ANNEX V COUNTRY STUDIES: GREECE

1443R03D Annex V - GREECE

March 2002 MacAlister Elliott and Partners Ltd page 1

ANNEX V COUNTRY STUDIES: GREECE

1 NATIONAL CONTEXT

1.1 GENERAL1.2 SELECTION OF FDAS1.3 DATA SOURCES

2 KEY DATA COLLECTED

2.1 EMPLOYMENT2.2 LEGISLATION2.3 ORGANISATION2.4 EDUCATION & TRAINING2.5 SOCIO-CULTURAL STATUS2.6 ECONOMIC STATUS

3 CONCLUSIONS & RECOMMENDATIONS

3.1 KEY FINDINGS3.2 CONCLUSIONS3.3 RECOMMENDATIONS

Appendix 1: Bibliography

Appendix 2: People interviewed

Appendix 3: Relevant legislation



1 NATIONAL CONTEXT

1.1 GENERAL

Due to Greece’s geography the fishery sector has been traditionally the basic source ofincome for the inhabitants of the majority of coastal areas, especially the islands. Women’sinvolvement with fisheries is predominantly in the regional and rural labour markets inGreece, and the position of women in Greek fisheries does not differ a lot from the positionof women in the countryside in general.

The contribution of fisheries to GDP was 0.28% in constant prices of 1971 and 0.36% incurrent prices (1998). The contribution of fisheries to the Gross Agricultural Product is 5.3%in current prices (1998). The contribution of the fishery sector to the country’s employmentand to rural employment is around 5.1% and 1.2% respectively. However, the fishery sectoris locally important and it is mostly identified with the less favoured and the geographicallydistanced areas of the country (island and coastal zones).

1.2 SELECTION OF FDAS: THE SMALL SCALE FISHERIES SECTOR

We collected information on five small scale fisheries projects.1 All of these are pilot projectsfinanced by DG XIV of European Commission and were implemented mainly in 1998 and1999.

1.2.1 The small scale fishery project in KavalaThe Development Agency of the Prefecture of Kavala applied in 1997 for the implementationof a project related to the support of inshore fishermen’s wives who were involved with theeconomic activities relating to fisheries. The basic aim was to create a cooperative offishermen’s wives in Kavala. The project had a duration of 18 months (1988-1999) andundertook different activities supporting the economic integration of 16 women between 20and 50 years of age. These included education and training of women on fisheries trading, theorganisation of an international workshop in Kavala aiming at exchanging experiences withprofessionals from other Mediterranean countries and a study on the viability of a women’scooperative.

Three documents have been prepared by this project. The first document is a study of thesocio-economic characteristics of women who participated in the project as trainees ormembers of the women’s cooperative. The study reached a number of conclusions on thedemographics and employment characteristics of women and their position in fisheries. Thewomen belonged to the most productive age group (25-44 years), the majority had arelatively low educational level, they were married relatively early (19-24 years) and they are

1 In one case of small scale fishery project (the one coordinated by Prof. Margaris and which concerned the Dodecanese) it was not possibleto get any information on its organization and results. In all other cases the contact persons provided material regarding their projects. Thebest and more detailed material was provided by the Development Agency of Kavala.



essentially underemployed or have been employed as labourers, employees in services orfarmers. They generally play a traditional role centred on their household and children, withheavy family obligations. They are employed in fisheries due to family tradition and assist ina non-paid capacity (AENAK, 1998b).

The second document is actually the minutes from an international meeting during whichwomen and organisers exchanged experiences and information with people from otherMediterranean countries. This included presentations by representatives from active Greekwomen’s inshore fisheries cooperatives. These representatives discussed the problems theyhave faced in trying to establish women’s cooperatives in the fisheries sector (AENAK,1998a).

The third document is a viability study and a business plan which includes three businessoptions for women’s cooperative. The first option was a establishment of a shellfish farm(mussels), the second was the establishment of a fish tavern and the third the establishment ofa trading fish shop (Kostakopoulos and Melachoinos, 2000). The project was completedsuccessfully but did not continue after the end of European support. Our discussions with acouple of women who participated in this project and with two of the organisers have shownthat the future of such a project was always insecure. The main reason for this has to do withthe situation of fisheries in the area (see the analysis of the respondents’ views below).

1.2.2 The small scale fishery project in RethymnoThe Centre for Vocational Training of the Prefecture of Rethymno has organised aprogramme (named ‘Argo’) which supports the integration of women in small coastalfisheries and the local labour market (http://online-int.ml.org/fishery). This project includesfive interrelated actions:i) a study on the local needs for vocational training in the area;ii) the organisation of local and international meetings to exchange experiences and

information on women’s integration in the labour market and the establishment ofnew small businesses;

iii) a programme of vocational training for 15 women members of fishing families tomobilise them to create new small businesses

iv) the establishment of an Exhibition Centre for the Promotion of Fishery Products inAgia Galini which is a tourist village to the south of Rethymno. This ExhibitionCentre aimed to provide employment for 4 women who participated in the project.

v) the promotion and marketing of fisheries and fish products (seehttp://kea.virtualave.net/fishery/studyen.htm).

This project was implemented in 1998-1999. Again, the project was completed successfullybut it did not have a follow up.

1.2.3 The small scale fishery project in Kato AchaiaThe Local Development Centre of Western Achaia S.A. (KTADA) organised a small scalefishery project in the municipality of Kato Achaia. This project had four related actions:i) A short television documentary on the traditional fishing village of Alykes, along with

a report recording the historical and cultural aspects of the settlement.ii) Training of 15 women (fishermen’s wives or daughters) to start small businesses in

coastal fisheries



iii) The organisation of an educational trip abroad (Finland) where project participantshad the chance to exchange experiences and sharing information on setting up smallbusinesses and developing new economic activities in the coastal zone.

iv) A study about the development of tourism in Alikes, examining employmentprospects for women and the developing viability plans for small business (agro-tourist lodgings, tavernas and businesses to process and market local fish products)(KTADA, 1999).

Again, the project was completed successfully but was not followed up.

1.2.4 The small scale fishery project in CycladesA small scale fishery project was organised by the Development Association of LocalAuthorities (TEDK) of the Cyclades in 1998-2000. The project mainly provided training forfishermen. The project had four phases:i) preparation of the training course (location, trainees, editing of the training material)ii) training 15 women in theory and in practice (on the boat)iii) testing a new fishing technique which would be adapted to local conditionsiv) training local people about fishery legislation and the EU common fishery policy.

The main aim of this project was to create employment opportunities and improve facilitieswithin the local island economies, as well as to improve the expertise of local people infisheries. Fishing is the main source of income on most of the islands involved, with tourisma secondary source. Finally, the local fishermen were informed on how important is topreserve fish stocks and on the role of common fishery policy for the development ofsustainable fisheries.

1.2.5 The fish net project of PASEGESThere are significant difficulties in the organisation of fisheries in Greece, due to the largeproportion of small inshore fishery vessels. There is little communication and exchange ofexperience between fishery organisations, which has been a major hindrance for effectiveoperation. PASEGES developed a project to organise and implement a network to developand support small scale fisheries through the exchange of information and experiences via theinternet (“Fishnet”). 29 Fishery Cooperatives and Unions of Inshore Fisheries participated.People from each of the participating fishery organisations were trained to communicateelectronically and a server and an office for the technical support was set up in PASEGES.There were also two training seminars for 24 members of the managing bodies of thecooperatives and for a number of staff from fishery organisations. (Seehttp://www.paseges.gr).

The PASEGES server disseminated 14 newsletters informing fishery organisations on thenew developments in fisheries and on EU regulations and actions. The Office of TechnicalSupport helped fishery organisations to set up their networking (i.e. email), with informationon fishing techniques and with technical support concerning the better organisation of theircooperatives or unions. The training seminars were organised to provide information on theCommon Fishery Policy and the national fishery policies, on the biology of key species andon fishing techniques and sustainable fishery methods. Four training manuals were written inorder to assist small scale fishermen to the modernisation of their activities. A number of



educational visits were organised to other countries as well as international meetings for theexchange of ideas and experiences (Papadopoulou, 2000).

This project has generate a collection of educational materials and valuable information onsmall scale fisheries in Greece. A small number of fishery cooperatives have maintained thenetwork and internet access, and there are now movements towards the organisation of anational fishery federation (in Fthiotis where the project was implemented as a pilot).

1.3 DATA SOURCES

One of the main problems faced in this project has been the lack of gender-disaggregateddata. A second problem is the general lack of reliable data on fisheries in Greece, althoughunvalidated and potentially unreliable data (Stergiou, 1997) is available from various sources(the National Statistical Service of Greece (NSSG), the Agricultural Bank of Greece (ATE)and the Ministry of Agriculture). Thirdly, the common view of the fisheries sector in Greeceincludes marine fisheries and aquaculture and leaves out the processing, the marketing andthe management of the product.

In this report we have used all available information and data, including those provided bythe NSSG, the ATE and the Ministry of Agriculture. In addition, we carried out empiricalresearch based on two questionnaires aimed at collecting information on the cultural andpsychological barriers to women’s entry to the fishery sector. In total, 38 questionnaires werefilled either in person or by telephone. The respondents were from Athens, Kalymnos,Kavala, Evia and Rethymno and Patra. We focused our study on three areas:

a) the Prefecture of the Dodecanese (including the island of Kalymnos) which has ahigh dependency upon marine fisheries,b) the Prefecture of Evia, which has medium dependency on all different subsectors offisheries apart from processing andc) the Prefecture of Kavala which has declining fishery dependency but a stillsignificant fishery processing industry.

The report is structured according to the data available. Certain types of data requested in theterms of reference (e.g. the guide tables on annual earnings and social status under TOR 4)were not available.

1.3.1 Specific Methodological Remarks

Most of the data required to estimate women’s participation in the sub-sectors of fisherieswere not available, so estimating women’s involvement by job category was difficult.However, there are two general comments: i) Women usually play a supporting-assisting rolein fisheries. ii) Women always occupy the lowest possible position in the intra-professionsocial ladder in Greek countryside. These two issues are discussed below but merit attentionsince they put significant restrictions on our analysis.



