be l ieve

üi

em

?



l ANTHROPOLOGlCAL RESEARCH

librarles . For

example,

t

he

study

of

eee

ne

mie behavior the significan t

data

may

in the.

forro

prica

o f , g o o d : S

) velume

goods

(

e.g s r

numbers o f ears,

bushe.ls o f wheat)

~

costs

produc tiun

.

a

.

nd

rela . t ' e d ri

:ume

rieaJ infomiation

.

R

e-

seareh m

ee

caemics, thm

.

m ay be carried out w ithout ,

S :

pecial

i

nstruments

al

o~ .

s .e rv

a ' t i o 1 1 and : m e a , , s

ur

em 1e

n~

but the researeher

mu

.st able t o g o

to

so ueees o f

a

lr

ead

y . .

teeorded

inf or

mation (go

vernmenta l statis

t i c : a J

reeo rd - s , recotd sy sle1

1 1

s

indiv idua

l m.anufactur i ng

:

enterpr i

ses

, etc .

) 1 • The

monetí

zed s truetur

e eeo-

nem

í c behilvio r

in

o ur socidy prov ides b

u

ilt-in

ob

s : e r w tio nal units . I n non-

od

. '

L

1 . .

~nd

•

em s

ocieees

WJ

: out

ec

o n

e

rm

es ,

en

t 1 1 1 - e o

er

1

m

, . economic

r

e-

sesrc

h

involves · pr imary

oble

rwt ions behsv ier ami good · s;

h

ence

te.chniques

af

data

coJJect

i

on

mu & t

quite

düfere

nt.

In

general ,

the social seíences

differ from

orher sci:entitic

i

n

tha

t

p ri

1

mary

data

pdler

i

n¡

i

s

u

s

llall

y

poss

i

ble.

without

_e . t . ¡

•

A n

unfr-ained p ersn

n

lookmg

into a micreseope or telesoope

le ar ins prac.ti

e

al l

y

no

th

ing &om th

e us

e

t h ' C powetful instrument. S im il , a rly . a n

- 0 nspe

eíalist

pre-

se

nted

w

i

th

lis

u

.

ofpr i

ces , oosts

"

and

o

ther

n om e ríe

sl data can make li

ttl

e

se

nse

of

this pile

eco

no m ic

da

ta . W

i

thout

s

o rne k ind of a

d

ditionaJ expe T itmce and

i

n-

f

o

nnat:ion, the no

v i e .

e has no Ít'S mework and rules f < n in

terprding

w llat

h

e

o

r

sl

1 e

se

es

,

ovice

m

ierose

ope

u,sa

s need

t

o acqu

i

r

e

cenceptua

l

fmm

ew

orb

f

or

di

fiere

ntiating

liv in

g

f

r

on1

n

·

onliv

i 'ng

for

ms;

they

oeed

s

et ddi

nition

s

c

on

-

ce

rning

types grgan Í 's

ms,

parts

of

orpnisms,

and

th e i

r

relationsbips . N o

v íce

eeo

n

o_ . , . , ; . , . , . , . .

are

eq

u

t · pped · ]a. , .

·

.r

t m e n s e n s e . . J . , . f i · · o :f

¡

'''

p

· .ic e

~.,..u '

.·

1

'\¡¡; '.

'. · -

~;,:~ '1

- .

1 . •

"eo

st,"

an

d

so

· o

:

n;

but

th e

y

eannot male sense e > f a ma55 da . ta

,

w ithout some lo g i-

od

rule

s f

o

r plottin¡

cu rv

e s , ,

in .dices

, and

other

rel

at iooaJ

stat

en

i~ts

.

E th

~

nograp

hic ab

,

s .e

. rvatiQm;, 5 ' i

m

i

la1

ly

,

make l

ittle sen¡e unless

the

ob

s

ef\lie

fbu

a

era

l conceptual ftamework f o .

,

r

rorti

. ng out antl

o

r

gani.z , i

ng

behav

io

r

al

elements .

T I 1 u

s

> i n addi t i

on

: t-0 the

bas

ic tool

s

and it ts:tnzments of ob&ervawn

and

.mea

. .

su1 emen~ a

se

ien

t

iñc researcllet

m u st

hav

e ~

at

th·

e

lea

st~

s

ets procedural

r

u

Jes

( i ne l

ud

i

ng

c.oneepts an

d

deíinition

s

)

far ttaasíormin

g

s

en

su

a

. l ev id '.

ence int

o

general

' i

za

tions

aooul pheno

m

ena

. l

l

Í

one

t

he goals ali se . i e : n

t : i f

ic dis-

ci

pline~

to link: togethcr

g e

,

neralintions, or proposi

tio

:n s

'>

large.r

networb

p r o p o o t

í

o n

s that

w ül

make '

possi

hle the pred ie t

i

on and

~

an. a tion

phen"°m

e

na

with

i :

n

tl 1

e given

dom

a

i

n

. S ,

uch n~lworb

p roposit i

om at

e

g e - n -

era

l

ly

ea

l

l

ed

.

T h

" C

rdat ionsh

i

ps

among

the

s

eveml

dements

s . e

ie

n

ti

6

c

w , ork

c

an

be di

ag

nm

ed

as

i

n F

ig

,

u

re 1 ..

l

,

MethOOo QgY ; th en , r .

ef

e r s :

lo

t h e : structurc p r :ucedu.

r

es and :

tra

nsfo

r

m ,

a

tio na l

r

ul

es w h e r e by

the

scientist s , h.ifts

inf

o.rma t io

n

up and down

t

hi-s

la

dder o f ab

.stnt

c .

t

ian in o rder to produce and o rganiz.e i n

er

ea$ed lmowledge . A < t the p o int

p : r

urm

ty

o b . s ervati

o n

, as

the ba

c terio

l

ogj

st pee:

. r s

i .

nt

o · the

mic l "

o

sc

o p e .

,

he

ha v :

e

a v o a il

abJe

so me

conceptual

to o

~s- defin

i : tio ns o{ th ing

s seen

.

and

experi-

e

n

c

ed

-

f

n

r

g

i

v

i

ng

forro

a

n

d

.

d

es

c

riplio

n

t

:

o

o bs

e

rv

at

io n

t S

.

Th

e

p

r

i

m

ary

d

.

escr

i

p

-



tí en

s,

in

turn

, are

re lated to more abstract

propositions - t : o gene r

al

theo , ry

about

m ic

roorsanisms

- by a pregressic

n

of log

1

ical steps that

must be

dearly

un-

derstood and agreed

e

n

by fell ow ~ c ientists in

the

pro íeo íon . T h is

progremon

through Ievel

s

of

abstract

í on i

s ,

nota way pr

ocesa

, however. The bacteriol-

ogist

does

'.tl:Ot seleet

objects

for o bs

ervstion randonuy. The

genere l , thee

retíesl

f . ramework

i

s

a

prime

souece o

f ideas and

prediretions

in

.

term

s

w h

i

c : h

part

ic

ular

fuc i .

o

f

obscrva

: tion are seleeted,

u

'--

hed

.

us • en.neu, m et . 1 1 0 0 U J o g y c

an IX; nom

res

eare

·

niques" in that the

)a

tter term useíul

referring

pr1g

1 1 1

at

i

t s of p r i r n c a ,

ry

dsta

c

e > J l e c ti

on,

w

hereas

methodology denotes

the

"log ic-in-use

"

i : 1 1 v o l v . e d in

$

decting particular o b

s

ervational

teehn

iques,

as

sessing their yield

of

data,

a

nd

relati ng the~e data to

theore t

í

cal propesitiens, I n pract

ie

e, the p rac t i cal problems

of using

partic

ular teehniqu es of data ptl1 'ering cannot be en . tirely s

ep a

· rated

fr

om

the

examina

,

t

i

o

n

o

f

their

Any

methodolog

ic

a : I

d i .

scu

ss

io n

,

t 'hen

>

r

nust i nclude sorne

referenee

to techniques,

lt

l Chspter s

w

e wilI

e

xamine methodo.logica l

problem

s related to interview ~

_r

tn .

orm - ants .

· nave oeen

w r1 tten

a

m

tnter-

v i ewing ; for the y i .eld o .f d .

ata

b

y th

is process can vary gr

e

,

atly

depe '

nd

í

ng

en the

sk ill ,

ta

etics, and other

charae

íeristics of the interviewer.

011

the other hand, our

con

c

em

in

this book w il l

be

mainly

with the

whereh

y

use

interview data

to

a

cc

o mp l

i

sh theoretically important

(

and

v a . l i d

)

results,

F

i

g

u

re

1

.

1

.

doota i

o of

m:ethodo

l

ogy

.

L

o w - o tder propas it

io n

s

L og i

c a J

trans . ro rmat

i G

n

~

i

mJuetiv - e

.

a J 1 d deductiv e

parad ig.ms ~

ma

themat ic at , statis:t ieal.

an

d

o t h . : e r m anlpulatio

rts

M

i

ddle--range c n o o r y and m o d e ls

H ighest

Oenerat

and me d

ets



4

ANTHROPOLOCIC

AL

R

.

