Annex 1: Pollution Country Report of Thailand › documentRepository › BOBLME-2011...List of Acronyms (v) 1. The Bay of Bengal Coast of Thailand 1 1.1 Bio-geographical features 5

BOBLME-2011-Ecology-08

The designations employed and the presentation of material in this information product do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) concerning the legal or development status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. The mention of specific companies or products of manufacturers, whether or not these have been patented, does not imply that these have been endorsed or recommended by FAO in preference to others of a similar nature that are not mentioned. BOBLME contract: PSA-GCP 123/06/2010 For bibliographic purposes, please reference this publication as: BOBLME (2011) Country report on pollution – Thailand. BOBLME-2011-Ecology-08

National Report on

Coastal Pollution Loading and Water Quality Criteria of Thailand

Penjai Sompongchaiyakul Department of Marine Science and Center of Excellence for Environmental and Hazardous Waste Management (CU-FS satellite center) Faculty of Science Chulalongkorn University Bangkok, THAILAND Pornsook Chongprasith Pollution Control Department Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment Bangkok, THAILAND Prapaporn Sangganjanavanich Faculty of Environmental Management Prince of Songkla University Hatyai, Songkhla, THAILAND

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Table of Contents page Table of contents (i) List of Tables (iii) List of Figures (iv) List of Acronyms (v) 1. The Bay of Bengal Coast of Thailand 1

1.1 Bio-geographical features 5 1.2 Coastal activities 7

2. Overview of sources of pollution 10 2.1 Land-based (both point and non-point sources of pollution) 10 2.2. Sea/Marine-based 11 2.3. Priority categories of parameters 12

3. Existing water and sediment quality objectives and targets 14 3.1 National Seawater Standard 14 3.2 National Sediment Quality Guideline/Standard 14

4. The National Program - Coastal Ocean Monitoring And Prediction System 14 4.1 Mapping hotspots along the coast 14 4.2 Time series analysis and significant findings 22 4.3 Role of Ministry of Environment and Ministry of Fisheries 23 4.4 National Laboratories 23

5. Present status of marine pollution: contaminant levels in water, sediments, fish and other biological resources

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5.1 Eutrophication and nutrient dynamics; Chlorophyll; Suspended substances

24

5.2 Sediment quality 25 5.3 Contamination of mercury in fishes caught in the Andaman Sea 32

6. Trans-boundary coastal pollution issues and concerns 36 7. International instruments, conventions, protocols and programs adopted and

relevant to coastal and marine pollution, and the current status of their implementation in the country (including projects and programs supported by bilateral and multilateral agencies/institutions)

37

7.1 The Agenda 21 37 7.2 Global Programme of Action for the Protection of Marine Environment

from land-based Activities (GPA), 1995 38

7.3 Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants, 2001 38 7.4 London Conventions 1972 and its 1996 Protocol 38 7.5 MARPOL (International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from

Ships, 1973 and the Protocol of 1978) 38

7.6 The International Convention on Oil Pollution Preparedness, Response and Co-operation 1990 (OPRC)

38

7.7 The Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal 1989 and Amendment 1995

39

7.8 The East Asian Seas Programme 39 7.9 The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea 1982

(UNCLOS) and Agreement on Part XI 39

7.10 The Vientiane Action Programme 2004-2010 (VAP) 39

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Table of Contents (cont.) page

8. Policy, economic instruments and legal mechanisms for pollution control 41 8.1 The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act and rules 41

8.1.1 The Navigation in Thai Waters Act, 1913 41 8.1.2 The Factory Act, 1992 41 8.1.3 The Fishery Act, 1947 42 8.1.4 The Petroleum Act, 1971 42 8.1.5 Office of the Prime Minister’s Regulation on the Prevention and

Combating of Oil Pollution, 1995 43

8.2 The Environment (Protection) Act and rules 44 8.2.1 The Enhancement and Conservation of National

Environmental Quality Act, 1992 44

8.2.2 Related Policies on Marine Environment 44 8.3 Water quality standards 44 8.4 Environmental Impact Assessment and Strategic Environmental

Assessment 46

8.5 Other instruments and key sectoral policies (e.g., Agricultural policy dealing with fertilizer and pesticide use and/or integrated pest management/ organic farming, Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM))

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8.6 Market-based instrument – Environmental levies, taxes, subsidies, incentives, etc.