Secondly, the report needs to be seen in the social and economic context of the Greekcountryside. There are significant similarities between farming families and fishing familiesin many respects:

i) the economic unit (the farm and/or the fishing vessel);ii) human resources and the organisation and gender division of labouriii) economic objectives (surviving within a highly adverse socio-economic environment)iv) lack of alternative employment opportunities

Thirdly, the design of the questionnaire was not very suitable for the Greek context andobtaining and interpreting answers was therefore somewhat difficult. Most respondents’ viewof fisheries did not include all five subsectors; the majority had in their minds the ‘traditional’productive dimension of fisheries and did not differentiate their replies by subsector.

Finally, the number of questionnaires per area was necessarily small (since communities weresmall) and thus it is not easy to construct a representative view of fisheries in regions ofGreece. However, our attempt has been to integrate the ‘qualitative insights’ of respondentswith statistical data and knowledge of fisheries in each area. However, analyses for each areashould be regarded as indicative, rather than as detailed case studies.



2 KEY DATA COLLECTED

2.1 EMPLOYMENT

In 1998, according to the Ministry of Agriculture registry of vessels, there were 20,279fishing vessels with a total of 878,402 HP and 109,696 GRT. This corresponds to a totalnumber of 41,507 employed in capture fisheries. Fishing vessels under 20HP (coastalvessels), make a significant contribution to the total fleet in terms of numbers of vessels(60%) and employment (46%), although its contribution to the total tonnage and enginepower of the fishing fleet is low (12.7% and 13.2% respectively).

More generally, the issue of the number of employed in capture fisheries has beencontroversial. There are different categories of employed in fisheries by type of fishingvessel, by motor type, by fishing area (inshore, inland) and type of involvement (full-timepart time):

Table 1. Employment in capture fisheries by type, 1996-1998Employment by type 1996 1997 1998A.1. Employed in overseas fisheries(*) 650 182 141A.2. Employed in open sea fisheries (*) 4,503 4,473 3,874A.3. Employed in inshore fisheries (*) 14,344 14,636 13,078A.4.Total employed in fisheries(*) 19,497 19,291 17,093B.1. Fishing in inshore waters (**) 7,665 7,479 n.a. - of which part time 5,186 5,001 n.a.B.2. Employed in inshore fishing by rowing boats or

motor under 20 HP (**)21,043 19,074 n.a.

- of which part time 15,080 13,949 n.a.B.3. Total employed in small fisheries 28,708 26,553 n.a. - Total part time 20,266 18,950 n.a.Source: (*) NSSG, Results of Survey of Marine Fisheries by Motor Vessels, 1998(**) NSSG, Agricultural Statistics, 1997.

Table 1 shows that employment in capture fisheries in Greece is not homogenous, but has a‘two-tier’ structure. On the one hand there is the so-called ‘professional’ fishing activity,which is characterised by employment in three different types of fishing (inshore, open seaand overseas), with inshore fisheries representing the large majority (77%) of full timefishermen. On the other hand, there is inland and inshore fishing by in small vessels with lowhorsepower by ‘part-time’ fishermen. This latter type of capture fisheries is the one whichrepresents the diffused character of fisheries in Greek countryside and/or coastal areas ingeneral. Less than half of those employed in capture fisheries are full-time fishermen, whilethe majority also have other economic activities (part-time). In this situation it is difficult tosegregate the economy of coastal zones by sector and it cannot be argued that there are clearprofessional prospects in capture fisheries. Moreover, the majority of full time employeeswho work as the non-skilled labour force in open sea vessels are in fact foreign immigrants(e.g. Egyptians) and thus women are excluded from those vessels.

During the 1990s, marine aquaculture has been an expanding sub-sector within fisheries. Thenumber of marine aquaculture units has risen from 100 in 1990 to 247 in 1998 and 269 in(FGM, 1999). Greece has got a long tradition of aquaculture activity, which until the



beginning of the 1980s was limited to lagoons and inland waters. Today 2,950 people areemployed directly in aquaculture, with an additional 7,000 employed in associatedprocessing, manufacturing and services.2 The official data provided by the NSSG indicatethat 2,200 of the direct employees work in non-traditional marine aquaculture. Permanentemployees in aquaculture can be divided into two groups; those who have a degree (e.g.ichthyologists) and non-specialised labour. Also, in the official figures are a small number oftemporary workers who are employed for an average of 28 days per year (Table 2).

Table 2. Employed in aquacultures (marine, inland water etc.), 1997 and 1998Categories of employed 1997 1998Permanent labour force: specialised (with degree) 251 244Permanent labour force: non-specialised 2,308 2,357Permanent labour force: total 2,558 2,601Non-permanent labour: number of persons 385 346Non-permanent labour: number of workdays 9,430 9,658Source: NSSG, Employment on Aquacultures, 1997, 1998.

Data on employment in marine aquaculture tends to underestimate the number of employees,because the overwhelming majority of the employed as non-skilled labour force are foreignimmigrants (Pakistanis, Albanians etc.). This segment of the labour force is not fullyrecorded, and many of them are women. A relatively recent report on fisheries andaquaculture suggests that the personnel in processing enterprises exceeds the number of 1,300people and it varies seasonally up to 3,300 people (Anagnopoulos and Papadopoulou, 1997).

In 1998, there were 175 licences, which correspond to fishery processing enterprises coveringdifferent forms of processing activity. However a significant number of these enterprises dooperate every year. Overall, they processed 25,000 metric tonnes of fresh fish in 1998.

Most are small-medium enterprises; available data from the Ministry of Agriculture indicatethat the 72% of processing enterprises employ less than 10 people. The official statistical dataprovided by the NSSG record only 34 processing enterprises with more than 10 employees in1998 (Table 3).

Table 3. Number of Enterprises and Employed in Fishery Processing Enterprises whichemploy over 10 people, in the period 1996-1998

Year Number ofEnterprises

Number ofemployed

Averagenumber ofemployed

Volume ofproduction (in

tonnes)

Value of sales(in 000 drachma)

1996 20 876 44 n.d. 14,771,8101997 36 1,580(*) 44(*) 6,658 6,811,9921998 34 1,500 (*) 44(*) 6,809 7,140,206

Source: NSSG, Survey of Industry, 1996, 1997, 1998.Note: (*) estimated. The estimation of employed for the years 1997 and 1998 has been based on theaverage number of employed per enterprise in the year 1996.

It is difficult to estimate the number of employees in marketing, trading and management offisheries, since those activities are part of vertically organised enterprises or trading ormarketing activities which also work in other sectors. For this reason, the number ofemployed in trading, marketing and management is added to that of the processing 2 This information has been provided by the Ministry of Agriculture.



enterprises. In Table 4, we have attempted to estimate the number of employees in marketingand management.

There are 11 fish markets, the majority of which operate in large urban consumption centres.A list of those fish markets (ichtyoskales) is provided in Table A2 in ANNEX I. These fishmarkets trade only 25-30% of the country’s fish production, and they also trade fish imports(Anagnopoulos and Papadopoulou, 1997, Ministry of Agriculture, 2000). Most of these fishmarkets were founded in the 1960s and they operate under a company called ETANAL S.A.(Company for the Development of Fisheries), which belongs to the Agricultural Bank ofGreece (ATE) (75%) and to National Bank of Industrial Development (ETBA) (25%).

In order to estimate women’s employment contribution to fisheries we have to assess theirinvolvement in each sub-sector. Women’s position in fishery enterprises differs a great dealfrom that of men. 60-70% of men but only 15-30% of women are categorised as ‘self-employed’ or ‘employers’. However, the proportion of ‘wage labour’ does not differ a lotbetween men and women. Finally, 6-15% of men are occupied as ‘assisting members in thefamily enterprise’, whereas the 55%-70% of women are occupied as ‘assisting members’.Overall, men are more easily identified as ‘skippers’ or ‘fishermen’, women are morefrequently signified as ‘wives/daughters of fishermen’ or ‘skipper helpers’. See alsoappendix 4.

Table 4. Employment in the fisheries sub-sector by gender (estimates, data on theperiod 1997-1998)EMPLOYMENT BY SUB-SECTOR MEN WOMEN TOTALMARINE FISHERIES 93% 7% 41,500Overseas fisheries 150Open sea fisheries 3,900Inshore and coastal fisheries 18,500Amateur fisheries(*) 18,950AQUACULTURE 90% 10% 3,000Marine aquacultures 2,200Other aquacultures 800PROCESSING 90% 10% 3,500MARKETING AND MANAGEMENT 85% 15% 2,000ETANAL 160GENERAL TOTAL OF FISHERIES 92% 8% 50,000

Source: Ministry of Agriculture. Note: Estimates were made by the writer and it is based uponinformation and material provided by the Ministry of Agriculture.

It is also important to differentiate between inshore fisheries and open sea fisheries. Women’sinvolvement with the fisheries sector mainly concerns the inshore fisheries, i.e. small coastalvessels, which operate in a similar way to farm enterprises. This form of fishery activityincludes a significant range of fishery household/enterprise types varying from dynamicbusinesses to artisanal to part-time fishing activity.

On the other hand, women are not involved in the open sea fishing. Workers on larger vesselsare mainly foreign immigrants (often Egyptians) who are transferred to the fishery areadirectly (through special agents or middlemen) from their villages. They live upon the fishingvessel with hard living conditions and low daily salaries. However, women in the owningfamily may work in the business ashore.



There are a number of general trends in fisheries employment in Greece:

(i) Overall output of open sea fisheries has been slowly declining in the last decade(Table 5). However, in the last 5 years the proportion of the fisheries in the GDP(current prices) has more or less remained stable. Fishery production (by volume) hasbeen increasing in Greece, but this is due to increasing aquaculture production.Marine fishery production has been steadily decreasing. In the period 1988-98, thelargest decrease has been in the overseas fisheries (-52%) and then in the open seafisheries (-21%), while in inshore fisheries there is only a small decrease (-7%) (Table6).

(ii) Fishery exports have exceeded fishery imports (in value, current prices) in the 1990s.In the previous decade, the fishery imports were larger than exports. It seems thatexport oriented aquaculture production has played a very important role in thisreversal by the beginning of the 1990s. The value of fishery consumption has beenrising steadily in the period 1988-1998. Thus, fishery production in Greece aims atboth targets, i.e. to fishery exports and to cover the rising domestic demand for fish(Table 7).