ESE

ARCli

Let

es tum toan a.amplie f fom a

nfhropnlogica

l r

esearch

, in otder to explore

some ba S t i e

issues

of

res.earcb meth

odo logy. Suppose

w e

are interested in inding

out

somethirlg

about the cultural and

social

c h a : r

aetet

istics

retatively

iso lated ;

nomadic grou

.p : s o l

hunting peoples , we want

t ' O get fi

rstband

info.rmation

ahout such groups, w e

m

ust

amng

- e fo r a f i

e

Jd e-xpedi tion

to ·

a r i e g i on

w h e r

e

they

f o und , the other hand

, be

e ause

t

here are

publi& h e d

no

ma

díe

socie ti . es , w e can

begin o u

r analysis w i

t

h

these

material&. W e

eoul

d start

w

iíh

a

sysiematic oollection of relevant

li

'teratu

r

e

u

nder

ru hri

c

nomttd ic ·

N e t i ee

th

at our

<rpening m o v

e- a

s

ea

re

h

<Jfthe

l iter

~ ·

ature - is

impos

sib

l

e witihout

so

me defini tions . W 'e need at least

tentativ

e defini

~ .

tions

"

nomad le,

' "

'hunfíng..gathering

,

,

, , , and "

sceieties. ) ~ Sinee the literat.u

t

e

co

n

ta

ins

re.ports

f re

m

a

great

m an

y

different

ethnog

1

raphers

,

.

g

ene

ra

l

agreemen

t

abou t

definitions

anti

co

neepts is

o i grea impo

rtan . ce . Thus

eveo t

he most e

l

e-

mentary

·

e<>neeptuai

·

tasb depend on a J argert more a '

bstrac

t,

theo t

e tical

H a

v i

ng set out eur

tentative deñ niti

ons

of

the researeh

dema

ín

, w e

o b : t a in a s · et

matermls

dea

l

ing w i th

a

number < i hunting . . , g - a

t

hering

p e

nples

i

n v atious

p ar

ts

of

die

w odd - Suppose one

t

he researeh reports about nomadíe societia

Allan HoJmberg

'

s Nommb · o f Lang &w

( 1969), a

1

n

acoount o f the

Si rionó

people

< : i

eastern

an:d

no r

;

fher

n

B

o l

i

v

ia.

w e

twu

toan

examinat

i

on of that

wot i t

, we leam trult i

r ¡ ,

º esides bei

n

. g a mernb:er oí a nuclear fa

mil

y .

ev

ery Sirio

n

ó

a ] s : o

b e . J o n g 5 t - 0 a larger

kin

group , th e

matr

i

lineal aten

d

ed

f á 1 1 1 i

l y "

1 1~ 8

J

. Our

f i : r

. . . p r . . . . L l

e

· m te ..... d· '-

lll

•

H

' e L

v

" ' h . o --n-e 1 1

·

. . . . . . . .

:\ . ·. uu

. . , . . , u;rJ

í; .

. .

~ wit ·. • · • .

1 1 }

,

"'

.;

Hl

_ - .n . Q /

1 '

~ " 'A-r• · ' " ' . . w . 11@1 .,:t

eal · extended family . ~

Fortunately

, · he

p rovides

a d .efin

i

tion

is

quite

exp1ici

t

''

A n

atended

[matr

il ineaJ

}

family i

s

made

·

up

females

in a direet line of de - .

l t l " .•nt

pi •

'

u

~

~

tt't,.J

·

t h . m . . .

n -

i-,.J

,..h')d

r

_,. ''

Th

· t > d · , , , c .

ru · ti ·

·

· n ' a

·

n

,_ . . . , .

,

: , , ..- .

S u.

a ~ . ; , , .r-.-

. . : . . ; , .

· . . . . . , o

Á + U

· , . . .

. : _

1

• 1 1 ' 1 . i U '

'ir

•

1 ; ¡ .

: r ... .

, ~

~r

t

. úO 1 :S , .

· ~

'

fect. a for

grou

pmg

inft>rmation

" ' That is, the con:eept of matr i

l

i 'nea

l ex

-

t

ended : fmnily aJlows H olmbetg

.

to s tate

a .

number generalizati ,

ons

tha .

t

appJy

é i;m uJ., ..-e · .

: or

• : c l · v

•

:A

e-

r

-a l , . , . .

, . . . a . . : -

.a l

t : X f O

U fW # ' . " f

'

H : " " m b · MDP . 1 > m 1i•

nn

.

~_

.

•

•, _ 1

JA,ll

~ ~

·

' 1 CJ . ~

t " " ' °

1' , J

_

1 ~

•

graph , l ike , a) I

S llJ <;h w:orb

,

is :

full term

tn o l Q & Y thatt in ess - e n e e ; . p enn

i

t s the :

c

)

i ustel'ing

, or abSitracti.ng

: J of infor

mation

into horth.an

d fotm in

rJ tran~

formatiom l rul · es .

We are

faced " h

o " W C V er .

pro blem k n o w ing

how

H o lmberg , obtained

the inf

o

rm a ' t ion

oontain

«l the expreuion • . : matri l

jn

_ eaJ atended

fam

ily.

the

monogTaph

and

.

othet

'

s . o u

r

ees

it

is

cl

:

ea

r

t

hat

he

l

iv

ed the

S

i

r

í

onó

for a number ri months, so that the

possi

bilities gaini

n

g t h - e in

fonnati

. on

were

cl .ea

dy

pres .

ent .

P e r .

h

a

, p . s this ti

:

m e

he a & k e d one

of t h e S iri

onó abou t h i s

bnJmen

. H

is

infor:mant

m

i

g h

t

ha-ve

r

eplied

, " I

,

l ik e al l S lri

o nó

, bdong a

matrili

,

nea l atended fam i

ly ,

w h . i

eh may

d -

elined a s .

...

.

. " ' S u ·

ch

a r.espon· se i. s

~ · .. .

u

.

nlikel

y ,

:

h o w e v e r . It much m o re l i ' . k e l y that

H olmberg

's . informant w : o u J . d

ha

ve

amwered

w i

th a

.s

eries statanents

o o

n c e : r r 1 ing

his

. mos1 important

k ins

m

en

, or

p erh a

.

p

s

with

s

tatements about

th

.

e

peop

le

with

whom he

s

h

are

d

f

ood

an

,

d

other



5

i

tem

s ~

A fter :

furthe

r questio .

nin

g , he

1

nigh. t

ha

v e told

;

lt\e ethno grap

her

th a t ev ery .

bo dy

belongs o

r

h

as

a group

k in

sp eo

pl

e w

hom feod and o

t

h

e

r

: i t e m s

are

s

hared and th

at

these groups are alw ay s th

e sa

me i

n th

at

member

sl 1 ip i1 1 thern is

tra

ced t

hr

ou

gh

fem

ale l i

nb

i

n

a

p

articular w ay

.

H

ol

mberg

al

so

hav

e

o

btaíned

t

h

e

i

nform

a

.

tion

d

irec

t

ebserv

at

í

on .

l

t .

turn

s

o

u t

tha

t members of

the exte

n

ded fam il

ies ' 'c o e p e

rate to blJ

ild

t

hat po:rtio

n

: o f

th e

d w d l

i ng w h ich they oecu p y . They sometimes p lant gardens in commen"

(ibtd

.

1

1 8

). A J s o , ,

''the dístribution

of

food

rardy extends bey on

d

th

e e

xtend ed

f a mily

. ''

Beeause H mberg I iv ed

a

mong

t

he

S ir

ion .ó

a

nd

beea

use

esch

J i .

ves

i n a c o m m u

na

l h o use, w e expect · that he h a d am

p l

e to observe

th

at eer íain

i n

d :

i

v

íd .

uah

w

ere reg

u l arly

gr

o u

ped tog

e th e

r

i

n

ter 1

ris afk e y

activ it

ies .

Wi

di.o

ut

a

s

li

ng

s

b

out

k

i

n

grou

ps

from

tb

c people

th e

ms

el

ves

,

H o

l

m

berg may

h

a

v e neted th

a

t w henev er a eerta

í

n

i

nd i

v id

u

al

A

retumed

to

lh

e

co rnrnu

na

l

hou

se

w i

th

so m

e

m

eat,

h

e

di

s · tr

ib

utcd it t

o

p er

s

one B .

D

,

and

E 1

but never

t

o

a

ny the

othet p erson

s

in t

he band

.

In

ad d

ition, he

m

ay

h av e not

ed tkal

A

)

B ,

C , , D

,

and 'E w o rlced togeth er to build a p o r t ian of

th

e

o

.

o

·

m

. mun

a . l

dw e

ll

i

ng ,

after

w h

ich

· th

e

y

w ete

usually · t

o

f o un

d

i

n

that p o

rtien

of

the:

ho u

se

- s . leep in

g,

eat

-

in¡

,

er restin

g

- j

f

they w ere p res

e

nt in the ba

n

d

ares

. H e

w

tr

uld

, course , need

v

e

rba

ll

y

p r

oduced

i n E

or

m

a

t

i

on

abou

t t

he

pr

esu

med

k i

.

ns

h ip

re

'

l

a

ti

o n

s

hips

1

i

n

king

th .

e

pe

rsoos

i

n

t

he

eb

served

gro

u

ps

.

