Annotated Folio of Practical Activities
(LearningKardinia International CollegeUnit 4 VCE
PsychologyLearning) (Annotated Folio of Practical Activities)
Table of Contents
Prac 1: Classical Conditioning of an eye-blink3
Prac 2: Operant Conditioning Investigating the Effectiveness of
Different Schedules of Reinforcement7
Prac 3: Application of Operant Conditioning: Shaping11
Prac 4. Does Observation enhance Ones Ability to Learn a Simple
Task?14
Prac 1: Classical Conditioning of an eye-blink
Source: Grivas, J., Letch, N., Down, R., & Carter, L.
(2010). Psychology: VCE Units 3 & 4 (4th Ed). Melbourne:
Macmillan Education. Pps 457 459.
Classical conditioning of the eye-blink reflexive response is
perhaps the most thoroughly studied form of classical conditioning
of mammals over the past 100 years or so. For example, as shown in
figure 10.7, it has been used in rabbits. Note the use of
electronic devices to produce an eye blink (by delivering a puff of
air) and to accurately record the reflexive response (by using an
electromyograph to detect electrical activity of muscles). What is
most important about eye-blink conditioning is that in most cases
it appears similar across species, and thus results found in one
species can reasonably be expected to apply to others (Gluck,
Mercado & Myers, 2008)
This practical activity enables you to apply classical
conditioning procedures in conditioning an eye-blink response using
a simpler apparatus than that shown in figure 10.7. The two stimuli
that will be paired to create a conditioned eye-blink response
are:
a puff of air (blown through a drinking straw and directed at
the bridge of a participants nose)
a tapping sound (made by your knuckle or a pencil on a
table).
You are to work in groups of three. One person will be the
experimenter, one person will be the participant, and the third
person will observe and record the participants responses. The
three group members will take it in turns to apply the conditioning
procedure as it is outlined below. The experimenter and the
participant should sit on opposite sides of a table within reach of
each other. The observer should sit next to the experimenter with a
clear view of the participant. The activity is best undertaken in a
place free from distractions such as external noise and other
people. The procedure has three stages.
Stage 1
Pre-conditioning. The experimenter should tap the pencil several
times at irregular intervals without presenting the puff of air.
This is done to get the participant habituated to the tapping alone
so that they no longer respond by blinking. When the participant
shows no sign of blinking to the tapping alone, the experimenter
can begin conditioning.
Stage 2
Conditioning. There will be a total of 25 trials. In trials 1 to
15, first present the tapping sound, then immediately blow a puff
of air through the straw, aiming at the bridge of the participants
nose. The tap and air-puff pairings should be presented at
irregular intervals within a time period of about 90 seconds. This
allows an average time of just 3 seconds for each trial. In trials
16 to 25, present only the tapping sound (i.e. no air-puff) for the
five trials asterisked in Table 1. If the participant blinks in all
of these five trials then the response can be said to be
conditioned.
Stage 3
Post-conditioning. Tap without the air puff several times at
irregular intervals until the eye-blink response no longer occurs
(is extinguished).
Results
Table 1 Individual data recording sheet
Trial no. Eye-blink response (Y/N)
Trial Number
Participant 1
Participant 2
Participant 3
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16*
17
18*
19
20
21*
22*
23
24*
25
Participant 1 Participant 2 Participant 3
*Tapping sound alone presented on these trials.
Analysis and interpretation
1 Construct an operational hypothesis that could be tested by
this practical activity.
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2 Compare your data with those of your two partners. Combine the
class data and evaluate it in terms of theoretical
expectations.
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3 In what sense can a control and an experimental condition be
seen in trials 16 to 25?
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4 Represent the combined class data in Table 2.
Table 2. Class Data for Conditioned Eye blink Experiment
Trial Number
Percentage that Blinked
Percentage that did not Blink
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16*
17
18*
19
20
21*
22*
23
24*
25
Participant 1 Participant 2 Participant 3
*Tapping sound alone presented on these trial
5 Describe the results evident in the combined data.
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6 What is the purpose of presenting the tapping sound alone for
five of the 25 trials?
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Why are these five trials scheduled towards the end of the 25
trials?
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7 Identify the UCS, CS, UCR and CR in the procedure used for
this activity.