(iii) The number of people employed in fisheries has been decreasing in the 1990s,particularly in marine fisheries (including small coastal fisheries). See table 8. Onlythe number of employed in aquacultures has increased in the last decade, but themajority of them are foreign immigrants. There has also been a trend from full timefishermen towards part time fishermen with other economic activities. A recent studyon amateur fishing in Greece has shown very large numbers of amateur fishermennear large urban centres or near tourist places. The number of part-time fishermen in1996 was 96,075 people with 71,144 boats. The majority are males and a smallproportion (30%) of them are organised, while the large majority of them arepensioners. Their vessels are frequently between 4-6 meters long with 6-14 HP. Thetypical period that amateurs are fishing ranges between 60-90 days, while the averageis 77 days with a minimum of 20 days and a maximum of 300. It is estimated that theproduction of amateur fishermen exceeds 18,600 tons (Anagnopoulos, et al., 2000).

(iv) Available data on the age structure show many of those active in fisheries are aged.The Labour Force Survey data for 1997 indicate that the 53% of employed in fisheriesare over 45 years of age, while the respective proportion for the total number ofemployed population was 39% (Table 9). Studies on small scale fisheries show aneven more critical demographic situation. Recent empirical research shows that nearly60% of the employed in small scale fisheries (in vessels under 20HP) are over 51years of age, while the total sample age average was 52 years of age. Similar remarkshave been made by other research reports and studies (Karalanidis and Daouli, 1996,MacAlister and Elliott, 1999). In one cooperative, 85% of the members were over 60.

(v) 93% of (male) small scale fishermen are married, a fact which shows the familycharacter of the fishing enterprise. 40% of these fishermen work on their own (withsupport from spouse), while 50% employ only one person.

(vi) Fishermen’s level of education is low. The Labour Force Survey data show that in1997 only 33% of fishermen had education past primary level, compared to 64% ofemployed people in general. For small scale fishermen (with vessels under 20HP)77% of fishermen have only primary education. This is partly due to the age of themajority of fishermen.



Table 5. Gross value product in fisheries, 1988-1998 (sums in million drachma, current prices)1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997* 1998*

Fisheries 63571 81347 97582 108568 112646 122540 138006 149368 164293 179908 197925Total 15178472 18132634 21522403 26087524 29554050 32689667 36993640 41706904 45716763 49982821 53893096

% 0.42% 0.45% 0.45% 0.42% 0.38% 0.37% 0.37% 0.36% 0.36% 0.36% 0.37%Source: NSSG, National Accounts, 1997, 1998.Note: (*) temporary data.

Table 6. Production of Marine Fisheries, Aquacultures and Inland Waters, 1988-1998 (production in metric tonnes)1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998

Overseas fisheries 21420 21400 19310 14800 12240 10280 10665 10630 10490 10580 10270Open sea fisheries 81530 75500 76390 65657 67000 68000 73475 65000 63000 65730 64385Inshore fisheries 48700 46000 53800 53958 53043 47348 49683 48030 47000 48330 45246Marine Fisheries Total 151650 142900 149500 134415 132283 125628 133823 123660 120490 124640 119901Aquacultures 3945 4410 7546 12671 23587 30662 36094 42804 53220 54613 65480Internal waters 4250 3950 3650 3738 3321 2960 3451 3611 3691 3595 3217General Fisheries Total 159845 151260 160696 150824 159191 159250 173368 170075 177401 182848 188598Source: ATE, Annual Reports, 1988-1998.



Table 7. Exports, imports and consumption of fisheries, 1988-1998 (sums in million drachma, current prices)1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997* 1998*

Fishery exports 7011 5038 6015 9421 15053 20041 27117 29758 36637 50638 56540Total exports 1296563 1588648 1713229 2036703 2412287 2454847 2771301 3105394 3448538 3769091 3940190Fishery imports 7248 10416 9973 8918 11019 11373 13658 22151 32147 41694 41382Total imports 2233088 2835522 3488800 4164467 4719691 5085448 5410583 6323473 7181601 7926353 8478101Fishery consumption 68683 84472 98367 112621 118281 132644 142777 162331 183482 194724 210918Total consumption 8085344 9718843 11931031 14555069 17150342 19574736 22143624 25084092 27518213 30073019 32383192Source: NSSG, National Accounts, 1997, 1998.Note: (*) temporary data.

Table 8. Recent development of employment in fisheries, 1988-19981988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998

Overseas fishermen 1273 1112 979 982 846 857 608 678 650 182 141Open seas fishermen 1410 1276 1404 1652 1442 1429 4320 4309 4503 4473 3874Inshore fishermen 13828 17684 17769 18773 18593 17864 15478 14853 14344 14636 13078Total marine fishermen 16511 20072 20152 21407 20881 20150 20406 19840 19497 19291 17093Small boat fishermen 36384 38015 39124 38431 31094 30586 27529 n.a. 28708 26553 n.a.Of which part time 26235 27638 28372 28270 21905 21291 18833 n.a. 20226 18950 n.a.Source: (*) NSSG, Results of Survey of Marine Fisheries by Motor Vessels, 1988-1998.(**) NSSG, Agricultural Statistics, 1988-1997.Note: (n.a.) not available.



Table 9. Distribution of the Labour Force of Fisheries by age group, 1993-19971993 1997Age

categories Fisheries Total Fisheries Totalunder 14 years 0.2 0.1 0.0 0.0

15-19 years 4.4 2.3 1.6 1.720-24 years 10.0 8.3 8.2 7.125-29 years 8.9 12.3 10.2 11.730-44 years 28.2 39.1 26.7 40.345-64 years 46.0 34.9 47.4 35.9

over 65 years 2.4 3.0 5.9 3.3Total 15,426 3,720,179 14,419 3,854,055

Source: NSSG, Labour Force Survey, 1993-1997.

2.2 LEGISLATIONDuring the last two decades there have been a number of legal and institutional changestowards securing equal rights between the two sexes and the elimination ofdiscrimination in the Greek labour market in general. The most important changes arerelated to the introduction of new laws concerning the elimination of discrimination inthe access to education, professional training, employment and labour relations(Papadopoulos, 2000).These have been supported by some important institutional developments. Mostsignificant of these is the General Secretariat for Equality (GSE) of the Ministry of theInterior, Public Administration and Decentralisation which is responsible for promotingand implementing legal and practical gender equality in all fields (political, economic,social and cultural). This grew out of the Council for the Equality of the Sexes which wasestablished by Law 1288/82 as a consultative body that reported directly to the PrimeMinister and operated as an independent service unit of the Ministry of the PrimeMinister's Office. Law 1558/85 upgraded this Council to the status of General Secretariatfor the Equality of the Sexes at the Ministry of the Prime Minister's Office. It is today thegovernment agency responsible for gender equality issues and is supervised by theMinistry for the Interior, Public Administration and Decentralisation.

A key support institution is the Research Centre on Gender Issues (KETHI) set up underLaw 1835/89, updated by Law 2266/94, which is financed by the GSE. KETHI’s mainobjectives are to promote equality of opportunity in employment and economicdevelopment and to disseminate and implement the policy of equality of opportunities forwomen and men by conducting scientific studies and research and organizing vocationaltraining programmes for women.

However, as the General Secretariat for Equality has argued in a recent report, despite thefact that a number of positive measures contributed significantly to the improvement ofthe social position of Greek women, equality has not been recognised explicitly in theGreek constitution (GSE, 1999, p. 104). The Supreme Court has recognised the fact that



there is significant social prejudice against women in Greek society and that the failure toimplement policy measures in favour of women has actually perpetuated the existingsituation of inequality among the two sexes.

Very important for the Greek countryside has been the reform of family law which wasintroduced with the Law 1329/83. This law abolished the concept of the patriarchalfamily and replaced it with the concept of family equality. It abolished the institution ofthe dowry3 and set out the way in which spouses are obliged to contribute according totheir own power in order to fulfil the needs of the family. In parallel, there was asettlement of a number of issues which were connected to the position of women inGreek family. Thus women were allowed to undertake new roles which reflected themodern professional identities of the Greek family members (GSE, 1995; GSE, 1996):• It is obligatory that the woman keeps her family surname after marriage• The couple may select the children’s surname before marriage, which may be the

surname of either of the two spouses• Both sexes become adult and can be married at 18• The upbringing and the education of children has to be done without any gender

discrimination• Both spouses have equal rights to the property gained during marriage• There is the option of a system of common property under marriage• The terms for a divorce were modernised and there was the option of a consensual

divorce• Children born ‘outside marriage’ were given equal rights with those born ‘inside

marriage’, while the position of the unmarried mother has been reinforced legally

Women’s rights in the fishery sector relate to the specific laws and regulations that affectthe ‘rural sector’ in general. This is mainly the primary sector, which includes agriculture,animal husbandry, fisheries and silviculture, with agriculture having a predominantposition. A number of laws affect the professional integration of women in the primarysector (GSE, 1995):• Law 1257/82 for cooperative organisations offers the possibility that married wives of

cooperative members who are employed predominantly or partly in the primary sectorcan be members of the cooperative organisations. Formerly, only women with theirown agricultural property could be members.

• Law 1287/82 gives the right to women farmers to get equal pensions under the samerules as male farmers

• Law 1329/83 gives women farmers the same rights as male farmers to get a loan fromthe Agricultural Bank of Greece

• Law 1361/83 allows women farmers to participate equally to male farmers to thesyndicalist organisations and the unions

• Law 1541/85 offers the right to women farmers who are registered with theOrganisation of Agricultural Insurance (OGA) to receive maternity benefits

3 The institution of dowry refers to the transfer of property from the bride’s family or the bride to the groom before marriage. For moreinformation see the anthropological work of Friedl (1963).



• Ministerial Decision 283169/86 of the Ministry of Agriculture, which defines thedetails for the implementation of EU Regulation 797/85, states explicitly that there isno difference between spouses as regards the headship of the agricultural enterprisewhich is considered unified at the level of the family

• Law 1745/87 gives the right to farmers to get an additional insurance• Law 1759/88 gives the right to women farmers who work in the family enterprises as

assisting and non-paid members to be insured under OGA

Latterly this legislation has been refined by additional legislation to help bring Greeceinto closer alignment with the rest of the EU. Key examples of this additional legislationare given in Appendix 3 below, but relevant aspects can be summarised as follows:

• Law 2470/1997 on "Reformation of the salary scale of public sector employees(central government, public corporations, local administration)" has clausesprotecting the interests of women with dependent children (married or not)

• Presidential Decree 176/1997 on “Measures for the improvement of safety and healthat work of pregnant, post-partum, and nursing workers in compliance with directive92/85/EEC”, ensures inter alia that women in these conditions cannot be required toundertake any work that will jeopardise their condition

• Law 2525/95 “Comprehensive lyceum, access of graduates to tertiary education,evaluation of educational performance and other provisions”, promotes theestablishment of all-day kindergarten and all-day primary schools, so liberatingworking mothers from being wholly tied to day time child care

• Law 2639/1998 “Regulation of labour relations, establishment of a labourinspectorate and other provisions” reforms labour law regarding working time,informal types of work, and distinction between dependent and independent work etcof great assistance to women with child rearing responsibilities.