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9. Institutional Mechanisms for pollution control and enforcement of existing policies and legislations

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9.1 Pollution Control Board – at central, regional/state and local levels their mandates, operational structures and inter-linkages and who does quality control and who ensures enforcement of policies and legislations

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10. Gaps 51 10.1 Information/Data 51 10.2 Policies and legislation 51 10.3 Implementation issues (capacity constraints both human, technical/

infrastructure) 51

10.4 Report card of pollution status to public 51 11. Priority actions and Remedial measures required 52

11.1 National level 52 11.2 Regional/State level 52 11.3 Local level 52

12. Summary and Conclusions 52

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List of Tables page

Table 1 Thai Coastal Water Quality Standards. 15 Table 2 Critical Parameters and Areas along the Andaman Coast of

Thailand. 19

Table 3 Beach status in term of Beach Index in the year 2009. 21 Table 4 Summary of coastal water quality in the year 2009. 22 Table 5 Total suspended solid and nutrient statuses in the year 2009. 24 Table 6 Concentration of nutrients, chlorophyll a and total suspended solids

off coast of Phang-nga and Phuket provinces in March 2008. 25

Table 7 A comparison of Hg contamination in white flesh of 18 fish species caught in the Andaman Sea during February to April 2007 by M.V. SEAFDEC2 Cruise No. 24-2/2007.

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Table 8 A comparison of Hg contamination in white flesh of 26 fish species caught bottom trawling in the Andaman Sea using bottom trawling during February to March 2007 by M.V. SEAFDEC2 Cruise No. 23-1/2007.

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Table 9 Criteria for the ASEAN Region for the protection of aquatic life and human health.

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Table 10 Thai Surface Water Quality Standards. 45 Table 11 Projects requiring EIA report. 46

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List of Figures page

Figure 1 Surface water salinity of the Andaman Sea (February – April 2007). 2 Figure 2 Districution of total nitrogen (μM) in surface water of the Andaman

Sea (February – April 2007). 3

Figure 3 Distribution of total nitrogen (μM) in seawater along 2 transect lines in the Andaman Sea (February – April 2007).

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Figure 4 Domestic Product (GDP) growth rate since 1960-2009. 6 Figure 5 Gross Provincial Product (GPP) of the six provinces along the

Andaman Sea coast. 8

Figure 6 The world tin prices from January 1997 – April 2011. 9 Figure 7 A bloom of Ulva spp. on Laem Saparn Hin beach in Phuket

province. 11

Figure 8 The Yetagun off-shore gas rig, located at the Andaman Sea in Myanmar water.

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Figure 9 Percentage of Coastal Water Quality in along Thai Coastline, Gulf of Thailand and Andaman Sea, in Terms of Water Quality Index between 2007 and 2009.

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Figure 10 Coastal water quality in term of Water Quality Index along Andaman coast in the year 2009.

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Figure 11 Percentage of coastal water quality in each condition along Thailand coastline during 2002-2009.

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Figure 12 Distribution of total nitrogen (μM) at various depths in Andaman Sea (February – April 2007).

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Figure 13 Distribution of total nitrogen (μM) at various depths in Andaman Sea (February – April 2007).

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Figure 14 Distribution of fine (<63 μm) and coarse (>63 μm or sand) grain particles, calcium carbonate and organic carbon in surface sediment of Andaman Sea off Thai coast in Year 2009.

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Figure 15 Distribution of cadmium (Cd) lead (Pb), zinc (Zn), iron (Fe) and manganese (Mn) in surface sediment of Andaman Sea off Thai coast in Year 2009.

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Figure 16 Box plot comparison of the median of mercury level in white flesh of 18 fish species, mainly pelagic fishes, caught in the Andaman Sea using 4 different types of fishing gears (bottom vertical longline, bottom trawling, pelagic longline, and fish trap) during February to April 2007 by M.V. SEAFDEC2 Cruise No. 24-2/2007.