UCS: ______________
CS: _______________
UCR: ______________
CR: _______________
8 What conclusion(s) can be drawn from the results obtained from
this experiment?
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9 Identify and explain any extraneous variables that might have
influenced the results.
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10 Explain how the experimental design could be modified to
minimise or control the extraneous variable(s) referred to in
question 9.
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Prac 2: Operant Conditioning Investigating the Effectiveness of
Different Schedules of Reinforcement
Source: Milesi, P. (2011) The Psych Book VCE Units 3 & 4:
Activities, Outcomes and Assessment 4th Ed). Australia: Nelson
Cengage Learning Pty Limited. Pps 148-150.
Schedules of reinforcement refer to the manner and frequency in
which a desired behaviour is reinforced. Responses may be randomly
reinforced and unpredictable in nature (occurring after a variable
set of responses) or predictable when reinforcement occurs after a
fixed set of responses. Furthermore, reinforcement may occur after
set or random time intervals. The different schedules of
reinforcement are listed below and their effectiveness in
establishing and maintaining desired responses is discussed.
A continuous reinforcement schedule is effective in rapidly
establishing a desired behaviour; however, it has a low resistance
to extinction.
A fixed-ratio schedule of reinforcement is most effective during
the acquisition stage of learning, as it establishes a consistent
pattern of reinforcement. After the behaviour is established, the
frequency of reinforcement may be extended.
A variable-ratio schedule of reinforcement is highly effective
in establishing a learned response, and has a high resistance to
extinction, as the individual is always anticipating the
reinforcer.
A fixed-interval schedule of reinforcement is moderately
effective in establishing a response, and responses are
inconsistent in nature. This is because the individual learns when
the reinforcer is due, and thus will cease responding immediately
after reinforcement. He or she may only recommence the behaviour
when he or she senses that the next time interval is
approaching.
A variable interval schedule of reinforcement is more effective
than a fixed-interval schedule as reinforcement is unpredictable.
Such a schedule provides a low, consistent, responding rate and
therefore has a gradual extinction rate that falls below that of a
fixed-interval schedule.
AIM
The aim of this experiment is to measure the effectiveness of
the different schedules of reinforcement, and to determine which
schedule is the most resistant to extinction.
1. Formulate an operational hypothesis based on the information
in the introduction and aim.
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2. What is the IV
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3. What is the DV
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Method
Materials:
A jar of chocolate buttons or jelly beans to be used as positive
reinforcers.
Data recording graph
Timer
Two pens /pencils (different colours)
Procedure:
The desired response to be demonstrated by the participant is to
recite the alphabet backwards
Step 1.Divide participants into four groups. Each group will
receive a different schedule of reinforcement. The correct response
rate of the above task over a 10 minute time period will be
recorded, and the resistance to extinction measured.
Within the four groups, participants are to work in groups of
three with one person acting as the experimenter and the other as
the participant. The third person is to observe the participants
responses and plot the cumulative number of correct responses and
periods of reinforcement on the data recording graph.
The exercise should be carried out with both the experimenter
and participant seated opposite one another at a desk, with the
observer seated adjacent to them.
Group 1 is to be reinforced using a fixed-ratio schedule of
reinforcement. (A reward should be given after the correct response
has been demonstrated 3 times)
Group 2 is to be reinforced using a variable ratio schedule of
reinforcement. (A reward should be given after ever three correct
responses on average)
Group 3 is to be reinforced using a fixed-interval schedule or
reinforcement ( A reward should be given every 60 seconds
precisely).
Group 4 is to be reinforced using a variable ratio schedule of
reinforcement. (A reward is to be given every 60 seconds on
average)
Step 2.During the acquisition phase of the learning process,
continuous reinforcement will be given until some learning has
occurred. The participant should recite the alphabet backwards 5
times and receive a reward after each correct response.
Step 3.The experimenter-participant pairs should then commence
partial reinforcement with their allocated schedule over a
10-minute time period. On the data recording graph, the observer
should chart (by placing a dot) every time the participant elicits
a correct response over the 10-minute period. A dash in a different
colour should also be pencilled in on the graph whenever the
experimenter gives the participant a reinforcer.