• Law 2683/1999 “Ratification of the code of public civil administrative employees andemployees of public corporations and other provisions” defines maternity leave,setting this at two months before and three months after delivery, all fully paid.

• Law 2676/99 (article 62) awarded a widow's / widower's pension on equal terms tothe surviving spouse, and abolishes any existing gender-based differentials forregulated pension schemes.

2.3 ORGANISATION

Co-operation among fishermen has been limited. Even today fishery cooperatives areactivated only marginally and their impact is small, (less than 10% of the national fishproduction). This weakness is based not only upon the nature of fishery production (i.e.the dispersed fishing fleet and difficult conditions of employment), but also the lack ofspecialised knowledge and skills and the lack of state support for cooperativedevelopment. Only a small number of Inshore Fishery Cooperatives keep offices for thetrading and transport of their produce to the fish markets. Currently there are about 100



Fishery Cooperatives and a corresponding number of Fishery Unions. A large number ofthose Cooperatives and Unions are not operating effectively.

In the 1950s there was a significant development of the cooperative movement infisheries and as a result the ‘Union of Fishery and Aquaculture Cooperatives of Greece’was founded in Patras. This latter Union initially consisted of 46 Fishery Cooperatives,which were reduced to 16 Cooperatives in 1971 with 450 members. In 1979 this Unionwas transferred to Athens and in 1988 it consisted of 26 Fishery Cooperatives in a total of148 active Fishery Cooperatives in the country. After the 1960s, members of the FisheryCooperatives decreased rapidly. The Cooperatives are only marginally supported by thestate or the EU (see Table 8).

The current vogue is for the establishment of Producer Groups (PG), in order torationalise production, trading and marketing of fish products. There have been only threePGs set up in Greece (Open Sea Fisheries Cooperative of Volos, Open Sea Fishery-Agricultural Cooperative of Mytilene and Open Sea Fisheries Cooperative of NeaMichaniona). None of these are very active (Ministry of Agriculture, 2000).

Table 10. Evolution of Fisheries Cooperatives in the period 1949-19901949 1954 1971 1982 1990Type of

cooperative FC FM FC FC FM FC FM FC FMInshore 93 2,758 108 11 598 16 850 34 1,840Open seas 26 569 - 5 116 5 177 6 189Labourers inopen sea

23 1,373 89 3 98 8 243 7 174

Fish workers andfish breeders

39 2,093 59 31 1,103 51 1,498 62 2,131

Sponge fishing 8 621 11 2 60 1 59 1 68Idle cooperatives 25 - - 69 - 54 - 144 -Total of activecooperatives

189 7,414 267 52 1,975 81 2,827 110 4,402

Source: PASEGES, 1999b.Note: FC stands for Fishery Cooperatives and FM for Cooperative Members.

The supervision of fishery organisations has been transferred several times from oneMinistry to another during the post-war period4. By 1975 the supervision of FisheryCooperatives was with the Ministry of Agriculture and the Agricultural Bank of Greece.Law 921/97 recognises the Fishery Cooperatives as agricultural, while Law 1541/79characterises them as agricultural cooperatives of special objective. This latter lawrequires 20 people for the establishing a cooperative. Law 2169/93 for the AgriculturalCooperative Organisations (ACOs) are structured at three levels:

• First grade, i.e. the agricultural cooperatives at the local level

4 For a brief discussion on fishery cooperatives and on the stakeholders and the regulatory framework of fisheries in Greece seeFrangoudes (1996, 1999).



• Second grade, i.e. the Unions of Agricultural Cooperatives at prefecture/regional level,and

• Third grade, i.e. the Central Cooperative Unions at national level.

PASEGES is the highest coordinating tool of the Cooperative movement and representsall agricultural cooperatives.

However, today things have changed considerably. Under a more recent law it is possiblefor a cooperative to be established with only 7 members, while there may be more thanone cooperatives per prefecture. Also, today there are 50 cooperatives of inshorefisheries, 40 aquaculture cooperatives, 8 cooperatives of open sea (trawlers and purseseiners). Since 1995, PASEGES has not represented the trawler cooperatives since thetrawler owners are not considered as farmers under the new law. There are 15-16cooperatives with commercial activities (10 inshore, 5-6 aquacultures and 1 open seas).Generally, it is estimated that there are currently about 7,000 members of fisherycooperatives.

One of most active cooperatives is that of Alexandroupolis which is involved withwholesales fish marketing and retail and owns cooler trucks. There are cooperativeswhich trade oysters for export (Thessaloniki) and aquaculture cooperatives (Kavala,Arta). In general, the existence of fish markets (ichthyoskales) is important for operationof cooperatives in helping them stabilise fish prices. In respect to Unions there are 7-8Fishery Unions per prefecture, while 4-5 prefectures have 12 Unions. There are 7Federations of Fishery Unions in the country. Unions can verify the fishermen’sprofessional employment in fisheries.5

Women do not have separate fishery cooperatives, but they may be members of theexisting fishery cooperatives and unions. Only very recently the new law on cooperativesleft more space for women to mobilise and the General Secretariat for Equality has takena more active role in organising women’s cooperatives (GSE, 2000). However, there arevery few women’s cooperatives, which mainly focus on trading agricultural products,handicrafts and agri-tourist activities. On the basis of data provided by PASEGES (2000),there are 71 women’s cooperatives which operate in Greek countryside, with amembership of about 2,000 people (an average of 27 members per cooperative). Themost important reason for women’s participation in agri-tourist cooperatives is theircontribution to their family’s income even if the financial contribution is consideredsmall. The main problem that women face is first the need to market their produce andsecond the financial management of their cooperative (Papadopoulos, 2000).

2.4 EDUCATION & TRAINING

A significant number of training courses in fisheries were available in the period 1994-1999 (Table 9). It is not possible to estimate the number of women who attended these 5 These data are based on PASEGES, personal communication, 8th March 2001.



courses, but it would not be surprising if a significant number of the trainees are woman.This is due to the fact that the people who attend the courses receive a small payment perhour. Although this is not a large amount of money it frequently represents a two-threeunskilled workers monthly payment.

Table 11. Training Courses in Fisheries, 1994-1999

Year Courses Trainees Hours Cost (in milliondrachma)

1994 2 52 300 9.71995 25 601 3,746 138.11996 43 1,082 6,916 281.11997 49 917 7,258 287.61998 51 1,118 8,929 424.71999 24 530 4,062 209.1Total 194 4,300 31,211 1,351.3

Source: Ministry of Agriculture.

For example, data on agricultural training show that for the years 1997 and 1998 theproportion of women who attended all sorts of agricultural courses increased from 45%to 52% of the total trainees (Ministry of Agriculture; Papadopoulos, 2000). Professionaltraining for women has long been a request of those who believe that it will assist womenby reducing the inequalities that they face in the labour market. There have been anumber of studies which propose professional and specialised training for women inorder to integrate them better into the Greek rural economy (Kavounidis, 1990;Georgiadou, 1994; Gidarakou et al. 1998). Women’s access to training is certainly anissue, but even when women get professional training this rarely leads to an improvementin their economic position and status.

2.5 SOCIO-CULTURAL STATUSThe questionnaire survey was applied to a number of people in Athens, Kalymnos, Evia,Kavala, Rethymno, Achaia and the Cyclades. We will deal with the socialcharacterisation of the sector first as a general picture of the status of fisheriesemployment in Greece, and then go on to discuss the questionnaire’s results by areaalthough there are not very significant differences in women’s involvement in fisheries.What differs significantly by area is the existence of alternative employmentopportunities. Hence women’s opportunities for more active in fisheries vary a great deal.The objective of the social status survey was to identify the status of each sub sector. Seetable 12 below.



Table 12. Social categorisation of fisheries occupationsActivity Social category A or 1 B or 2 C1 or 3 C2 or 4 D or 5

Fishing overall:

• Skipper at sea X• Crew at sea X X1

• Support/admin ashore X1

Aquaculture overall:

• Stock husbandry X• Technical/lab X1 X1

• Management/marketing X X1

Processing overall:

• Foreman (factory floor) X• Worker (factory floor) X1

• Technical/lab X X1

• Management, sourcing, marketing X1 X1

Administration, management(e.g. Government and Producer Organisations, etc.)

X1 X1 X

Other key categoryThe socio-economic categories are : 1 professionals and graduates, 2 managers, 3 salaried staff, 4 skilledemployees (technicians etc.), 5 unskilled workers.Note: X1 means that this job position may include large number of women employees.

2.5.1 Socio-cultural characterisation of the chosen FDAs: Kalymnos

The situation of women in fisheries in KalymnosKalymnos is one of the islands of the prefecture of Dodekanisos. It is an island highlydepended upon fishing. More than 1,000 families depend on fishery activities. There are400 inshore fishery vessels and 8 open sea fishery vessels. 1,000 people are employed ininshore fisheries and 50 in the open sea fisheries. There are 22 marine aquaculturefacilities in the prefecture of Dodecanese, a significant number of which are located inKalymnos; there are 130 people who are working in aquacultures on the island. Finally,there are 3 people employed in the fish market in Kalymnos. The production of bothmarine fisheries and aquaculture from the island is very significant. Fish production isexported overseas from Kalymnos, while the very demanding Greek fish market is alsocovered.

Kalymnos society combines both conservative and progressive characteristics regardingwomen’s position. It is an island with families with many children. Until the 1950s eachfamily had 7, 10, 12, even 18 children. Now, the number of children has been reduced to3 or maximum 4. Still, many women, especially from fishermen’s families, get marriedvery young (17 years old) and start to have children at this age, trying to maintain thetradition of many children. At the same time, the number of divorces is increasing. Thefamilies of the divorced young woman usually accept her and her children back. Parents(especially mothers) wish their children to acquire a higher education and do something



else for living than fishing, with its associated problems of poverty. A great proportion offamilies have economic problems because income from fishery is not as high as it was inthe past. Hence many spouses now are forced to help their husbands.