Ty

pie

al l

y ,

anth rop o

logi

cal 6e 1 d '

worke

rs co m b i

n

e the

d

ata fr:om

p e

rs

on

al .

eye .

w i

tñ e

ss o b.servatinn

w i

th inf

onna

ti

on ga

ined f rom i

nforma11u '

descript

ion

s . .

Holmberg

· s

s . t a telnen ts abou , t :m atrilinenl ext

.ende

d

f

ami

l ies

am

ong the

S

iriond

u : n doubted

l

y wer e

based

en k

i 'n d s :

i

nfo

rmation

U nfortunat

el

y ,

Ho

l

m .

berg '

s deserí

p tí o n ,

like

p ra

cticall

y : a li o th

er

eth

n

ographlc

descnp

t

ions,

r

a r r e l

y

m

ak es

.

cJear exa

c

t Jy

what

k

in

d

s

of

o b

serv

ati

o

t

l : S

f

o

cmed

t

he

b

as

i

s

fo

r p

art

ic

ul

ar

ge

n

.e

ra

l

i

za

tions .

L " ik e

m o

s

t eth 1 n Q g

:

rap

l

1

er

s *

H o l n :

lher¡

in

.tend

ed

t

o

c

ollect

a w i de r

a

n ¡ e

of infor . .

mation a

bout

chosen r

es

earc

h

1 p eople in o . rder

to

p re

s : ~

nt a h

oli

stic po rt rai

t

o

f

t h e i r w ay ri liíe .

T h

at i s , th e theor

e

tic a J orie

nbtio

n d f

cul

tutal anth 1 rop o ogy has

f

o : r the

m

ost p ar t

en

couraged a

v

ery

ed

eeü

c

view w ith

rega

rd

to

the

s elec:tion

of

rel

evant

data .

In

a su

mmary

sectio

n

:

of

h is H o l m b .

erg

d

'f ew

t

oge

the r

the

w i

de range

of

p rimary

o bsl nati

ons

ab out the

S

ir ionó into a

izations the

w

h

o le

.

h

e

fe

'

lt,

these people

ar

e

r

a

t

h

e

r

u

.

n

s

u

c

cessfu

l

i . n tl

1 ei

r

food quest , a 1 1 d

t

hey live

1under

con

di

~

i ons of pe

T e

n

1 1 i

al

fo

od inseeur

i

.ty

a

nd

. 'h unger frustratio n . Frotn a

no

th e

r

eom

plex

, ar

ra

y : pr

imary

observ , atio:ns ~ he

cam

e

to

the oo nc

l

us i

o

n

tk

at ·

t

b .

e

S

i

ri

onó a

, r

e unco.opera

t i v : e v

is . . Q ~ v i s

oiie ano

t

her

gteedy

about

tood

J

uncaring abo

ut one

a rlo tl1 : e

r

1s w

e

l

far

e. and g ,enera ll

y

quar

rd-

d

. .

so

rne a . n s

usp1c 1 0 u

s

.

From these descr

ip

tiv

e 6eld

da

ta H o l 1

mberg

sugg

ested

a s

erl

es o f 1

m

idd)

e

, - ra

nge

g

e

n

e

rd

l

iz

,

a

" t

i

o

n

s

' " f

o

r f u r

t

l

1

er

r

d

i

ne

m

e

nt

a

n

.

d in

v

e

- S t

i

g ; ¡

ti

o n i

n

o th

e

r

s

o

ci

e

t

i

es

.

w

h

er

e



The d is c . u ss ion about · the S itioJtó

a ,

nd about Holmba¡' s thenreti

c

al s

tatements

·n~d

-l

n •

t

•

l

.

T h

- . -

as

,

an

u~ u . . . .

on

m

.

u . e

m a

1

n

~

emen~

U I

resear

c

- 1

1

me:

:

uu

o

o gy

.

.

,

.

:ae

demenb ma),e tt p

di

e research language, tbe logical f r

am

e w o t "

k ,

in

tw

ms

which anthropologicaJ inv

e S ' . t i ¡ a t i :

om (and other scientif ic s tud i

es)

. are earried

oul At th

i s point

it

w ou ~

d u

seful ~lar

ify s

ome o u r

w

um p tio n

s

about

these

methodolog

ical elemen t s .

ANTHROPOL

O G

ICA L

R

ESEA R

·

Cl 4

C

lose

]

y

re l a l e < I

to

,

th

is f irst

quati

on

a

re the

:

ollow i

n , g :

2

t n . m J y

ohwvatiO D $ (ha~ qu w hat criteria selcction

)

are needed to estabJ~

h

tite genera

. l

i '

zati

oo { , s ) a.bout pc~

ti

ge and itatu s?

~L

.n

"' l n s e e ( J •ty a · h· • · • na° '

"

C .

· ·

:h...d .. n · L

-

a .

~

:

fJl1

1

ia;;

"'

U

'

.

•

.

lfU

S

1ci4UiO

• ·

idmtilied and eontr-asted c > t h er

sod.cti

e , s m o : t d e . r . to

p:ropos

ilio :

ns a t

bout

al l~

tio n af pRt

ti

ge and ltltus7

Holmberg asumes t h a t

eh

arae te ti tiu ind ividual human o~ p n i

s

m (d

riv

es) can .

" t raml 'o rmed

d

ír

ecdy

intog;

oop ,

. or 5 < ocida

l

,cham

ctetisfi

e 'S .

{ allooation

p1est

~

ge

aud sJatus ).

an

thra,pol~ '8nd t

.

othets)

wou l d . disagree. m

. a i o ta

i

n

ing

that i

ndi

" '

vidualo•it procies.sa md soeidal behiivior oorms f '

q> r

-eRnt

two disti

nct c f

l)lt

.. so that

tra

nsfo

miat : ionJhctw een

th

e t w . D ca

n

1 1 o t

o ec

or

in dte

form

implied

by Holmber¡

. How can tbi

s general

rndho.dologi:eal

co

n8i

d be

rcsol ; v ed

?

Stat~ i

1 1 n

1

ort

genml

ttmrn

s , .

.

·

what

a r .

e th

c

rules

fo

. r

ttansforma

ti

o

m

datt

am'lft

a

u p - -

p o s e . d

level

s :

r : A

ph,m&

al e : n a 1

s The

i

níol mational

~

m . e - n t s

i

n th e pr«eding pa r - a , d 1 gm are hi:ghly sub ject m

o d i

i

aitio . n { or ev - e n

tota

l . nega

tion

) by o th~ r Ñ cton a('eeting ,

hum

c Q n ~havior . W hat rules

a :

nd p roc«lura c - - an ,

be used

to ~

lt-m

th e · inl 'mdati

o mh

i , p s : a k trge numbct

m

wrelamd

lae'.tort

. s o d a . 1 '

ev.ents a

mi

pr

ocesses

?

6 11ieordicaJ

prapos

ítiom

dm v

ed

&

om

o th

er

doina

ins ami f _ f

seh

ools

t ' of socia

l

scienecs may c ; q n a J ly~

i : : e 1 t

1 mu:

rces

d ld

gher

.

ord•

statemen

ts

th

at can be tran:s

.

fozn1

cd irlto f

ow

er-orda

l

nf

orm atí o : n a 1bout ·

the

S

irionó

. That . s ,

a

number otbe . r

k

i

nd

~fl mtements

coold

be

w

bstitnted

f 0 1

so

me

el

H al

m

lxtj

s : s

'tat

e m :

e

nts.

H o

w

c

an

thc goncra.l thcoretica pt -opm-ition: s (or $y , s , tems oí ge

nera

l

th

eory) b e :

sdectm fmm among cornpding alt

unativ

es?

lf

ene

beeame

invOlved . in actual r

eseareh on

Holmberg;'

s

p1 o p o s itions) . a larg

e

numbet d addition

a

]

methodolo.gj

cal

i

ssues would ha

v

e

be facetl

This

.

d

iscus

.

sion 1 ntended to s

et

fo rth onJ

y

the ou

dines

of pm blems

an

t h . r o p o - -

'logi

eal md

hodolqgy

. A d d iti

onal

d .

etails about 'these

problem$ , ,

as w ' C I J as sume

ptoposed

,

solution

_ s

t

~

o

them

.

be

d

i

l : l

uss

ed

i

,

n

r - e l

a

ti

o

n

spe.cifíc

r

esea

i

c

h

.

ca

s

es

in , l

ate

1

ehapt

er ,

s.