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Figure 17 Box plot comparison of the median of mercury level in white flesh of 26 fish species caught in the Andaman Sea using bottom trawling during February to March 2007 by M.V. SEAFDEC2 Cruise No. 23-1/2007.

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Figure 18 Flowchart of the Committee on the Prevention and Combating of Oil Pollution Approach.

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Figure 19 Pollution Control Department Organization Chart. 50

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List of Acronyms ASCC ASEAN Security Community ASEAN Association of Southeast Asian Nations BIMSTEC Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi-Sectoral Technical and Economic

Cooperation – An international organization involving a group of countries in South Asia and Southeast Asia, the member countries include Bangladesh, India, Myanmar, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Bhutan and Nepal

BOB Bay of Bengal BOBLME Bay of Bengal Large Marine Ecosystem Bq/l Becquerel per liter CPMS II ASEAN-Canada Cooperative Programme on Marine Science Phase II

(1991-1997) CSIRD Centre for Studies in International Relations and Development DDPH Dissolved and dispersed petroleum hydrocarbons DDT Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane DIN Dissolved inorganic nitrogen DIP Dissolved inorganic phosphorus DMCR Department of Marine and Coastal Resources DO Dissolved oxygen EAS/RCU East Asia Seas Regional Coordinating Unit EIA Environment Impact Assessment ERTC Environmental Research and Training Center FCB Fecal coliform bacteria GDP Gross Domestic Product GEF Global Environment Facility CFU/100 ml Coliform forming units per 100 millilitres GPA Global Programme of Action for the Protection of Marine Environment from

land-based Activities GPP Gross Provincial Product ICZM Integrated Coastal Zone Management LOEC Lowest Observed Effect Concentration (toxicology) MARPOL International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships, 1973

and the Protocol of 1978 mg/l milligram per liter MoNRE Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment MPN/100 ml Most probable number per 100 millilitres N Nitrogen NEB National Environmental Board NIP National Implementation Plan NRCT National Economic and Social Development Board of Thailand NRSDB National Economic and Social Development Board of Thailand OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development OEQP Department of Environmental Quality Promotion OPRC International Convention on Oil Pollution Preparedness, Response and Co-

operation 1990 OSRAP Oil Spill Response Action Plan P Phosphorus PAHs Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons

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List of Acronyms (cont.) PCBs Polychlorinated biphenyls PCD Pollution Control Department PMBC Phuket Marine Biological Center RS Regional Seas SEA Strategic Environmental Assessment TBT Tributyltin TCB Total coliform bacteria TN Total nitrogen TP Total phosphorus TSS Total suspended solids μg/l microgram per liter UN United Nations UNCLOS United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea 1982 UNEP United Nations Environment Programme US-EPA United States Environmental Protection Agency VAP Vientiane Action Programme 2004-2010

Country report on pollution – Thailand

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1. The Bay of Bengal Coast of Thailand The west coast of Thailand stands facing to the Andaman Sea, which is a semi-enclosed sea situated in the eastern side of the Bay of Bengal (BOB). The Andaman Sea lies to south of the Irrawaddy Delta in Myanmar, to the west of Thai-Malay Peninsula, to the north of Sumatra, and to the east of a chain of islands called Andaman and Nicobar Islands. It stretches about 1,200 km from north to south, and about 650 km from east to west. The water body of the Andaman Sea connects to the BOB through several channels between the chain of islands that stretches along 93ºE. The three large openings include Preparis Channel (200 m deep), Ten Degree Channel (800 m deep), and Great Passage (1,800 m deep). The Andaman Sea links to the South China Sea via the Malacca Straits which lies between Thailand and Sumatra. The Andaman Sea occupies a total area of approximately 600,000 km2, with an average depth of 1,100 m and a maximum depth of 4,419 m on the west side.1 The weather and climate is primarily influenced by the Northeast Monsoon and the Southwest Monsoon and the short transitional periods between them.2 The four Andaman sea seasons are as follows:

• The southwest monsoon, so-called summer monsoon, (June to September) is characterized by cloudiness, overcast skies, light rain almost daily, interspersed with rain squalls or thunderstorms, rainy season (summer).