Step 4.Collate the class results and compare the different
schedules of reinforcement.
Figure 1. Correct Responses by subject for reverse alphabet
recall
Discussion
1 Based on the results obtained, was the hypothesis
supported?
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2 Which partial schedule of reinforcement was the most effective
in terms of the speed with which the response was acquired?
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3 Which reinforcement schedule seemed t be most resistant to
extinction? Measure this by observing which schedule produced the
highest number of cumulative responses over the time period.
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4 Which reinforcement schedule produced the most steady,
consistent response rate? Suggest a reason for your answer.
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5 Which reinforcement schedule produced the most erratic
response rate (i.e. the participants rate of response increased and
decreased intermittently over the time period)? Suggest a reason
for your answer.
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6 Was the reinforcer used an effective incentive for the
participant? If you answered no, explain how this may have
confounded the results of the experiment.
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Prac 3: Application of Operant Conditioning: Shaping
Source: Grivas, J., & Lawrie. P. (1991). Psychology
Experiments and Activities. Sydney: Harcourt Brace Javanovich. Pps
199 & 200.
An important principle of instrumental or operant conditioning
is called shaping. Shaping involves the reinforcement of a response
that takes the organism closer to a particular behaviour, to the
exclusion of other behaviours. This is similar to the hot and cold
game, where something is hidden and another person has to find or
identify it. There is no feedback other than hotter or colder as
the person gets closer or further away from the desired object.
Shaping has traditionally been studied with rats. There are
obvious problems with using rates in a classroom. Consequently this
experiment involves two volunteer students, acting as experimental
rats.
AIMS
1. To demonstrate how behaviour can be shaped by rewarding
successive approximations
2. To illustrate principles of instrumental/operant
conditioning
PROCEDURE
Step 1Ask for two student volunteers to act as experimental
rats. Have them leave the classroom and remain out of ear range.
While they are out of the room, have the class decide on a novel
behaviour for the participants to perform (but do not tell the
participants what it is). For example it could be as simple as
picking up a book or touching the board. Alternatively, it could be
a more complex behaviour such as selecting a specific book from a
bookcase or cleaning the board in a particular way.
A group of students (the rest of the class) should call out the
word cheese whenever the participant makes a positive move in the
direction of the required task or goal behaviour.
Discuss the procedure fully, as it is crucial to the success of
the activity. As each participant moves about the room, she or he
will make many responses. The shapers must identify the appropriate
responses and reinforce these. Incorrect use of reinforcement will
confuse the participant. It is important that the participant can
associate the desired response with the reinforcer. Appoint one or
more students to time the participants. Record the time taken for
each participant to perform the required task.
Step 2Bring the first participant just inside the classroom and
give her or him these instructions: In your new role as an
experimental rat you may explore your new environment, groom
yourself, listen to strange noises, smell strange smells and
generally potter about. You are required to complete a task but
will not be told what it is. Instead, you will receive a verbal
reinforcement the word cheese whenever your behaviour indicates a
move towards the tasks completion.
Step 3Ask the participant to begin exploring the environment.
The timekeeper should record the starting time. On each occasion
the participant does something that is related to the desired
behaviour, the group or class should give the reinforcement by
calling out cheese. At first, it will be necessary to reward the
participant for simply looking in the right direction. Also, for
learning to most effective, the reward must be presented almost
simultaneously with the appropriate response. When the participant
actually performs the desired behaviour, call goal and stop timing.
Record the time taken in Table 1
Table 1.Shaping DATA Sheet
Participant
Time
Trial 1
Trial 2
Difference
1
2
Step 4Return the participant to the starting point. Repeat Step
3. Record the time taken in Table 1.
Step 5Repeat the procedures with the other participant.
DISCUSSION
1. Compare within and between individual differences in task
completion. What factors may account for any variations?
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2. What problems occurred in the shaping procedure? Was cheese
an effective reinforcer? Were there any unexpected reinforcers?
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3. Describe the process exhibited by the experimental rats in
relation to the Three-Phase model of operant conditioning (S =
Stimulus, R = Operant Response, C = Consequence) and suggest the
effect of this activity on the participants future behaviour.
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Prac 4. Does Observation enhance Ones Ability to Learn a Simple
Task?