The

b

nguage

O

f a ,

nthropology, l i . k

't

tha

t every seíen

ce

,

c

onsists

ma

i

n J y con-

cepts, p

1

opos'ition

s

,

modd

s

, an

d theedes, C eoe epts are the ; basie elements - the

building

'

bloclts

anth

r

opolgpcal

research

.

Fam

i

liar

a

nthropo

logicaJ t

e

rm

s,

s

utb ' 1 ' a m i l y · , . " ' ' ''digg:ing

stick

, , "pea

s

ant, t• "hunter, • •

"

slash-

and

-bum

ag ricu

] . .

ture,

,

_ . and ~

're

ligjon,•t

are

all examples coaeepa, th .

ough

thcse

eesrnpl

es

d

i

f f

er

c.onsid .erahly in degrec a J bs

tr.act

ion . The point to e m p h a

s . i z

e

is

that concepts ate

abstnactions f:rom

concrete

observatíons

, The term

~

" 'digging

: s t ick

, , · •

·

er

enmple

~

is

an abs

t

raetioo that r " e f e r & to a v ariety o f pointed (us

ua

l

l

y w o o d en) o b}oots by

rn

esns

o

f w híeh

hor ti

euJ

t

ur

al

tsb in

variou

s

p a

r ts oí the w o r ld carry out sume of

the

ess

,e

ntia

l

a

e

ts

re

J

ated

to crup

g

ro

w i

ng

.

This

s

ta

tcm

ent

(

w h

i

ch

i

s

nota

defini-

tíen)

is oo n

structed from a string abs-tra

ct cencepts ,

N ,

o n

etheless, the

ter

tn

' - 'di : gg

j

ng st ick ª *

is

much

Iess

abstracl

tha

n, fur

examp

l

e

, the term '1r e J

.

ig io n . ,

· w h i ch dees net refer to a

pa

r

t

icular type object, but rathe r

t

o a

d

omait 1 of

w i

de l

.

y

v

ar

ied

belie& , a

n

d

act

i

o ns .

Whole boob in thc

p h

ilosophy

s

cience have been devoted to exam ining lhe

fundamental

1 < > . g i

c and r e :

J

a .t ioosh ips am

c

ng scíe

n

tific

c

o ncepts

.

We w i . 1 1 llO'f

esplore this

v

ast

a

rca

.

disecarse

h e

re,

certain fundamental

assu

mp t

i

ons

must made elear .

First, i

1

t

should

be e m p h as i

aed that , conoep

ts ar

e s,rbitr

ar

y

se

l

reti-o ns f

ro

m the univ er

se

exper í

ence

, Coode and 'Hat t ,

i

n

d

iscussíng the

ar

-

b

itm

r .ine s : s

oí defini

tions,

rnake

the fo

ll

o

wing s

ignificant

p o i

nt

s

: .

1 dConcepts dere

lop

f

rom a

s 1

hared

exp erie r1 c e

.

"

i ·~crms used to deno

t

e

scientiiic eo

acepts

m

a

y

a

tso

i 1 a v

e n 1

e

anin~

i

n o ther fr~ mes of

r

tt 1~nc

e .

3

·

" A r

ef

er di

ff

erent

pbe

t1 0

1 T 1 e n : a .

"

4 ' '

D

if f

e

r

e

nt

te rms

may ·

rcfer

to

the

sam e

µ : h e n

o .

m

ena

.

"

s

'

'A ~un

m a

y h

ave

no

·

i

m

n

i:

edi

~te

em pirica

l

rd.t re:n

t at

a

ll

.

t

6

"The

m

e .

ania¡

of ;

concq>.h ma

y eha

e

ge."

(

O e o d e

and H a

tt,

J Q S 3 = 4 4-8 . }

Fer th i

s

.

last

p .ain 1 it

i

s instruc

tive

take an aample from the p h .

ys

ical sci

e

n

.

c ·

es

.

Ernest

N

a 1 gel , i

n

h is disc

ussion

oí the structure seienc

e . ,

.

po i n

ts out

th

a

t

the

defini.tion 1

O Í the has

c

-

h an

g ed as

th

eote tical ~ ph

ysi

C S h a : S dev e f -

o p c d

:

W hat i

s r o

be

an

el

ec tro n s ta ted b

y

a i

n

· wh i ch the wo:td i .telec tr

on

r

'

o eeu

~ an

d

when th

e · the

0 1 " )

1

al t

er

ed

t he mC 1

nitt1

of

th

e w o r d undergo o s a m

od

i . 6 . ca : tion . -

.

though

t

\e sam e

w o

td º

electron

" '

i

s

u : s e d i

n

¡rteq uant

um

'

tf t

.

eo ries th

c r

t : l

ectTorric

c-0nsfi-

tu t i : o : n matt~

.

in the

B

o

hr

theoiy

.

a

nd in p o . s .t-B

oh

r

t

heo:ries , the mea

n

in-¡ o f

fu

e is .

no.t í the

sa

me in

a

li these themies .

(

N

ageJ , 1 :

961

:8 8

.

)



r:r

t..

•

~

•

l

ted . , _ .

d

•

. , ;

. L " " ,,,,

,

.. -

d

as

s

ystenu QI

'ntmc a .QJ.; · oonoep~

a

n p l' oposi ,,on:s, can uc

theories'~

that

attemp t

to 6t

toge

ther

in

log

ic al p a : t te

ru

w s t a

reas

human beh~v

. .

io

r

. ºª he o t h e t hand, ,, theo.tetical,

system

can mueh ni.ore

mooest

i

. n

seop e

t

inv

o l

ving

1only

a smal I numher coneepts

a : nd p

ro p o .sitions .

T h eo r

ie

s as . such are never

'" proved

. '' R athcr

~

they

differ

reprd tn the

i

r e f . .

fec

tiveness as

. s o

u

rces

el

propos

.

itlons

th:at

can

t

ested

b

y mcans

.

eml)iriea

l

resear

eb

:

.

and also d

i

if

e ; r

, ,

egard

to

th

e

nw n 1 b«s em

pirit:al observa·

tio ns that

su

p port propositiom o f wbich the gj-ven theordica l systeirl is oonsti-

tuted.

Thus

c h e

ge

netal

· theot

eti

ea

1 l

s y & t e m usu

ally

oaD ed the

t

\heory

ofbio logical

ev

1 0 J : u .

ti

o n'' is S < u , p p o r t e d by a very l a r g e em;piricaJ o b s : ervations . , w h , ereas

. C . •

i n t h e

¡«:ta sc

1 ences ( . ' l t e

.oretic . a s

y

ste

m s o r

S í 1 m 1 1

.

a

r

s

e-ope can 1ar 1 ewet

. . . . 1 N

s

upporting

emp t

tt

ea

o~rva:t 1

o ns

.

When

an

i

ndividual

sa

y

s

•

"i

h . a

v .

e a

th

o o : r y

about

t

h3t,

"

'

he

[r

equently means

are statemenb abo ul

i

ntmelationshíps a:mong

c

oncepts. T h e sfate·

ment

'

·

P

easants.

ar

e

p

ragmatic '

~

i

s

a

proposition wb~e

r e : J a t i

v

e

trutb

val

u

e

p e

,nds en the e l f e c t i v . e . n : e . s s fi the

r ' C S ea

teher's m ao

ipulati

ons

t

he coneepts

,,_,

. .

an

d Ptopositkm

s often

h

ave a par t

,

ru

·bi

ect.pt

ed

icate fmm

~

in w h

ieh ene oo nc ept invo lves the de&nition the given population ( of objceb,

peno~ events

) . abo

u

. t

whieh

a

measurement

ot

ju dgme

nt

o f q u

a

l

i

tics (eg ,

ma r

e

, f - OJO U ' S p ll l l .Q ltg ent , ,,omogeneoos ,

1

oipnrz.~ c;

.D~~1

v e 1 s to oc

made

,

I

n

a

ll

cases

th

e

d

e ñ n : i

tiom

particul

a

r

concepts

a s

.

sub

j

ects

o 1

·

r

eseatc

h involve

t..

~·-

C X , t n l C

I o t 1 m p 1 - c 1

con"

asts

~

"w een e oonc-ept

un '.

tJ .

e o n & > i

: e r - a t i o n e .g .

.

,

p easants) the set o f all o.ther

poss:i'ble

s : u bjects ehesen & o

m

t

he

s:ame

u

nivers:e.

Tha

s f ledsm t , t is ddined as a o f

p e

rson (er

oommJ¡J

j

ni

. ty )

h av ing

, partirular

characte.mti:cs

di

at oontrast w ith and other

possibl

e

l d • ..J .: (

h

' ..

memucts ut t 1.is p artí-cu ar

,. orna

. to m w sco urse . " uman

g T o . u p s cate¡onzw

i n a

subsistencc

. .

typaJo.gy

~

Since the conceptual dAmain

of

(~e.

w.tim

o

ean be diierentíated in terms o f a

great

numbef' of dif-

ferent

c

h .a tactetooe

. s ,

íollows that

esch anthr

opologi

cal rese.rcher atahliS:hes a

ty · p o l o g y w i

t

hin this concep tual d o m a in in terms of ass'llm ptions ( stated 01 un-

. . . . , J . .- . 1 ) t . ~ ~ ·

t

.