• The October and November transition period is governed by the inter-tropical convergence zone (autumn).

• The northeast monsoon, so-called winter monsoon, brings less cloudy, scant rainfall, mild temperatures, and lower humidity weather during cool season (December to March) (winter).

• The spring transition period between the monsoons (April and May) is also governed by the inter-tropical convergence zone. It is hot with very variable weather and thundery squalls, hot season (spring).

Up-welling and down-welling are seasonal. The persistence of the monsoon and the orientation of the coasts cause the up-welling to occur in winter and the down-welling in summer along the eastern part of the BOB and Thai waters. Recent study3 suggested that the up-welling phenomena in the Andaman Sea are triggered by meso-scale cyclonic eddies, and are considered as a significant supporter to enhance primary productivity in oceanic surface water if they are numerous and remain for several weeks. The surface water mass in the Andaman Sea is deep down to the maximum of approximately 150 m. The water temperature of surface water down to about 50 m fluctuates mildly in the range of 26-30ºC. The surface salinity in northern part of the

1 Dutta, K., Bhushan, R. and Somayajulu, B.L.K. (2007) Rapid vertical mixing rates in deep waters

of the Andaman Basin. Sci. Total Environ. 384: 401–408. 2 Tomczak, M. and Godfrey, J.S. (2001) Regional Oceanography: An Introduction. Pergamon. 3 Buranapratheprat, A., Laongmanee, P., Sukramongkol, N., Prommas, R., Promjinda, A. and

Yanagi, T. (2010) Upwelling induced by meso-scale cyclonic eddies in the Andaman Sea. Coast. Mar. Sci. 34(1): 68-73.


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Andaman Sea exhibits strong seasonal variations due to an extremely large freshwater influx from the Irrawaddy and Salween rivers during monsoon season, and partly from Brahmaputra-Ganges river system.4 In the northern part, the salinity ranges from about 20 in June-November to about 32 in December-May. The salinity of surface seawater in the southwest end is fairly constant at about 33.5 (Fig. 1). The salinity reaches a maximum of 35 near 1,500 m depth.

Figure1: Surface water salinity of the Andaman Sea (February – April 2007).5 The steadiest current is the inflow through the Malacca Straits, averaging around ⅓ – 2 knots throughout the year, while the monsoon controls the currents elsewhere. From June to August, the southwest monsoon drives inflow waters from the BOB through the western channels, and also pushes the Malaccan inflow against the Sumatran coast and forces some Andaman seawater through the Straits. From December through February, the southwestern currents are enhanced 4 Robinson, R.A.J., Bird, M.I., Oo, N.W., Hoey, T. B., Aye, M.M., Higgitt, D.L., Lu, X.X., Swe, A.,

Tun, T. and Win, S.L. (2007). The Irrawaddy river sediment flux to the Indian Ocean: the original nineteenth-century data revisited. J. Geol. 115: 629–640.

5 Penjai Sompongchaiyakul’s unpublished data


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by the northeast monsoon. From March to May when the southwest monsoon starts, a more sudden shift is observed.6 The Andaman Sea is part of the Bay of Bengal Large Marine Ecosystem (BOBLME). It contains one of the largest barrier reefs in the Indian Ocean and is biologically rich in both diversity and abundance. There is a high level of species diversity of marine organisms. The coastal waters are rich in nutrients and two sources for these nutrients have been identified. The northern part of Thai waters, from Ranong to Phuket provinces, is influenced by deep-sea upwelling processes of nutrient-rich deep-sea water; whereas the waters in the southern part are influenced by surface water runoffs transporting nutrient-rich freshwater into the coastal areas (Figs. 2 and 3).