Usually the son of a fisherman continues his father’s job (about 80-90%). The number ofvessels in Kalymnos has been reduced in line with the EU policy for the reduction of thefishing fleet, but young people are still entering the sector and the fishery labour force isnot ageing. Fishing on the island follows traditional patterns, including the roles ofwomen; many of them know the “art” of fixing the nets etc. since they grew up in afishing family.

Managers in aquaculture and the crews of the vessel have different status. Women inadministration/secretariat enjoy the status of private employment. The representative ofthe aquaculture owners is a young woman, although she is considered to have a lowerstatus relative to a man in the same position. Women working in their family’s fishingshops consider themselves as owners and managers, with high status.

Two women working in sponge processing stated that they are paid less than men, for thesame job position because “they are not as muscular as men, and they do not know theappropriate techniques and hence are less productive”. Women in the past have tried toorganize a Women’s Cooperative but they did not succeed, despite the participation of 20women who had attended a seminar on fisheries. The main problem was that there wasnot money to start their cooperative, while their limited family income did not allow forfunding the establishment of the cooperative. However, there is a child care facility forchildren over 4-5 years old. It belongs to the community and accepts mainly publicemployees’ children, but accepts other children if there are free places. For youngerchildren there are no facilities. When mothers have to work, grandmothers take care ofthe children.

A number of training seminars have recently been organised in the island. Womenattended only two of them. The more recent (last year) concerned Fishery Cooperativesand fishery activities in general. The 17 participants included 9 women. Most of thosewomen help their husbands and two of them fix the nets. Another seminar was organisedin 1998 on aquaculture. Again, 10 out of the 15 participants were women. Some menresented about the greater number of women and some other women also regarded thewoman participants suspiciously. Both seminars were subsidised and women oftenattended for this reason. Since 1992-93 there were seminars on aquaculture and many ofwomen who attended them have been also employed in jobs in the sector. At present,however, there are no jobs available, so the only reason to attend a seminar would be thesmall stipend.

Women are generally employed in jobs with low economic status. That is why wives areforced to help their husbands and parents try to offer different opportunities to theirchildren. In the past, families could earn a lot of money from sponges and fish. Onevessel could feed a whole family of 10 or more members. Now it is very difficult.



Women are rarely paid for their work in fisheries (helping their husbands in supportroles); there are only 5-6 women in the island who fix nets and are paid. In the marketingsub-sector, most women are in charge of managing fish shops which usually belong totheir husbands, but they are always non-paid labour. Occasionally a fishing vessel orshop is in the name of the woman, but only for tax reasons.

14 people were interviewed of which 5 were men and 9 were women. Among the 5 menwere 1 public employee, 1 owner of an aquaculture enterprise, 2 employees of the fishmarket and 1 fisherman. The 9 women included 2 fishermen’s spouses, 2 spongeprocessors, 1 public employee, 1 representative of the aquaculture union, 2 fish tradersand 1 young girl from a fishing family. Half of the respondents from Kalymnos statedthat there is very significant discrimination against women in fisheries, more than onethird argued that these is small discrimination against women and the remainingproportion argued that there is no discrimination.

People with more economic problems tend to have a general perception of discriminationagainst women, not only in fisheries. Women with paid jobs (private employees, civilservants and shop owners) consider discrimination to be unimportant. However, almosteveryone admitted that society and family prevent women from working in the fisheriessector (especially in fishing and aquaculture).

Women respondents were involved (officially or not) in fisheries for financial reasons.Although most women in fisheries are not paid, it increases family income. They allsuggested that they would prefer another job which was cleaner, easier and paid or with ahigher salary. However, since there are no alternative employment opportunities in theisland, they are forced to supplement the family income by helping their husbands.

Cultural barriers were extremely strong in the past, but society is now more open andprogressive. Additionally, economic need has forced women to go out into the labourmarket and given men no other choice but to accept it. Some men are proud that theirwives help them, and one fisherman complained because his wife didn’t want to helphim.

There are some women who help their husbands on their fishing vessel, but this wascommented on in the survey as unusual. It would only be acceptable for a woman canhelp on her husband’s (or father’s or brother’s) vessel. According to tradition, women cannot work with men other than her relatives. In the past it was also considered bad luck tohave a woman on a fishing vessel; this reflected a feeling of shame if a man couldn’tsupport his families without help from his wife.

The general situation is rather better in the aquaculture sub-sector. While work in the fishcages is considered in the same light as work on the vessels, and women are not hired,women are employed in administrative positions in most of the big aquacultureenterprises. In scientific positions it seems that the owners of aquaculture enterpriseswouldn’t have problem to hire a woman. In an aquaculture enterprise where such aposition exists it is occupied by a woman. At the same time, “It is annoying to see a



woman administering men”. Of course, for women, the children care is important but ifthey need to work they work. They don’t have the attitude to stay at home because oftheir children.

Women are considered effective in trading / marketing, which is one of the most“female” sub-sectors. However, the store usually belongs to their family, i.e. theirhusband, and they work without formal payment and their own security. Most fish-shopsare family enterprises with the wife as manager and seller; there are rarely additionalemployees. The marketing jobs are some of the few available jobs for women. The islandhas failed to develop tourism, while the other sectors have not developed much (there isno manufacturing). So women do not have many alternative employment opportunities.

Fish, aquaculture and sponge processing are considered male domains, but thisperception does not necessarily discourage women if they need to work. Another areawhich is considered a man’s place is the fish market (ichtyoskala). Only one womanworks in the market, helping her husband. In general, men working in the fish market areconservative and do not like women to be there.

Women in general are willing to work in any sub-sector except fish production and fishcages in aquaculture, which is perceived as difficult and dirty work. Some of them do notlike trading fish because they are ashamed; this work has a low social status. They arehappy to work in the other sub-sectors, and are more willing to work in the sector if thebusiness belongs to the family (“Women don’t want to work in fisheries unless it theirbusiness. If you don’t help your own business …. What will you do?”)

The lack of child care facilities is another important problem for working women in allsector. If there is a need to work, the grandparents usually take care of children.

We close with some comments of the interviewees from Kalymnos:“There are no other jobs”.“There are only few jobs here for women, in hotels, restaurants etc”.“There are not any other jobs even for our husbands. Where can women find a job?”.“In general Kalymnians can’t have a career, the island is abandoned”.“Enterprises are familiar. There is no matter of career. Qualifications do not matter”.“All women today want to have a job, not only for economic reasons, but also in order toget away”.“A woman that choose to stay with her children in the house, after some years she willhate herself” but the same man said “women think of what people will say if they leavetheir children to a nursery”.

2.5.2 Socio-cultural characterisation of the chosen FDAs: Evia

The situation of women in fisheries in EviaProduction of fish from Evia reaches 9,000 tons which brings an income of 11.3 billiondrachma to the area. According to estimates, fisheries employs 2,660 people in fishproduction, processing and/or marketing of the produce, with 2,460 of them in marine



fisheries. There are 119 open sea fishing vessels (trawlers, purse seiners and beachseiners) and around 1,250 inshore fishing vessels.

It is in inshore fishing vessels that women are more actively involved as non-paid familylabour. In addition, there are 40 fishmongers, of whom 10 are women. The data from theFederation of Marine Aquaculture record 38 marine aquaculture units and 7 hatchers inEvia. Marine aquaculture employs 90 full-time and 34 part-timers. Finally, there are 15people employed in processing enterprises in the area (MacAlister and Elliott, 1999).

The questionnaire surveyIn Evia, 4 people were questioned, all of whom were men. 3 of them are representativesof Fishery Cooperatives and 1 is employed in the fish market (ichtyoskala). The threerepresentatives of the fishermen believe that there is no discrimination against women infisheries and only the public employee believes that women suffer from discrimination.

Family tradition is not recognised as posing barriers to women in any fishery subsectors.However, women are not involved in the production side, with various reasons given (toodangerous, not enough training, not suitable work for women, women don’t want to workon fishing boats). However, there do not seem to be barriers to women in the marketing,processing and management. Childcare is seem as a significant barrier to women’sinvolvement in all sub-sectors (as well as other sectors).

2.5.3 Socio-cultural characterisation of the chosen FDAs: Kavala

The situation of women in fisheries in KavalaThe production of fish in Kavala is 7-8,000 tons a year, bringing an income of 3 billiondrachma. Fisheries are estimated to employ 2,500-3,000 people in production, processingand/or marketing of the produce. There are 20 open sea fishing vessels (trawlers) andaround 500 inshore fishing vessels (3-14 meters long). 500 to 600 people are employed ininshore fisheries. Again, women are most actively involved in the inshore fishing sector,as non-paid family labour.

In the fishing port of Kavala 6-7,000 tons of fish are traded annually. There are 6 traders,12 fishermen’s representatives and traders and 18 fishermen’s representatives. There is aFishermen’s Cooperative with 35 members that fishes in the four largest lagoons inKavala; the production of the lagoons is 120-160 tons annually. There are 4 marineaquaculture units in Kavala, two of them small. Also, there are 16 shellfish aquaculture(mussels) units in the area. Finally, there are 4 processing enterprises for seafoodpreservation in brine and 3 processing units for frozen fish. There is a total number of110 people employed regularly and 380 employed seasonally in the processing units(AENAK, 1998a, 2000).

Women are absent from open seas fishery, while in the inshore fishery their role is that ofassistant, with tasks such as preparation and fixing of nets, preparation of bait, clearingthe nets etc. There is a superstition that says that women’s presence on the boat brings‘bad luck’ to fishermen. This ‘bad luck’ is more certain in those cases that women who



step on the boat are in menstruation. A few men take their wives fishing with them foreconomic reasons; due to the low prices of fish they cannot pay a wage labourer andinstead employs his wife as an unpaid worker in the family enterprise. A few otherwomen are engaged in fishing activities due to the fact that male owners of fishinglicences have transferred the licence to their wives while they work in another full-timeoccupation.

There have been recent attempts to create a different role for women in the maledominated domain of fisheries, with a programme providing training to women employedin inshore fisheries and the establishment of a women’s cooperative. The project targetswere nominally achieved but the women’s cooperative is no longer operating due to lackof financing. Another problem with this kind of project is the low educational level ofwomen, which makes it difficult for them to take initiatives. (“They are afraid becausethey feel illiterate”.) Whether the woman will be employed in fisheries is clearly a familyissue. The women who participated in this project now say that that inshore fisheries arein decline and not worth working to develop.