. . . . . . . .

1

-~

-

.....:

- t

d' ' · · . . .

J ,...,

~E:

a

oou

tm p n r .a

or 1 m 1

i

~iuns m

hu m a : n s . T h e c r i e s are

1

con~titu

red

eo ncepts

(

typo

l

o , g i , es : a

n d

tax " '

d h . • d

1

•

nomtes , p r o p o s 1 t 1

ons aoout

coneepts ,

a n i

.

· .

e a .

ssumpt1ons :

t · .

at un

erne sacn

propmitio

ns

.

P r o t x > rition

s



C

'

uJ

Wfa

.

l

p:mduct

s

F

a

ntuy

S ay ing.s

R .

e e ;

ruti 0 1 1

Co n c e~

t: s of world

e

#.

'

hild

· behav iof

Oatl\ti

A d

u

lt personallty ,, _

A

dult bebav i

ar

Cr

i

me

S u : i c . ide ntes

L c i &

utc

·

t

ime

aoii

v i 1

y

R eli g tous

Mf

i

efs

Theo

ri

es o.f disease

E mlnlf --• Mainten&

JD,

S ocl

aI : & t r : ' ® t ure

ll

A 'NTHJlOPOLOCICAL RESEARCH

pneral l

y encountered

in

meeting the íinfonnational requirem en ts these

math

~

m . . . . , . : . . . . . . .

1

1

- - . . . . .

. . i ~ t t s ~

It

i s

alse umul to

apply

the

t " C r m ~ '

modeJ

» in

a

more modest fasbion to

these

theoretlcal

systei111

for whieh scientific metaphors or analogies can

rendeted

in

t h - e

fonn

«

d ia

,

gr

a

msj Bow

eh

.

ara

, .

or

·

oth.er picturial arul physic.aI riepresen·

tations . I n

1

anthropology standard t"endering

of kimhip

1ehatts

a

frequen1tl

y

eneountered model,

' l r u t more

eomprehe:ns :

ive qs

· tems

, mch

a . s

the

in-

tenelaüomhtps in compla eeo)ogical i .

ntera

ctio : n . s

,

can often made

more

~l

" " '

;

.a 1 . . , .

.

E

•

. .,

, , . . . , . , . .

:

. . .

¡ fA'R?-_.....,_....,..

t

• io

~J.1w\

"?

. CIJ'• 'S

\ju'"'

UJ plC : : t ov . 1 . i . . f " ' " " '

·

'" '

''

L " A lOa

1

,

.,.

fue theore

ti

e _ a . ( modd i n w h f eh t h : e ¡»,eho1-0g

i

c

aJly

ori

ent-00 1 S~ · CuJ-

e tuali·mi

(

W

h

'

ttng,

. . 9 6 )

- primee -s

,.,O

'ºCPn · l ;

·

1

"

'

·

~

'JTA

L

""

'

- \U .. , . . . . , , .

_

, _ . · . · . \ ·

·

.... , . ., . •

a set

ci

rcelation&hips

has

e

_ x p . r e s . s e d

in some

k i

nd

of

píe

. .

to t

i

: a l represmtat

ion (

o . r

even

a

physicaJ , strue

tur:e. s

uch as

th

e

n1od

1

e

ls

0Í

mole

. .

cules

ene

often sees geaeral " ' i S cience

laborwtories

, or

the

model e ities d i & play ed

in schools arcbit«ture } . ,

d i & o o

v

ery of

new reklticmships;and researc . h 1 diree-

tíons often fucllitattd . lt beeemes p o o ible to experiment with

t h - e

model itself p

to see if chan¡es

i

n

sorne thc

structu

re foree praltietabfe m o d

i

ficaiions i

n

o the

: r partians. Su.

e

h mentati-on is ofte:n g.reatly

e

n lhaneed . at least some of

the

rd.ationsb

i

ps am~

the

parls

the modd

ca

n

e~

in

m ~ t h e m a t i

c

al



C A L . R ES1 E

.

A R C

H

d .

O W '° 3 Q ) " \x a d io u

ene

_ ·

· t - 0

. e researc - · · p ara

IJ m ·

The

mmt pres.si

n¡

pro c11etN in an

-

th

ropologica l :researe

h

daign li

e

in the o f . p rimary

data

¡athe - i n . g - i n

tbe actual

6eld

" 'raearch operations .

Once

the proeedures and o nneep ts o l pr

í

-

~~

. ·

L

l . l

. .J • ..:....

'

L~

L_

_ ~·

.

.d .-

-.J • U - . J

m4f'f

a1m1C-al)O

Oile:3

uucn

p m : . . , m

na

v

e

~

~ 1

-

,, .emÍll.U~

,

f

lgOfOU:S

COn'

c

o

comparisons can

developed,

theoty bu i lding can pr

oceed

en 6rme1 feun .

d atioos.

Tbe logic in use of anthropological data-

-gath

aing operatiom is e s c sentia

l

l

y

the

sa

.

me

•

t h a t

oí

ali sci

ent

i

fic

endeav or s . .

T h e r

, eío re

,

.

our ex

am

ination o f methodo-

)ogJl;a

J

p rinciples dees nnt depend on any particular theo ry . Resear 'f h esamp les

la.te

r ehapt e r - s teprese

n

t a

nt

1 mber

d i

tí

er

ent

t

h : e Q r

eti

c

alposit

iom .

bul th

eir

logjcal stru c ;tura to a ;general scientifi . c realm that embraces at least ali .

of

lhose

disc

i

pl

i

nes

c

eneemed

h

u

m

a

n

beha

v i

or

.



%

0

ANTH

R

·OPOL

O

C

I

CAL R E S

.

EA . R C H

ch:emútry

as

their p :oints o f oomp

ari's

ons

a

nd have perltaps o v .

e

.raim

p]i

6

ed th

ei

r

co n<:eptu

al

ization

of seien

ee

,

In

th e 6m

p lace

" it

shou

ld

be r

ec

o gnizcd th at

\.

. .r ·~1 •

, ,

;

f i

º

tí

.

th

h . J

. .

numeer

\JI

1 e s -pe"• ~ e

scaenu

e p

r

o

posi

· ·

ons

i n e p . y s1 c a se renees inv o

, 1 v e

par-

t ioul

a

ristic

o

b5 erv a · tions ; note t h t

num

ber se i

enti

ñe s : ta temeots tha

t in

c

1u

d

e

:

pa

rtic

·

ular

: i

-

stic

referalc

es

tn

th

e

nm

,

t

h

e

moon

,

a

nd

oth

er

st

ellar

bed

i

es

,

In

g

e

neral

,

lim

iting

scie-

nce to

example

s dr

a

w n

f ron

1

1 ph

y

s

ics and

che

mistry

produces an exbemely

n

arr-ow v i

ew

af th e

sc

i e . n:ti6c en

t

e r p t l - &

e

t fo r : · this to ig .

no re

i

mportant ar

eas

ti: resea

reh in

geo lo

gy

) b

i

ology " · pale .o

nto l

ogy, and n 1 a ny

ather

es

tab

l ishe

d

disc

ip l

ine

s

;

that

ate

f r a n k J J y par t icular - i

s

ti

e

i

n

imp

o

1tant

respects

,

Fe

w

p .

e

ople claim ~ fa

r

exam p le, th at

tbe

geolog ist

is

not se ien tiñ c,

ev

~

en th

augh

h

i s .

aims

mB

f

be

the

s

tudy partic'Ular

features of th

e Ca.

m

br

i

an age er d

esc

rip-

ti

o n

s

s

o

me

g

l :S

ci

al

s

eq u

enc

es

c i f

northern

E

u

ro

p e

.

Ju

st

as scien

tis t s in odt

er

d i

~ ei

p lines are

no

t

always

eo ncemed so ldy w ith

nomoth

e : t i

c ·

g

e -

oc

ml i .zatio

ns

. h i

s:toric:

a J

r

esearehers are far from

be

i ng totally i d eo-

graphic

.

Hisloria

1n $ a

nd ant

h ro p nlogjs

ts

a

r

e freq

uen

tly

ee

ncer

ned w

i th

d

escrihing

hum an

beh

a v i - 0 r in speeific times and ;p

laces

,

bu

t

i . t i : t 1

f J

r i

n , c iPl

f

1 npossible

to 6

n

d

n

o

mothet

ie p rop os i ti

o

ns appl

ieabl

e to 1 - a r , ge el

esses

of h . is torical cases,

a

nd

m

any writm

(Toy nbee ~ Sp en

gl

er, K ro eber , o thers ) have gen . e · ral i

ze

d

broa

d

ea

tures of c

i

v

i l i

za

t

i

í

o ns

,

t

h

·

e

f

" 8

1

l l

o

f

em

p .

i

r

es

,

.

a

nd

o th

e

r

nomo

t

hetic

t

a

p

ies

.