Figure 2: Districution of total nitrogen (μM) in surface water of the Andaman Sea (February – April 2007).7

6 Rhodes W. Fairbridge, editor. The Encyclopedia of Oceanography. Van Nostrand Reinhold Co.,

1966. 7 Penjai Sompongchaiyakul’s unpublished data


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Figure 3: Distribution of total nitrogen (μM) in seawater along 2 transect lines in the Andaman Sea (February – April 2007).8

8 Penjai Sompongchaiyakul’s unpublished data


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1.1 Bio-geographical features Thailand is situated on the Southeast Asian mainland, between latitudes 5º 37′ N and 20º 27′ N and longitudes 97º 22′ E and 105º 37′E. The land area of the country is bound to the north by Myanmar and the Lao PDR, to the east by the Lao PDR and Cambodia, to the west by Myanmar, and to the south by Malaysia. The total land area is 513,115 km2, extending about 2,500 km from north to south and 1,250 km from east to west. The total length of coastline is 2,705 km, 1,840 km in the Gulf of Thailand and 865 km in the Andaman Sea. The total inland water area is 45,450 km2, among this 2,050 km2 are man-made reservoirs, 2,150 km2 are natural lakes, 1,250 km2 are rivers, and about 40,000 km2 are other types of freshwater bodies. There are 6 provinces on the Andaman Coast, namely: Ranong, Phang-nga, Phuket, Krabi, Trang, and Satun. This coast of Thailand has a narrow continental shelf and deepens offshore. Approximately 100,000 km2 constitutes the narrow sea shelf, which is about 108 km wide in the north (Ranong province), narrows down to 27 km in the middle (Phuket province) and widens again to about 130 km in the south (Satun province). The southern part area comprises of mangroves and seagrasses. The bottom for the most part of Andaman Coast in Thailand is sand, mud and coral remnants. Tidal currents and along shore flows dominate the water circulation along the Andaman Coast. The water movements vary with the monsoon period, nearshore surface water generally move northward during the northeast monsoon and southward during the southwest monsoon. The water of the northern region (Ranong to Phuket) has high salinity (32.9-33.4) due to deep sea upwelling, while the southern region (Phuket to Satun) has a lower salinity range (32.0-32.8) due to the influence of surface run-off. The temperature range along the Andaman Sea Coast is 27.6-29.3ºC. Along the coastal belt, it is marked by mangrove forest and seagrass meadows distribution.

On the northern stretch, the mangrove coverage ranges from 218 to 367

km2, whilst the southern stretch of mangrove areas ranges from 265 to 315 km2. The seagrass meadows along the coast cover an area of 79 km2. Fishes inhabiting mangroves and seagrass beds in the west coast of Thailand total 280 species, belonging to 75 families, of which 232 species (69 families) and 149 species (51 families) were found in mangrove and seagrass habitats, respectively. One hundred and one species (36%) were common to both habitats. This high biodiversity of the Andaman Sea is encountered from genes to individuals to species, habitats, and ecosystems. The coral reefs, mangroves, sea grass beds, marine lakes and deep sea valleys of the region form a constellation of diverse habitats that support a spectacular variety of flora and fauna. The concentration of the resources attracts people to live along the coast and depend on them to earn their living. The sea off the Phang-nga, Phuket, Krabi and Trang provinces is influenced by semi-diurnal tides of approximately 3 m in spring- and 1 m in neap- tides. The water circulation is tidally dominated by a major flow in a northeasterly direction. During the northeast monsoon, the surface and subsurface flow in nearshore zone appears to move northwards at a speed of 2-4 cm/sec, while during the southwest monsoon,


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the surface flows southwards at a speed of 5-8 cm/sec, gliding over a counter subsurface flow northwards of 2-5 cm/sec.9 The country has a population of approximately 66 million (in year 2010), of which around 9.5 million live in the capital city, Bangkok. The most important ethnic minority are Chinese. Other minority groups include Malays, Cambodians, Indians, non-Thai hill-tribes, and some Vietnamese. Immigration is controlled by quota system. The population growth rate was 0.63% in 2009. The birth rate is 13.38 births per 1,000 populations (2009 est.) and the death rate is 7.12 deaths per 1000 population (2009 est.). Over 33% of the population lives in urban areas. Thailand Gross Domestic Product (GDP) has been growing substantially over the last few decades. Between 1960 and the Asian crisis of 1997, GDP annual growth oscillated between 5 and around 10 percent per year. From 1988 to 1990 there was growth substantially higher than 10 %. The GDP10 of the country is shown in Fig. 4 given the period average (1952-2009) of 6.2%.