Processing enterprises do not represent a realistic employment option for local womensince the work has low social status and the majority avoid working there. 80% of theworkers in the processing sector in Kavala are foreign women, mainly from Egypt,Turkey, Ukraine, Albania and Bulgaria.

Finally, there are issues which concern generally the inshore fisheries:(i) Recreational fishermen may spend large sums of money for their personal

satisfaction. Professional inshore fishermen have problems competing with well-equipped recreational fisherman.

(ii) Regulations such as safety at sea; existing inshore vessels cannot be equippedwith the required equipment due to their small size. This tilts the balance infavour of open sea fisheries which has larger, better equipped vessels.

Questionnaire surveyIn Kavala, 8 people were surveyed, including 2 women who were involved in the smallscale fisheries project and 6 men. The two of the men were organisers of the project andthe rest are involved in different fisheries subsectors (one fish traders, one fisheryresearcher, one representative of a fishery cooperative and one employed in the fish port).The majority of the respondents (6 out of 8) believe that there is discrimination againstwomen in fisheries.

Questionnaire 1. Family traditions are recognised as strong barriers to women in fishproduction and aquaculture (4 out of 8). Comments were that the wife’s role was tosupporting the husband and that women play a supplementary role. However, in the caseof marketing, processing and management, where women are traditionally active, there isless discrimination due to family roles. Social attitudes, on the other hand, are barriers towomen in marketing and processing (4 out of 8). The ichtyoskala (fish market) is a maledominated area where women are not considered very welcome.



The views of those who are employed in fisheries do not pose significant problems inwomen’s involvement in the fishery sub-sectors, except in open sea fisheries. Thehusbands’ attitude is in the large majority of the cases not important in posing barriers towomen’s involvement in fisheries. Rather men want their wives with them. As onewoman argues, “he would like to have me in the boat but I do not want to go” and thesecond woman says, “the husband needs his wife by his side”.

The strongest barrier to women’s involvement in all sub-sectors is childcare. It isconsidered ‘natural’ for the wife herself to take care of the children. Men and womenagree in that children pose a very significant barrier. Grandparents may play a role intaking care of children so that mothers can work, but in general it is felt that childrenshould be looked after by their mother. Hence there are large differences in opportunitybetween women with and without children.

Questionnaire 2. The majority of respondents agree that women are unwilling toparticipate in fish production and aquaculture. Women feel that they don’t have either theknowledge or the physical ability, and most prefer not to work in these occupations inany case. Women’s recognition that fisheries is a male domain poses significant barriersin the case of fish production and aquaculture. For the other sub-sectors the male domainis not considered a barrier, the cooperative project having been somewhat successful indispelling these ideas.

Most of the respondents did not reply to the question about whether a lack ofemployment prospects for women was a barrier to their involvement in fisheries.However, those who replied to this question, the majority considered that it played asignificant role. The two women were very conscious of this barrier and felt that theestablishment of the cooperative would have given them a new role and better prospects.

2.6 ECONOMIC STATUS

2.6.1 Earnings differentials in the fisheries sector

As far as economic barriers are concerned, there are no official wage differentials, but inpractice women are often paid less than men. In addition, while women are not excludedfrom high status positions, the majority are employed in low status manual job tasks (e.g.fixing fishing nets, cleaning and/or preparing the nets for fishing, food preparation,manual tasks in hotels and restaurants etc.), in low-skilled salaried job positions (officeand reception clerks, typists, assisting office tasks etc.) or in sales / trading jobs. Mostwomen in higher status job own and/or manage their own business in the service sector(i.e. trade shops, cafés etc.). An approximate estimate of the differentials in earnings isset out in the table below.



Table 13: Earnings differentials in the Greek fisheries sector

ActivityWomen’saverageannual

earnings(Drachma)

Men’s averageannual

earnings(Drachma)

Differential(% male

level)

Fishing overall:

• Skipper at sea * 4,843,395 No differential• Crew at sea * 1,937,358 No differential• Support/admin ashore ** 1,937,358 No differentialAquaculture:

• Stock husbandry * 1,937,358 No differential• Technical/lab 2,421,698 2,841,458 85%• Management/marketing 3,325,798 3,713,270 90%Processing:

• Foreman (factory floor) * 2,421,698 No differential• Worker (factory floor) 1,775,912 1,937,358 92%• Technical/lab 2,421,698 2,841,458 85%• Management, sourcing,

marketing, trading3,325,798 3,713,270 90%

Administration, management 2,421,698 2,841,458 85%Notes: * no women in this job position, ** women employed but as assisting and not paid family members.

One mechanism for reinforcing job discrimination is the licensing system. For someoneto be employed as fisherman he/she has to register with the Farmers and FarmEnterprises’ Registry (MAAE), which was constructed by the PASEGES.6 Theprofessional identity of fishermen is based upon their registration into the FisheryRecords (through which they take the status of insured). The documents needed for suchregistration include:

a) a vessel licence and a professional licence for fishing andb) a certification from Fishing or Agricultural Union that fishing is the mainoccupation of the applicant

These documents together with the Registry divide professional fishermen from part-timeor recreational fishermen. Women rarely have a professional licence for fishing or avessel licence and therefore cannot obtain a professional identification. In this respect,women’s exclusion from fisheries is based upon their exclusion from the profession offisherman.

6 PASEGES stands for the Panhellenic Confederation of Agricultural Cooperatives and includes also Fishermen cooperatives. The taskof constructing a MAAE was assigned to PASEGES, which completed it in 1997. For a review and a critique of the MAAE seeMoissidis (1998).



2.6.2 Socio-economic support systems

Fisheries workers do not have a separate Security Organisation, instead being classifiedunder the Farmers’ Security Organisation (FSO). Those in related sub-sectors (marketing,trade, administration etc) are insured by different organisations according to sub-sector;e.g. those in administrative positions (secretaries in unions, officials in the Ministry ofAgriculture etc.) are insured by the Foundation for Social Insurance (IKA) or publicsector insurance.

The Organisation of Agricultural Insurance (OGA) covers all men and women employedin the agricultural sector (including fisheries) if they don’t have the right to be registeredwith another insurance organisation. The same applies to professionals, craftsmen andtradesmen who work in villages with a population of less than 2,000 inhabitants and foreveryone living permanently in municipalities and communities with a population lessthan 5,000 (if they are not insured elsewhere). Women working in agriculture as well asspouses of men working in agriculture (if they are not insured elsewhere) have the samerights and benefits. There are no insurance discriminations between men and women. Ifboth spouses are under the OGA regime, insurance is mandatory only for one of them,after their common declaration.

For larger fishing vessels, i.e. for those which employ wage labour, only vessel ownershave the right to be insured under OGA. People employed as wage labour in a fishingvessel have to be insured by the private sector Foundation for Social Insurance (IKA).This often means that the vessel crew stays uninsured because the cost of insurance ishigh relative to business profits. As a result, the whole family of the wage labourer in avessel may be left uninsured. In many cases these are foreign immigrants7. The followingbenefits are offered by the Greek Organization of Agricultural Insurance (OGA)8:

Pensions - OGA provides retirement and disability pensions and pensions to survivingmembers of the deceased’s family, as well as to uninsured people of retirement age. Theretirement pension is increased by benefits for the spouse (10% of the first insurancecategory amount) and the children (8-12% of the same amount). If both spouses areretired, the benefits are provided to one of them. The children must be legitimate orlegitimised or adopted, or must be the physical children of the women. People over 65years of age with at least 15 years insurance have the right to a retirement pension. For apension, fishermen’s wives require: (a) certification for the years of employment infishery by the relevant Port Authority or the Fishing Union and (b) an attested copy of thefishing licence.

7 The situation is similar in other primary sector enterprises which seem to utilize similar means to cope with labour and operation costincrease. Often the enterprises of the primary sector, as well as in the majority of the small-medium enterprises (SMEs) in all sectors,use unregistered labour force in order to decrease the production and transaction costs, a fact which is supported by the seasonalintensity of productive activities, the pluriactivity which predominates especially in the coastal rural areas and the family organisationof the majority of SMEs.8 Information on these schemes is taken from OGA (2000) and from the Ministry of Agriculture.



Health benefits - All directly insured or retired members of OGA and their spouses,children and other dependants have the right of to health benefits. Sickness benefitsinclude:

• Hospital treatment (in the country and abroad)• Medical and non-hospital relief• Pharmaceutical relief• Additional benefits (including remedial means, orthopaedic instruments consumables,

travelling expenses, night nurse etc).

Maternity benefits - They include the following:• Pregnancy and confinement benefit (50,000 drachma)• Childbirth subsidy if the childbirth takes place in private clinic and the insured pays all

costs (20,000 drachma).

Allowance for those who have many children - These allowances are provided onlywhen there is real need depending on the available family income and refer to thefollowing:

• About 43,500 drachma monthly for the mother who has her third child and for 6 years.• About 11,000 drachma monthly per child (but not less than 23,000 drachma) for the

mother who has 4 children or the widow / divorced / unmarried mother with 3 children(for the father there are additional preconditions). The allowance is provided till thelast unmarried child become 23 years old.

• About 25,000 drachma monthly for the mother who has not any more the right for theabove benefits, or who had at least 4 children at a certain time.

Programme of Agricultural Household Economy - The Organisation of AgriculturalInsurance (OGA) does not provide any other kind of welfare for women. However, thereis a “Programme of Agricultural House Economy” under the Ministry of Agriculture. Theaims of the programme are to:

• ensure additional income from off-farm employment• reduce underemployment, especially of women• promote equal opportunities in employment and training• improve the living conditions of families in small primary industry businesses (farms,

fishing)

For example, the programme gives support to women in rural areas who want to start abusiness or re-enter the labour market, (temporary day nurseries, information on incomemanagement, career advise and support for family issues such as care of the elderly,health, nutrition, gender equality etc).



3 CONCLUSIONS & RECOMMENDATIONS

3.1 KEY FINDINGS

The cultural and social reasons which exclude women from fisheries are specific to theGreek countryside, coastal areas and islands. Many of these were evident in the threeareas (Kalymnos, Kavala and Evia) which were selected for the application of the shortquestionnaire. In general, social barriers to women’s integration in fisheries are related totraditional family roles, the development of local labour market (i.e. whether it isdependent upon the primary sector or other sectors have been developed) and the lowsocio-economic status of women in most economic activities.