N

a

gd

,

in 1 l

ists

fo u

r p ri

1 1 c í : pal m

odes

of expJ a ~

1

aton

em p loyed in stie

nti

fic d iseeurse

(

1 )

from

. known

a

nd law J i k e prir1 c

i

·

ples ; in

w h

ieh the ~ · e ) { 'pl

a

nato ry

p

remises

d

o

n

ot for-

m all

y

im

· pl

y the

ir explica ,

n

da~ ; (3

}

in

which

s

: t a t e : m 0 1 ·

t s .

are

m

sde abou t the t " fundio ns ( ar

even

dys func

tion

s } that a

unit peóonns in mai

nta

inin,g or

r

- e a liung certain

tr

aits of a

s

ystem to

w l

1

ic

h th:e

unit

bel

o

ng s

, o r oí s tati : ng the i .n

stru

menml role

a

1n acti

o

n p lay .s in bringing

abou

t

s

o m e .

goal

'

'; ¡ (

Nap:J

,

.

1 961 :

2 '4

~

an

.

d

(

4

)

, , -en:llíc.

"

w h i c

l1

set

o u

t

th

e

even

·

ts

through w

hictl

snm~

earJ i

er

sy

stem has been

transform~

i

,

n to a later one1

1 5

) . glane-e bi

ol

ogy ( emhryo l~

gy

~ the study

evolut i

ion, etc . )

a

nd

astron

.

o

my

s .

tudy

th

e

h is

t

ary

of the

unívcn

e

)

r

em i

nd. s o s

.

that

th

i

s f

ou : rth mode explan ·

ati

o n i

s

not u

ni

quely a p :roper

ty

of tho s - , e

dis

. .

e

iplin

e s . th

at stu d

y hu

: n

r a

n histo

ry

and ~hav io

r .

w e ac

,

ce

p t Na:g e l's foor types

o

f exp

la

nation a

s

val

i :

d pat1s sc ienc

e

a 1 i ld

en

ti&e

i

nq u

1

i

ry

,

m

ay

mgges

t

that

d

:

iile

r e n t

scien

c

es

ex

h

i

b

it

diff

erent

thes.e

f

ou · r

logical mode

l

s

, w íthout

the

reby departing f rom

membera

h ip , i1 1 the

~ " " ·

1

·

..

.A, , : , .t:-

· · n . . : i : -

"'"". . i 'k • h1

·

·

~

o

r

~ tlns . . , .

. . , .

.~ t

•

u oc

~

; _ : _ , . . . .

1

1

ne m ~¡.- q:u- ·-~ ~ ..

, '-

ª

" .

-

.

•

.

•

thropoJ

.

og ists

and

othets .

w h o re

ieet

the

l a b e : I o

f

s

ci

ene . c .

are

no

t

d iffe

ren

t

in

k ind

from th .

e

ty p es explana tions of int

er

est to

otber

sci

e

nt

i$ts

,

but the traditiu

nal

patre

rm resea: r ch a nd u .

se

of

e

vid

enee

ma k : e thei 1 p

uooi

ts radi

cally

d

i

f . .

f

ere

nt

fro

m thme the

scie

nees

.

T

h

e

lo gi

t scho

lar,.ip i s t

he s

am

e

for 'both ~

but canons

ev

iden

ce

are:

d

üfe:

rent

.



ANTHROPQ L O C I C A L lt

ESE

ARCH .

Throughout bis study w c e f i nd

an

1 empl 'l

a

sis t1pon the eoopecativ e and t1n

i

f

y i

ng fa . cto

rs

i

n

epot eean

s . 0 < : i c t y

.

Our

6nd i

n¡s , en

tt

ie o t h c . i ' h:and.

would

e inp

hnize undcr

ly in : g in

d

iv idual ls:m of

T e p o z t « a n

i

mt

i

tutions and cbm. cter . th e .

J a

cl

a f

eoopera

ti

on, the ten

~

io ns

bc'

tween

w

1lag

C o

s

w

ithin

t

h

e

munieip

i

o ,

t

he

sch

i:sm

s

w

it

h

i

n

the

vil

lig

e.

.

a

n

d

tbe

pe

rv a

d

i

ng

qual

i

ty

ci

fea

. e , envy and d

istru

st

.

(

Osear

Lewis, 1

·

9 ; 1

:

428-q. . .

)

R

ed~ el

d replied

an ad . miss ;

ion

t

ha

't

~bl

9

hed the o .bie-

ctiv

e truth

cer

ta .

i

n . the U

'ttplea ~

~ il l

l

eatu

r - e s o

f

T e p es-

t

ecan

'

l

i

fe

, .

H e h

a$ s

hown that

m o r

e th;,n '

h a l f the v illag e : r s a

ot

o

w n

ta

nd the

ti

me

t h ' . 3 t s . tud

: ¡ e < f

the

e

ommuníty ; that man

y

we:re in set

io

lJtw ant tha:t s

teating

; q uarre lin g , ,

p hy si

cal

v i

ol

ence a

r

erlot ratt in T:e-pcm

l

án

.

. . is tr ue t

h a

't be t w - o boob describe

w

h

a t

mj¡ht a l m - o s - t

seem

t

o

be

two

di:fferent p eo

p

l

es

oocup

y i

ng

same to

w n

: .

(

R e d i f i ~ l t J

.

196o:: .l

3 '4

· )

H e adds

"

h o w e v e r : "The

greater p.art the exp

l 1anatjon

for the

difference

itween the two repo~ on this

mattet o f Tepcztecan lif e and eha

ra

eter i s to

found in d

i

fferences

betwee

n the

·

two

i

n :v

est

ipton

.

.

. . I

th i

nk

tha

t it

Is sim t > l

Y

'tt '

U

. e that . . . . 1 looked

at

ee

r

tain aspects ofTepoz

tecan

I t

fe

becsuse

th e

y both

inw

1

terested

an

d plea

s

ed me"

(R

edfi

e

ld,

1 9 0 0

~ 1 ;;

}

.

A n o t h " C 1

instan

.

ce

c1

'

t

his

k ín

d

o f

a11thropolog

i :

ca.l

debate

coneem

s

t

h

.

e

eb

s

ra

e

te

r

life

amon,g

the

Puehl

o l

t

1

di

ans of

the

Southwest.

Th

e

st:a

r

y .

begin

s in

1

93~

w hen lüith

B e nedict

p

u

b

l

i

shed

her

oharacterization the P u

eb

lo In

d

i

a

ns in

P attemt o/ In this

w or l c

she deseríbed thc P ueblos

as

"Apoll

e

n

ian

" -

r

e

mained

i

n

e

motiom,

avoíding v í

olence,

q uarre l s, ot warfare snd given

mod . .

emticrn i

n

ali th

ing s : .

Other

wri ters

, notabJ

y

L aura T h o m ps o

n,

have

g i V i

en si

1 1

tilar

portcai ts of the

i

ntegrated ,qualities of P

ucb l

o culture

.

This

'

'

Apoll

o o

i a r 1

~

'

eth

.

os

the

Pueblo

,

peoples i

s

m

pptJSedly

s

o

pe

nr

asive that

ha

s

neve

r

becon1e p roblem

among

them

' •

O

run

.

ke r

l.n~

: s lepuJ s i v

e tu

tbem

, ''

B e

n

ed

ict

wrote. «

Jn Zuñi

alter ,

the

ea

r

, ly

in

tr

oou

c

ti

o n

liqu

o r ~

the

oid

men voluntatily ootlawed

i

t

and

th e

rul

e

was

o o n g - e

n i . a l en .

ough

to

h

o11ored»

{ i b

íd .

, 1 9 '

J4=fl2

). Similad

y

7

al]

types · emotiooa l '

and vi

o l

e

nt displa

y

w

ere

sa i

d

t

o

b l .

De e ' U i ; c 1te1

y

a ne.ons1s , . . " e n 1 . wt1ei1 . o

a1

:

it

cuQeS

.

O n t h - e

· o th

er

han(

I, Estller

Gddfr-ank

and

Doro th

y Eggan

(

amo ng

other

s

) ha

v

e

deseribeti

some as

p ects

Pueblo Iifeways

(pa

,

r

ticula

r

l

y

among Zuñi

a

nd

H o p

i) as

t raumatic

, ,

v i

o le

n

t , .

an

d

rep

r

e & s i v e

(s

e

·

e e s p e c e

,

i

al

l

y

Egp

n

,

1 9 4 ; .

;

L l

A&C l11e

,

1 93

7

;

G o ldfntnk.

1

:

94

5 .)

l

n sup

p

ort her. argument,

Esth

er

G old

frank o f f . e r . e d ,

fe

r e

x

-

am p

th - . s .

cn' 'lo - q - u . . .

" " ' t

~ o · n

R

· O ' ª t . .

~

s

01:. ,

·

;[ ,

e

-·

"" ·i

nn "

r

a

;t ..