Figure 4: Gross Domestic Product (GDP) growth rate since 1960-2009.

9 Limpasaichol, P., Khokiattiwong, S. and Bussarawit, N. (1987) Assessing coastal water quality of

the Andaman Sea of Thailand. Proceedings of the 4th Seminar on the Water Quality and the Quality of Living Resources in Thai Waters: 309-320, July 7-9, 1987, National Research Council of Thailand (NRCT), Surat Thani, Thailand.

10 World Bank, The National Economic and Social Development Board of Thailand (NRSDB) (2009).


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1.2 Coastal activities Agricultural and fisheries are the main occupations of the Thai people (35%) and it is noteworthy that fisheries accounts for 2.5% of the total GDP. Fishing has a long history in Thailand and it is especially important for the people in the coastal provinces. The Thai fishing industry is one of the ten largest in the world. Ninety percent of total Thai fishery output is composed of marine fish. Thailand alone has produced about 943,000 tonnes in 200511 and about 710,000 tonnes in 2000. Of those 710,000 tonnes, 490,000 account for trawling (1,017 vessels), 184,000 for purse seine (415 vessels) and about 30,000 for gillnets. In comparison to the Gulf of Thailand, Fisheries in the Andaman Sea is, however, considered to be under-exploited status. The fishers fish to feed their families and supply the food market. Domestic consumption, approximately two thirds direct, and one third indirect, accounted for 70-80% of the total catch. Fish is the major animal protein source for Thai people. In 2001, the average yearly fish consumption was 32.4 kg per capita and provided on average 10-14 g of protein per capita per day. It provided 40.5% of animal protein sources and 17.6% of total protein. However, fish consumption may actually be higher because many caught fish were consumed directly in households without passing through the market. Thailand’s GDP was estimated at USD12 176.6 billion in 2005. In 2005, the population in the six provinces along the Andaman Sea coast was 2.036 million, and approximately 1% was fishers. The number of fisheries establishment was 20,703. The number of fishers during peak season was over 47,000 including about 30,000 family members and about 18,000 employees. Approximately 34% of the fishers have other parallel occupations, mostly in agriculture, such as in rubber orchards and the raising of livestock, but others are involved in small retail businesses with some working as employees. Total Gross Provincial Product (GPP) of the six provinces was USD 4,754.8 million of which 9.85% was for fisheries (Fig. 5). The GPP per capita was USD 2,335.

11 Review of Fisheries in OECD Countries 2009: Policies and Summary Statistics, OECD Publishing,

010 ISBN 9264079742. 12 Based on USD 1 = 40.22 Baht


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Figure 5: Gross Provincial Product (GPP) of the six provinces along the Andaman Sea coast. Fisheries have led to the development of related business concerns such as fishing ports, ice plants, freezing and processing factories and created employment not only for the local people but also for migrant workers, both Thai and foreign. In 2000, there were over 7,600 foreigners, most of them from Myanmar, working in Ranong, the frontier province. In addition, there were also undocumented migrant workers, with the highest percentage in Ranong province (5.48%) and the lowest in Satun province (0.08%).

The Andaman Sea, particularly the western coast of Malay Peninsula, is rich in coral reefs and offshore islands with spectacular topography, such as Phuket, Phi Phi Islands, Ko Tapu and islands of Krabi province. Therefore, tourism is also one of the most important sources of income in the area. It also supports small communities in coastal areas and islands by providing income alternatives far from urban centers. Even though having been devastated by the 2004 Sumatra earthquake and tsunami, the Andaman Coast remains popular tourist destinations. Despite providing economic benefits to the region, it has had a major role in the degradation of the coastal and marine environment.