Cultural barriers to women in fisheries are also linked to the family and the generallypatriarchal organisation of society and production, which do not allow a role for womenseparate from their spouse, despite institutional support for women’s rights. Women arestill considered non-professionals, with a role as assistant to the head of the fishery orhousehold. The significant role of the church in rural areas is another cultural dimensionof women’s lesser position, since the family’s ‘respect’ and ‘honour’ in the eyes of thechurch are easily harmed by unorthodox actions by women. Although women’s positionin rural areas has significantly changed due to regulation at the national level, society atthe local level has been slow to adjust to equal access of both sexes in economic activities(Polis, 1992). However, at the level of the household women’s say in household decisionmaking has improved (Vlachoutsikou and Bacharopoulou, 1991).

In conclusion, the traditional gender division of labour is still a basic axis around whichone may articulate the differences between men and women in the access to the fisherysector and the rural sector in general. The social construction of the two sexes is basedupon the crystallisation and idealisation of the gender division of labour (Bourdieu,1999). The inequalities in the opportunities between the two sexes in the countryside aredirectly connected to the level of intensification of fishery production and to thedistribution of roles in the fishing/rural household (Papadopoulos, 2000). In this way, thediversification of women’s employment outside the fishery sector does not imply awithdrawal of opportunity inequalities between the two sexes but to the shift ofinequalities from one socio-economic space to the other. The increase of women’sactivity outside fishery production does not lead to withdrawal of inequalities but it israther related to a need to adjust to changing external conditions for economic survival.Moreover, women’s integration into the fisheries sector and the wider rural sectoractually depend upon their mobilisation towards changing the structure of economic,social and cultural relations in the countryside.



3.2 CONCLUSIONS

3.2.1 Women’s Contribution To Fisheries: Situation And Problems

Women’s contribution to fisheries in Greece is related to their involvement in the familyenterprise and to their contribution to the household’s survival. There are different viewson women’s participation in the fishery sub-sectors. There are basically two points ofview: the ‘optimists’ who focus on the local trends of increasing women’s employment infisheries, and the ‘pessimists’ who underlines the crisis which has hit the sector as awhole and suggest that future opportunities for women are likely to be limited in thiscontext.

In general, the ‘optimists’ are the policy makers and those who have been involved in thepreparation of small scale fishery projects, while the ‘pessimists’ are the fishery unionrepresentatives and the women who are involved with fisheries themselves. Table A3 inAnnex I shows the distribution of the respondents by category and home area.

3.2.2 Women’s Contribution To Fisheries: Dynamics And Prospects

In Kalymnos, there are no positive incentives for women to enter fisheries, however thesector remains the only available employment for women. Key findings were as follows:• Husbands employ their wives rather than pay someone to work on the boat, thus

increasing overall family income• Women cannot easily find a job in other sectors (although recently there have been a

few jobs in tourism)• A woman whose family is not involved in fishing does not show a particular

preference for work in fisheries.

Respondents from Evia also do not see any positive motives for women’s participation infisheries. Again, women are in fisheries primarily for economic reasons and usually onlywhen their husband or family work in the sector. In general, fishermen are discouragedwith prospects for the sector, since many years of failing management has resulted indeclining catches and low revenues for fishermen and those in other sub-sectors.

In Kavala, the situation is also similar; and most respondent suggest that there is littlefuture in the sector for women or men. Most individuals in fisheries (male and female)say that they do the job only because it is the only thing they know, and they expressedthe strong desire for their children to work in other sectors.



3.3 RECOMMENDATIONS

3.3.1 General recommendations for the sector

The fisheries sector in Greece faces significant problems, which are most intense amongthose who are in a disadvantaged social and economic position. Thus, the target group forsupport and development activities should be small scale coastal and inshore fishermen,with small family businesses. Specifically, small scale coastal fishermen needs support indiversifying their activities, along the lines of rural development projects in areas wherethere are few alternative employment opportunities, similar to other, non-fisheries relatedprojects in the Greek countryside. Project design needs to be improved as follows:

• Local people need support in continuing projects on their own after the end of outsideaid. If projects do not continue after the implementation phase, they are simplytemporary income support measures.

• Projects need to be better tailored to local needs, with local traditions and customstaken into account. Fisheries, history, cultural traditions and attitudes varygeographically in Greece.

• Projects should be formulated at the local level• Projects need better supported from the local government and state services• There needs to be careful selection of local intermediaries who are in charge of

project implementation.• Projects need to focus on development which is sustainable, given the context of

overexploitation and coastal development which has harmed many fisheries inGreece.

3.3.2 Recommendations for women in fisheries

• The educational level of women in poor in many rural areas, and needs to beimproved. Vocational training needs to be offered in villages and rural areas andflexibly arrange according to women’s time availability. Training of women needs tooffer concrete access to employment positions. Up to this point, training has onlybeen a means of getting a supplementary income through the financial incentiveswhich are offered for participation.

• Child care facilities would relieve women from a very serious barrier in theirinvolvement with fisheries or any other economic activity.

• Family constraints (such as child care) linked to the attitude of men – especially inremote coastal or island areas – need to be addressed through training of bothspouses.

• Young women need incentives not to leave coastal and island areas in order tomaintain the demographic dynamism which required for the sustainable developmentof those areas (e.g. financial benefits to women who are employed in their fishingenterprise or employed in the local market).



• Women in the fisheries sector would be helped if they could obtain professionalstatus for some of their tasks.

• Women need support for their participation as individuals in the local matters andtheir recognition as independent individuals with equal rights to men.



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Thiessen, V., Davis, A. and Jentoft, S. (1992), The Veiled Crew: An Exploratory Study of Wives’Reported and Desired Contributions to Coastal Fisheries Enterprises in Northern Norwayand Nova Scotia, Human Organization, Vol. 51, No 4, pp. 342-352.

Tsartas, P. and Thanopoulou, M. (1994), Women’s Agrotourist Cooperatives in Greece,Athens, KEGME (in Greek).

Vaiou, D., Stratigaki, M. and Chronaki, Z. (1991), Wage Labour at Home: A Woman’sEmployment and an Ideology, Synchrona Themata, No. 45, pp.. 47-53 (in Greek

Valarie, P. and Rey, H. (1999), Can a Common Fisheries Policy for the Mediterranean Ignore itsPast?, pp. 129-140, in D. Symes (ed), Europe’s Southern Waters: Management Issuesand Practice, Oxford, Fishing News Books.



Van Ginkel, R. (1999), The Dynamics of Fisheries: A Sensitising Framework, pp. 19-32, in D.Symes (ed), Europe’s Southern Waters: Management Issues and Practice, Oxford,Fishing News Books.

Ventoura, F. (1994), Women in Italian Agriculture: New Roles and Arising Problems, in van derBurg, M. and Endeveld, M (eds), Women on Family Farms, Wageningen: WageningenAgricultural University.

Vlachoutsikou, Ch. and Bacharopoulou, A. (1991), “Let me enjoy my home and with they keyinside”. Women and Consumption in a Village of Beotia, Synchrona Themata, No 45, pp.94-100 (in Greek).

Whatmore, S. (1994), Theoretical Achievements and Challenges in European Rural GenderStudies, in van der Burg, M. and Endeveld, M (eds), Women on Family Farms,Wageningen, Wageningen Agricultural University.

Whatmore, S. (1991), Farming Women: Gender, Work and Family Enterprise, Basingstoke,Macmillan.



Appendix 2: People interviewedName Place Sex Ctegory Sex Attribute Education

1Liontaki Eleni Kavala F union tailor vice-chairman of the cooperative of women fishermen Primary

2Ioannou Maria Kavala F union housewife chairman of the cooperative of women fishermen Secondary

3Kritikos Kavala M policy makers lawyer director of development company in the area Tertiary

4Karavokiris Kavala M public sector public employee director of ETANAL Secondary

5Stamboulis Giorgos Kavala M policy makers consultant Director in consultancy Tertiary

6Karabourniotis Kavala M enterprise trader trader in the fish market Secondary

7Karanikolas Panagiotis Kavala M union fisherman chairman of the inshore fishery cooperative Secondary

8Kallianiotis Argiris Kavala M researcher Ichthyologist director of institute of fishery research Tertiary

9Marangakis Manousos Rethimno M policy makers Teacherdirector of the centre for professional training of the Prefectureof Rethimno Tertiary

10Kamberos Theodoros Patra M policy makers consultant-economist consultant-economist in the union of local municipalities Tertiary

11Papadopoulou Christina Patra F policy makers Economist director of the development agency of Achaia (KTADA) Tertiary

12Theotokatou Eva Kalymnos F policy makers teacher-economist director in a private company Postgraduate

13Alexi Maria Athens F researcher Researcher researcher in the National Centre for Sea Research Postgraduate

14Papalekas Evia M union Fisherman chairman of open sea fishery cooperative Primary

15Stergiou Evia M public sector public employee director of auditors in ETANAL of Chalkida Secondary

16Ioannou Evia M union Fisherman chairman of fishery union of Limni Evias Primary

17Sotos Gerassimos Evia M union Fisherman chairman of inshore fishery union of Chalkida Secondary

18Palaiokostas Athanassios Athens M public sector Ichthyologist head of directorate of aquacultures-Ministry Tertiary

19Chatzispirou Athens F public sector public employee head of directorate of open sea fishery-Ministry Tertiary

20Mitropoulos Dimitris Athens M public sector Ichthyologist head of directorate of inshore fisheries-Ministry Tertiary

21Petrou Athens F public sector Biologist head of directorate of fishery applications-Ministry Tertiary

22Papadopoulou M Athens F union public employee employee in the fishery cooperatives in PASEGES Tertiary



23Theodorou Athens M enterprise Ichthyologist employee in the Union of Aquaculture Owners Postgraduate

24Bonafatsos Athens M union Fisherman chairman of the fishery union in Keratsini Primary

25Tavlarios Ieremias Kalymnos M public sector Biologist employee in the Directorate of Fishery in Kalymnos Tertiary

26Oikonomidou Sofia Kalymnos F public sector Economist employee in the directorate of programming in Kalymnos Tertiary

27Anonymous Kalymnos M Independent Worker worker in the fish market of Kalymnos Primary

28Anonymous Kalymnos M Independent Electrician electrician in the fish market of Kalymnos Secondary

29Chatziioannou Maria Kalymnos F Independent Housewife fisherman's wife Primary



Appendix 3: Legislation relevant to women in fisheries

3.1 Policy on gender equality

The Greek government has taken significant steps to promote gender equality, bestsummed up in their own policy statement:

“The legal framework at present prevailing in Greece in connection with genderequality and elimination of all forms of discrimination against women wasestablished through the Constitution of 1975, which stipulated that Greek men andGreek women are equal before the law and have equal rights and obligations.Based on this constitutional principle, important laws have been passed from 1981to date, concerning family, education, equality in labour relations and socialsecurity. These laws, which were passed in the process of adaptation of the Greeklegislation to international conventions and community directives, brought aboutconsiderable improvement in women's position in the Greek society. Theundertaking of ancillary measures contributed to a satisfactory degree to thatimprovement.”