1

·

'

'1~

': '~

IV

I

' ' .ri',a: uu:a

l

.

I

:

1 ,'

•

1 ,..

1 •

,;. '.

:

,.

P o w a

m .

u

ceremony :

the crying and s - c

t

eaming

the

c

and i

d ates, and women

mi

ngle th e

i c r

v o ices

,

,

~ e-ncouraging tbem.

o1hets a

ct

li _ sin g

tire

1 'atcina~ , p aitialit y , cl

a:im

ing

tha

.t

the

y

w h ip some ha

.

nler

r

han oth~ in

short

. pa11de

t

n

o

niu m reigns i

n t

t re k iv a

du

ring

fhis

e - x c - i t .

i

ng

h

a

lf

h

o

u

r

.

B

.

ut the

s e -

ene

bu

not

o : n l

y

it

s exci

ting

.

bu

t

a

lso

i

ts

disgusting

f

~atu

r

es

.

As



Her

e

w e

involved

i

n de

ser

iptive

smtements

are

fro

m

s

im

ple .

Moral

v a

l

.

u

es

a

r

e extfremel

y

d

i

ffi

eu

J

t

to

ge

n

eta

l

iz

e

abo

u

t,

a

s

i

t

is

near

l

y

i

mp

oss

ible

t

o

no

n .

l '

n ano the

r

s ee tio

n, h

o w ever , K l

u

ckh o

h ·

n

d

i

scussed

N av ajo

1

mor

a 1

s

ata

much

mo r

e abstract

l e v - e J , a

nd

t h e : r i e l e v a t

n t data a

re

notas ap

p

arent

Thc Prote

: s .

{ i n t virtue dÍc a 1 'e p o S : S e

ssio

ns (th o ugh

.

not th e

Í

r eqJJen tl y p a i red one of

clean

r -

l

i

· n

ess

) i i . s shared t h : e N av ajo; destru

c

tÍ '\ " en

es

s. w as

te

, ca

r

e

J e

$ S n .

m

, an . d even

c

l

ean

line s

s

.

a

1

,

e

di5approv

ed

of

.

G am

b

l

ing

is

w

r

o

n

g

you

los

1 y

o u

r

mothet

's

i

ewel

ry

..

.

"

C

ames

must

Í

lrteifere with wotk . m u

s

t

no

t

e

~ en

a t t :e

nd

eetemoni

a

ls

t

oo

often t

his

becom-e a d l

m

f i

ng

.

'

K.now]edge ,

inelt

id ing . eere

monia l

k nt 1

wtedg

e

nnd s . ound ¡ u c t . g e . .

ment ate

g

ood because they a

, r e

eonducive h e c a l t h and

lo

ng : l ife . . .

S

o br

iety 1

set

f

co

n

-

bd,

and

ad her-enoe to

O l d

c

u

stom

are

valued ... drin . k iflg

·

wrong

i

t res:ults

in

, loss of

supe ieg :

o

e.oott '

o l

, if one ~Qmes " 'w ild without s . e n se . ." O ne s . hould talk ~

pretfy

n ic e · •

( ib

id .,

p .

170

) .

Th

ese

pre:se

nt (ofher than

p.at

i

e

nt.

s

inger, and n e < :

· essaey a

ss

: ista

n ts ) until the

fi

n

a

l

day O

f

a

ceremo

1 1

ial

are

almost i

nvarit

b

}y

l

imited

to mem

:

be t

s .

of

patient 's im

.

n 1 ' C d i a

te f

a

mil

y

gt ' · O U P ami perhaps a f

ew neigh

bors

.

Spectatars g a " t h er d

1 1 r

i

n g th e fi

1

·

1 a l day, reaching

a

maxi

n

1um

·

duril• f : h e

co

n~ tu

d i

ng all.ni

g

h

t ' singi

ng

.

Studying the J J : s is

of

those present

s

ugp

$ :

t $

that

kinsh

~

p

a

nd

pogm

p

hic

propi n'QUi

. t y

are

t

he two

pr¡

n

cipal

d

et.e

~

m

in

a

n

ti

at

-

tendanee . < m e fact tha

t

s a

t

ali remai r k abl . e emerges - nam

·

ely

that

paternal

r - e J a t i v e s

are abau t p er cent more , numet'OU's in the

li

s ts th an n at ' e rnal relat ives .

S ín

ce th is i

s

tr

ue in s p i 1 e

of

the

fact

f h

a

t the

r$l

d eno e

s y s

t~ i s s till matril

O Q I J

than

p : a t r f

leea

l ,

may

be signif icant

A t

· th:e

v

ery lm st , ,

it

af f o fcb

demonstr .rtion the bi la

ter

al

cruuacter C l f

kinship

rec

í

p roc

i t i , e s :

.

(

K

lu : dh oh .n

,

t

9(iz . :

1 9.)

F

arther a l

o n

g . in

th

e same

art

ie l e : , K l u ck b

oh

n noted that ~ · M a n )

·

statemen

ts

ma

k e i

t

elear tbat there i s s

ocia

l press

u

re upen broth

e

rs and sís

t

ers, uncles

and

a .

unts, an

d o ther re l

a :

t i

v

es o

f

the

p ati

ent

. to a

i

: d

by

th

eir

presenee

and

gi

fts

food a

nd · mon:ey t ' "

1

2

0

)

. "

Beeeming a singer is p

rob:ably th e

p

r

i n

cipa

l mecha-

n

i

& m , fo , r the

"

circul a :

ti

o n of the e

l ite '

( in the P aret1an sense ] in Nava . jo s _ o c i e t y as

w h

e le

" 1 21 ).

In seetíon

,

as , o thtí

d

escrip tions

a

b

o u.t N a v a j o ceremomal p at·

teros.,

K l

liek h ,ohn

r ~

ferred : t : o

s

orne

in:

div

i

d

t1al cases,

~ i s t s p eo p

l e presen

t

at

eer

-

em

on

ill

s

h

ad w i

tn

ess

ed

. · Ot for w h . i : c h

h

e ,

h

ad

obtaine ' d i

nforma

t

i

on

~ a .

nd

i t is

e

lear

tha

t

he

is

descti '

bing p a

tt

ems

fo

r

w h í

e

h

h

e

ha

s a gr

ea

t

d

ea

l

data

.

A

t

some p o ints

his

g,enet;a

l:i:zations

appJy

to

a

particular

se

t

Na.v.a

j

o

e

eremonials

to

w hich h e had aeeess (

th e geogr

ap hic

and ti

me

range of

thes

e

m tlle

tials

is

·uncl

ear

) ; ,

bu

t

a

. t o ther

p o

i

n

ts hi

$

gener:aJizations are

clear

ly i

nten

d ed to

appl

y to

Na\' a j { ' )

soci:ety as

a w h

ol

e . N e n etheless,

w e

do not llave much : d

i

f ll eu

lty i .

m a

g

i

n

-

i

ng

th

e data

th

at

wouJ

d

be re le v 1 1 n t

fnr

t

he g

eneralizations

h e

made .

Th

c e

data

i

n th

ose

passages

i nvolve beh a

v ia

r

that any normally

competent a

1 1

thro p

o

l ~

o . g : i s t

or other

o

bseJV

er

sho

u

l

d

be

ab

le

to

r

eport

fa

i

riy

a

cc

u

r

a t : e l

y

. There

would

seem

to

no p

to b

lems

a : bo u t tbe defin ¡

it

i

ons

of ternts . and the logic of explana

. .

AN'l" HROPOLO

C

JCAL



32 ANTHI

O

POLOGI

C

AL

R

E

S

. E

A R C

H

assumed Úom th e beginning

.

that there m ight sorne

v

arí

a

tion amo ng males

i

n

Terrone

r

eprd to atti:tu:des

sn

d beJieís and

that

hís data gat

ha

ing shou

l

d

reflect such variation. researeh method

s

included a struetured interview

techruque:J wruch compares

favora

bl

y B

anfield

' s

use the . s tmetured Th

e-

1 na

t

ic

A p p e

r

ception

Test

M

i

llers

amoral

fdm.iliml

se

a

.le

eentained

tw e

l

ve

item1

,

whicl\ he admin istered

o

'

~

n 1 .alc esíd

en

ts

.

of the v il)a¡e

. .

.

r.anged

in age

f fom seventeen . to s< C Y e n t y y ears , ; . , theít ooeup at ions r~nged from ag ri

eultut:a

l

anti unsklJIIed industrial labore

r

s,

.

thro:ugh sk

il

led laboreri sm - a ll farmers and

shop owneu, :

t

o clerical, technical and

professiona

l worke rs '" (ib i .d .• p. )2'. 5 }

.

O f di

e t we l

i

v

e

basie qudti

ons

that MiJler

a

· sked, there w e - r e a f e w s :

ta

t .

emenb

'

lhat p er

e,ent

of his infonnants agreed Sorne

s

tat

em

enb

w e

re

awr

oved

abwt

s

o

µ e t

- c

ent

c : I ,

tbe

m e

n, and ene

s

tateme

nt

a

pp

roved

h)

r

J

la"·-

mt~me

n

t ·

.