Source: Milesi, P. (2011) The Psych Book VCE Units 3 & 4:
Activities, Outcomes and Assessment 4th Ed). Australia: Nelson
Cengage Learning Pty Limited. Pps 139-147.
INTRODUCTION
Probably the most common image used to stereotype psychological
research on learning would be that of rats running through a maze.
In such experiments, the rats are placed into the maze and over
repeated sessions they demonstrate learning by running the maze in
progressively shorter times, usually to receive the reward of
cheese at the end. These times are usually plotted onto a graph
known as a learning curve, which clearly represents the learning
displayed by the experimental participants. In this experiment,
human participants will have to negotiate a simple maze to
demonstrate their ability to learn.
The maze has been constructed such that:
The path goes from left to right, which means that right-handed
subjects would obscure most of the figure as they progress through
the maze
Different solutions are possible.
Before beginning the experiment the explanation below is
necessary:
Standardised Briefing Statement
My name is ________________ and Im a Year 12 Psychology student
at __________ ____________ . We are researching processes involved
in learning as a part of our School Assessed Coursework. I was
wondering if you would mind spending a few minutes performing a
simple task, namely completing a simple maze several times to see
how your performance changes with practice. Your identity will
remain anonymous. When doing the task, normal maze rules apply.
Specifically, you are to begin at the entry (the mouth) and are not
to work backwards (from the exit). You are not to lift the pen off
the page, and must not cross over any of the lines if you make an
error or go up a blind alley, then you must return to the point
where the error was made without lifting your pen off the page. You
are to perform the task as quickly as possible, and I will time how
long you take for each attempt.
AIM
The aim of this experiment is to explore whether observational
learning would facilitate the performance of a simple learning
task. The desired response is for the participant to correctly
negotiate his or her way through the maze as quickly as
possible.
1. Before beginning, formulate an operational hypothesis based
on the information in the introduction and aim.
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2. What is the IV?
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3. What is the DV?
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METHOD
Materials:
At least 5 copies of the maze for each pair of participants
Pen or Pencil
Stopwatch or timer
Procedure:
Step 1Explain the process to the participants using the
standardised briefing statement.
Step 2Once participants have been selected and have consented to
participate in the experiment, randomly allocate them to work
together in pairs. Inform these pairs that they will each take the
role of experimenter and subject, and ask them to quickly organise
who will take each role first. Alternatively, randomly allocate
them to their roles yourself).
Instruct the experimenter that he or she is to closely watch the
subject to ensure that he or she follows the rules and to get an
exact time, which the experimenter is to record after each attempt
with the maze.
Step 3The experimenter gives the subject a copy of the maze and
a pen or pencil and begins to time how long it takes for the
subject to complete the maze. After the subject finishes the maze,
the experimenter records the time taken (in seconds), collects the
completed mazes and covers it up.
The experimenter then asks the subject to briefly describe the
process that he or she used in order to find the way out of the
maze. What type of learning strategy did he or she apply (The
experimenter records this response for discussion later.)
Step 4The subject repeats the maze for the remaining number of
trials, with the experimenter collecting the completed maze at the
end of each trial and recording the time in seconds.
Step 5Once the experimenter has recorded the time for the last
trial, the roles are reversed and Steps 3 & 4 are repeated.
When you are aware that the last trial has been finished, say
Thankyou for your participation. It is most appreciated.
Step 6Collate the data for each group of participants. Calculate
the mean time for each trial for each group, and record this in the
table provided.
RESULTS
TRIAL #
1
2
3
4
5
Mean time taken (seconds)
for Group 1 (initial subject)
Mean time taken (seconds) for Group 2 (initial experimenter
observer)
DISCUSSION
1. What did the results show? Did your data support the
hypothesis?
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2. Did the progress shown in each subsequent trial indicate
gradual learning for all subjects?
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3. What approach to learning is best illustrated within the
early trials of this experiment? Explain.
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4. Was there a difference between the first group (model) and
the second group (observer)? If so, how? How could you account for
any differences between the behaviour displayed by the two
groups?
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5. Did the second group follow the same path as those they
observed from the first group? If so, what would this demonstrate?
Explain.
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Appendix i: Maze Example
19