3.2 Recent Greek legislation with gender relevance

Law 2470/1997 on "Reformation of the salary scale of public sector employees(central government, public corporations, local administration)" to assist families ofemployees, provides for a monthly family allowance to be paid not only to marriedemployees but also to widowed, separated, divorced and unmarried parents, providedthey are legally entrusted with custody of the children and live in the same house withthem.This provision regulated the pending issue of a marriage allowance to unmarried,widowed and divorced parents employed in the public sector (for the private sector,payment of this allowance is provided for by law 1849/1989).

The Presidential Decree 176/1997 on "Measures for the improvement of safety andhealth at work of pregnant, post-partum, and nursing workers in compliance withdirective 92/85/EEC", includes, among others, the following provisions:- For every activity which may entail a specific risk of exposure of pregnant, post-partum,and nursing workers, the employer shall make available to them a written assessment ofrisks occurring at work. This assessment shall specify the nature, degree and duration ofexposure of women workers, to enable evaluation of all risks to their safety and health aswell as any implications for their pregnancy or nursing in the particular case.- Pregnant, post-partum and nursing workers cannot be obliged to carry out activities forwhich the evaluation has shown that it may entail a risk for their safety and health. Thiseventuality shall be met with a permanent or temporary adjustment of working conditionsor/and working time, with a change of position of the worker or her being excused fromwork.



- For the whole duration of pregnancy and for one year after delivery, women workingfull or part-time at night, shall be transferred to an equivalent daytime position, if theysubmit a medical certificate attesting to the need for taking this measure for reasonsconnected with their safety and health. In case such transfer is technically or/andobjectively impossible, they shall be excused from work.- Pregnant workers shall be excused from work without curtailment of their remunerationin order to undergo prenatal tests, if such tests must be performed during their workingtime.

Law 2525/95 "Comprehensive lyceum, access of graduates to tertiary education,evaluation of educational performance and other provisions”, to help workershaving family obligations, introduced the operation of all-day kindergarten and all-dayprimary school. Apart from its educational aims, this provision liberates the workingmother from the obligation to interrupt her work prematurely in order to collect heryoung children, and it also enables the non-working mother to work.

Law 2639/1998 "Regulation of labour relations, establishment of a labourinspectorate and other provisions" attempts to re-regulate significant issues of labourlaw, such as working time, informal forms of work, distinction between dependent andindependent work etc. As women frequently opt - not always because they so desire butunder the combined pressure of their family and working obligations - for part-time orspecial forms of employment, a more detailed reference to this law is necessary. - Article1 of the law introduces a negative presumption of non-dependent work for personsrendering independent services or work as self-employed workers and particularly aspiece workers or as tele-workers or as persons employed at home.- Also, article 52 of the same law extends the duration of parental leave for raising achild, which had been introduced by law 1483/1984: a parent who has completed a yearof work with the same employer is entitled to unpaid parental leave for raising a child inthe period from the end of the maternity leave until the child is three-and-a-half years old.

Law 2643/1998 "Care for the employment of persons coming under specialcategories and other provisions", the unmarried parent of three under-age children isincluded in the categories of protected persons.

Law 2683/1999 Ratification of the code of public civil administrative employees andemployees of public corporations and other provisions" provides that:- Pregnant women employees are entitled to fully paid maternity leave two months beforeand three months after delivery- Pregnant women employees in need of special treatment at the end of a paid sick leaveare entitled to a regular paid pregnancy leave on presentation of a certificate of theattendant physician and the director of a gynaecological or obstetric clinic or departmentof a public nursing establishment - Natural persons providing independent work should enjoy equal or correspondingtreatment as other workers if this is imposed by their working conditions. Equality oftreatment is due especially in matters of health and safety, protection against any form ofdiscrimination at work on the basis of sex, nationality or race, convictions, minimum



employment age, maternity protection, access to education or further education, respectof their freedom to collective organisation and action, facilitation of their access tonational insurance and educational systems

Law 2646/1998 on "Organisation and operation of the National Social CareSystem", by providing protection to individuals or groups by means of prevention andrehabilitation programmes, aims in the first place at supporting the family. The aboveprogrammes aim at creating conditions of equal participation of persons in the economicand social life and at ensuring them of a decent living standard.

Law 2676/99 (article 62) awarded a widow's / widower's pension on equal terms tothe surviving spouse. The main advantages of this new pension system reside on thefollowing points:- It abolishes any existing gender-based differentiation in pensions provided by allinsurance agencies coming under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Labour and SocialSecurity to the surviving spouse- It is applicable to survivors of both old and new insured persons dying after 4.1.1999- It ensures the family income for a considerable period following the death, by providinga death pension to the surviving spouse for 3 years- It ensures a lifelong pension right to the surviving spouse who is an invalid, or apensioner of OGA or a war pensioner of the state or a pensioner as a victim of a terroristact

3.3 Other recent measures

Setting up of an inter-ministerial committee for gender equality

By decision of the prime minister No Y 316/14-7-00 (Official Gazette 870/17-7-00section B), an inter-ministerial committee for gender equality was set up. The tasks of thecommittee are:1. Taking the necessary decisions to promote the national policy for gender equalityalong the guidelines of the European Union, aiming at mainstreaming.2. Coordination of the various agencies of the public sector in developing policies andactions for women at the central, regional, and local level.3. Supporting ministries and public sector agencies in planning legislative initiatives andin implementing measures specifically concerning women.4. Preparing and drafting the Annual Action Programme for Equality aiming at thedevelopment of an integrated policy in the framework of the 3rd Community SupportProgramme, and monitoring implementation of actions and measures of the abovementioned programme.5. Supervising, monitoring and qualitative and quantitative evaluation of policiesimplemented6. Publicising decisions on matters of gender equality.



Balanced participation of the sexes in decision makingFollowing a proposal of the General Secretariat for Equality to the competent minister, alegislative provision was voted by the Greek Parliament to the end of ensuring balancedparticipation of men and women in decision making procedures in the publicadministration, in entities of the public sector, entities of the private sector, as well as infirst and second degree local administration agencies. In this connection, articles 6 oflaw 2839/2000 stipulates that: a. In every Departmental Board of state organisations, ofentities of the public sector and of local administration agencies, the number of membersof each sex nominated by the Administration shall be equal to at least 1/3 of thosenominated in accordance with the provisions in force, provided there are serving in theagency involved a sufficient number of employees meeting the legal requirements fornomination and provided the members nominated are more than one.

International conventionsGreece is one of the first 22 member-states of the United Nations Organisation whichsigned the Optional Protocol of the International UNO Convention "For combating allforms of discrimination against women" (CEDAW) on December 10, 1999. Inaccordance with the Constitution of this country, the ratification procedure by the GreekParliament follows upon signature. Like all International Agreements on Human Rights,the Protocol reaffirms:

a. Faith in fundamental human rights, in the dignity and worth of the individual aswell as in the equal rights of men and women andb. Prohibition of any gender-based discrimination.

It also safeguards full and equal enjoyment by women of all human rights andfundamental freedoms, and sets up a commission that will examine individual or teamreports of violations of any of the rights named in the Convention for "CombatingDiscriminations against Women". The Protocol belongs to the so-called secondgeneration International Conventions in the field of Human Rights protection, i.e.Conventions which advance to substantial measures for monitoring the protectionprinciples already enacted.

In practice, this is achieved by conceding control powers to the Special Body set up bythe Protocol, such powers not being limited to the examination of the periodic reports ofthe member-states, but including investigation of individual or collective complaintssubmitted by citizens



Appendix 4: Statistical Data

Table A1. Employment in fisheries by gender and position in employment, 1995-1998

1995 1996 1997 1998Position in employment Men Women Men Women Men Women Men WomenEmployers 16% 20% 13% 0% 18% 11% 18% 0%Self-employed 50% 4% 47% 14% 51% 11% 52% 29%Wage labour 22% 19% 24% 34% 25% 19% 24% 0%Family assisting members 12% 57% 15% 53% 6% 59% 6% 71%Total number 14196 740 13456 1129 13219 1200 10100 600Source: NSSG, Labour Force Survey, 1995-1998.Note: For the years 1995-1997 there were annual surveys, while for the year 1998 we use the data for the second trimester (there are 4 surveys annually since1998).



Table A2. Distribution of catches by fish market in 1997Location Total catches

(in metrictonnes)

% of the fishmarket in total

quantity of catches

Value of catch(in milliondrachma)

% of the fishmarket in totalvalue of catches

Pireus 22,755 40.6 14,409 39.5N. Michaniona 17,558 31.3 12,295 33.7Kavala 6,167 11.0 2,652 7.3Patras 2,376 4.2 1,654 4.5Chalkida 2,808 5.0 1,418 3.9Chios 786 1.4 594 1.6Alexandroupolis 2,301 4.1 2,152 5.9Messologgi 378 0.7 397 1.1Kalymnos 184 0.3 148 0.4Preveza 708 1.3 803 2.2Total 56,021 100.0 36,524 100.0Source: ATE.

Table A3. Categories and place of respondentsAreas

Uni

on

Polic

ym

aker

s

Publ

icse

ctor

Res

earc

h

Ent

erpr

ises

Indi

vi-

dual

s

Tot

al

Athens 4 - 4 1 - - 9Kalymnos 1 1 2 - 3 7 14Kavala 2 2 1 1 1 1 8Evia 3 - 1 - - - 4Patra - 2 - - - - 2Rethymno - 1 - - - - 1Total 10 6 8 2 4 8 38



Table A4. Gender and education of respondentsEducational

levelMen Women Total

Primary 4 5 9Primary 20.0% 27.8% 23.7%

7 4 11Secondary35.0% 22.2% 28.9%

9 9 18Tertiary45.0% 50.0% 47.4%

20 18 38Total52.6% 47.4% 100.0%

Documents

ANNEX V COUNTRY STUDIES: GREECE