, .

.t,.

: . h · . • . 1 ,. d · 1 -- ~ h e

hs

J .l . . . .~ ~ · ·

- c e

. m tal

wtuc

. :soun .

.M:

" ·

_ _

.

a 1 ;

m01~

a

- - o .

familism ,

'1'here

are

times when

a h : a

. s to

do

t:hat m ,rght

hwt

a

fello

w towtWman

i f

i t woold

hel

p h

is

famJly ~

' i t

The

T e r r o ne

se

were

di

.

vided

about hall and batí in responding to the ·

f

allowing: "There are times when i t is

necessary for

a father

to

e

h e . a t

er swin

dle

the

o

thers

a

little\»

CO'ntrat

Banfid d ,

who u

s

ed the res'ults the

s

tructured r

esearch

i n

·

strum~nt

t

o

m

a

k e generaliiation

: s

about

whole

oom

·

rnunity,

MilJer

~

s

data

d..

-~ .

•

· ,

. a r .

¡

a · L . .

•

• _ : e . :

er

n

u•~ ~ . _

- . . . \ " ;

me range varta Wtm n

0

1 e commun ty matte:r m uc1Jc.."1

S .

el 1 te : ~1. . has .

-

~

h

1

r

é

_ at«a to amota :ammftn . · · n

u1c · .

· .

_ ts m

t · ese rt u ts · ete

ts

no J U ttitieation

S . a •

t . . . . - ... - - . ,

. "- ' - ..

il

O

. or ·

u 1 e s

e souun:tn

u

c

"'°e. 1

. r - 1 1 ,

1 ve s t .

_ .

rms

· .

~

.

amaraJ

fa

milistic

ethos

. Wh

i

le a few men in the c o m m · unity did endorse most of

the

stat-ements

. that

w c

re i .ntended to measute

th.is

e t h ( ) $ , , m an

y

m 1en not

respondas

f h e . y

s.huul

d have iftheybe l i e v e . d in the ethos ~

and

s

o

me

w e r e .

stt 'ongl

y

op

posed to

lhe

sentim:ents ·

apresse

d i

n

·

t

he

am

o

ral-{am ilism s

cale.

There ar e >

eowse

t aspecls M il)er 's researc 1 h th ,

a ·

t can

er

i tic ized . One

can quest ion . the meanin¡ the

k ey

ítems in

his sea.l

e

fo r peopJe in southern

lta.ly

. and his s.ample informants

was

not strlc

~ l y :

ramlom that a question

about

ib

rcpresentativeness can

bt

even . though bis

sam p

ling is

much

more i

m p

ressiv e than the typical case in ethnographic reporting . N :

o

t

hing in

M il

lets researdl

can satisfy '

U S ~

io o ut

the

causal force

th

is cons

tella:tion

b e 1

i

efs . _ ,but his m o re relined study usan u n:ders

ta

ndin¡ the range

of

va ·ti .

at

i

on

i

n a

v er

y

com

pl

ex

dom

a

in

of

idea

s,

.

rather

t

han a

htbeling

of an

come

munity

o

:

r an enti : r e culture as adhering to a p articular un ifo rm traditional

'

tl"ait.

There a , re so

t

ne

s.imilar

if i

es

hetween the Ban1ie ld -M

i

ller

••deb

a

t

e'' on amora

l

fam .

ilism and

the

earl

ier mu . c h better known

R

edfield-Lewis d isagreem

e

n ts

.

I

n eac h case the foous i . s on

cornmunity

stud i

es ag

. ricultum

l p o

pulati

.

o n

sf .and

the e f h n o g m p h e rs intended to

pr

5nt

s

ome rather bll'aad gene~aliz ations , about

life

st)f

le

md

. ethos

.

In

sn

me r

s ~ . t l1ough, there is marked

impto

veinettt

f r

o m

the

earl

i

er

to lhe

lat

e

r

exa

mpl.e

.

(

W

e

must

k

e

ep

i

n

m

i

nd

,

ho

w

ev

er

*

th a

t w e d

o

not



d

D~

..J t:.

1

d..

' r o m _ e u1e : e " W l & .

an

uie

dispu

t

es

concaning

th

e

inte1pretatio n

. rl P ueblo cu

l

tn-re,

it

a :p p ears th a

t

antl 1 ro-

polo gi

s

ts need to develop research mdhods

tha

t p rotect the researdh 1

e

rs Íf om th e i r

aw n 1

mh

lectiv · ea5

sumpt i

o ns

,

a -

nd

va

l

ue

ju d g me n b

. Contrary toseme earl

i

e : r opin ·

.

- -

iens

; t

_ raining in

amhr

op o :

l o m r dees

oo

t

rid t

h

,e in

v

e&tigator eenscícu

s and un-

o:omcious

cu

ltural '

biaa

, but

meth

o c lOl• ica l training

can

provide m m m i

-

mizing the reseaichets

·

pason

al

hiaRS

b

y

means

sy

- s m m a : t i c

,

o : b i e e . t i

6

c a b l e

r~rdl too ls

,

.

Q ua

. rrtilieati (ln

aa

d statisti~

a

l a:n

al

y sis may a

í

d significand y in o bjecüfy . ing

an

-

th

r :

opo l

ogica]

research, bnt a n

1

ost impottant f irst step ·

towa

. rd r igo rous methodol-

1

1

• • _:e

ogy J lC S in caraui U ci:trution me

lOCUS

researc

1

1

. ,

wtt specit1cat1o:n _

' , e

empirical o:bsetvati.on

s

.

th

at w il

l

be used as ev í de ace for

th

e p t o p o s i . .

tions lo

t e S : t e d

, .

The ml thod

ologiea

l

requirements suggest-ed

l

here

d

o not in the least suggeat

t

hat .

an thro p

ol

ogj

.

sts

giv

e up

the

time-t e s :tcd

general

preeedures ·

participant

ob..

servation and informa l interviewing . These

tr

a c l i t i < J n : a l , anthropalogical rech ~

tt iqu .a

a

re ind

ispen

sa l ble

for

identify.in

¡

the si

gniñeant

ques tionB .

á

s welJ as

for

f l n d i 1 1 g out how these qu

es

tions can be stuuied i n

,

of the loca

l

s

etting

. The

intuitive obsavations the

sens

. i t ive6

d . d w o r k e

r ar , e

essentia1

the general tasb

mth ropolog ieaJ resear~ pamcul

a

rly i n the d i s e Q V , e rf

signi6

cant pattero

,

s in

.

e 1

1

l

tuml .

be

havior . Once the anthr

opol

ogist bqi . ns

la

y

of s

i¡niñea11t

c u _ l . .

tu

r . a l

relationshi

p

s

th~ough

.

i

nt

u :

i

ti

ve

h

u

o c . h C $ ,

the

next

asent

i

al

step

i s to

devi

s

e

meaos to test and

verify

th ese hunches through

s

ystematized research routioes.

The archempirici

s :

t

Srr

Fmneis B

a c - o :

n 1 observ . ed :

let men piase th

e

m sd v .

es as the

y

w

ill

io

ad m iring arrd

a1mos

t a

.

dot

ing

the

hu

man

mi:nd

•

. cettain

: that asan

unev

e : t 1

rt1irro

.r d

)st

n

rts

the

ray s o f ,

o . b j : e c ts a :

coo

idms

to

¡ 1 5 o w n

f i g w

1

r e

and

se e t i < >

n :

>

ti te

mind

- w

i

t

r

«-eiv

es

i

m _ p r

as

i

o n

s

ol

ob : i

«

ts

tbrough

the sense. oannot

be tru

sted to 1 repon them tru ly, but in its n . o ti

o

m

m

~es its

wi:th

·

t.he

th

i

n .g

s

.

t9'o:

t

:..

)

3 6 A :NTHR

OPOLOGJ

C A

L

ltESEARC

H

d

eser

ip ti

v

e

s : u p pnrtin

g:

evidmce,,

bu

t they w e - 1 e not p

.

r:esented

01 researebed

in

a

mmner pern1itting

falsification

. In genera l, I a ~ s i

6

cation i " S not possiible if w e do

:

not defuie o e r 'lerms and

m

ake elear fue

b

aric elem

,

ents in eu r theor.

etiea

l slate-

ments

.

T he tasb anthrQp olasi

1

cal research,

then

,

,

in.elude

th

e

dev

e

lopment

of

clearer siandards

fot

poten.tia falsification -

i

1

n

clu

ding

, the possibiliti

1es

r

ep

li

c .

a - .

tion

by o th er

person

¡

w h o may not na

v e m

uch

fandness

and

emotionail co

n-

cem abeut our theoretic

,

a ] i deas

a s

w e have.



UNfVERSITY PRESS

I S BN

5 2

2

9 2 8

X

9

Documents

Anthropological Research. the Structure of Inquiry - Pertti J. Pelto and Gretel H. Pelto