Mineral resources in the sea include tin deposits off the coasts of Malaysia and Thailand. The coastline along the Andaman Sea, therefore, has for a long time been the tin bucket for the world. In a few last decades, tin is exploited by dredging the sea bottom and by land-based mining. The dredging operations were concentrated in the coastal areas of Ranong and Phuket. Earlier, the tailing effluents from inland mining operations were simply discharged directly into canals and rivers transporting large amounts of silt to the coasts, causing very turbid water over vast areas. Later, the Department of Mineral Resources had limited the direct discharge of suspended solids through installation of a pond or sand basin allowing suspended solids to settle before the water being discharged. When the tin market collapsed in the 1980s, due to falling prices and exhausted tin reserves on land and shallow offshore sites, local mining companies in Phuket and Phang-nga were forced to diversify. Many used their land holdings to develop resorts, hotels and golf courses and did not renew their mining licenses and rights. Today only one company, Tongkah Harbour PLC, remains with active legal rights to mine in the Andaman Sea. The company, which is a listed company at the Thai stock market, owns large land plots around Saphan Hin and they have earlier submitted plans to develop Phuket Bay. The increase in demand from developing countries has created a resurgence of the tin market (Fig. 6) resulting from higher consumption and depletion of resources in tin mining countries.13

13 http://www.khaolakecho.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=169:offshore-tin-

mining-along-the-coast-of-khao-lak&catid=47:focus-khao-lak&Itemid=64


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Figure 6: The world tin prices from January 1997 – April 2011.14 By 2008, Sea Minerals Ltd (a subsidiary of Tongkah) has filed mining plans for its previously submitted mining lease application in the Andaman Sea. Sea Minerals Ltd had conducted and obtained Environment Impact Assessment (EIA). The mining leases are located about 25 km offshore from the village of Bang Manang, Phang-nga province (Latitude 8º 50' N). The mining leases cover an area of approximately 8,000 hectares and contain around 163 million m3 of cassiterite (tin oxide) ore. Based on extensive exploration (1200 drill holes) results, the estimated amount of tin is around 41,460 tons at a cutoff grade of 0.15 kg cassiterite/m3, making it one of the largest unexploited tin deposits in the world. Recent technological breakthroughs in off-shore mining make it technically and commercially feasible to do mining in the offshore fields which are located at depths of 70 meters. It is now proposed to reactivate the project and finance the procurement of all required plant and equipment to exploit the deposit. The production will be at 2,000 ton/year (per operating dredge) of contained tin, and a mine life expectancy of at least 12 years.15 According to Sea Minerals Ltd, the mining will be done by large pumps fitted with externally mounted cutter agitators. The pumps are electrically powered and are mounted on remotely controlled crawler units, or positioned and moved by cranes mounted on the dredging vessel. The dredged ore will then be transported to a floating heavy mineral concentration plant utilizing a series of screens and jigs applying gravity concentrating methods to extract the tin minerals. It is claimed that no chemicals will be added to the natural environment in the process. The heavy mineral concentrate will be periodically transported to a shore based separation plant where the cassiterite, and other economically important mineral sand types such as rutile, ilmenite, monzanite, and zircon, will be concentrated and separated out. The concentrates will be shipped for refining. The dredging and concentrating 14 http://www.infomine.com/chartsanddata/chartbuilder.aspx?z=f&g=127674&dr=15y 15 http://www.andamantimes.com/phuket/andaman_tin_mining_plans/


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plant will work for around 250 day/year as dredging cannot be safely done during the monsoon season. The operating crews will be accommodated on a separate vessel.16 2. Overview of sources of pollution The water characteristics of the northern stretch of Thai coast, from Ranong to Phuket provinces, are influenced by deepsea upwelling resulting in high salinity and nutrients, while the southern stretch (Phuket to Satun) is influenced mainly by surface run-off resulting in a slightly lower salinity. The dissolved oxygen, pH and temperature values are fairly uniform along the coast. The southern waters are relatively well-mixed and having higher total suspended solids than the northern waters. A high primary production in the Andaman coast is resulted from surface water fertilization, mainly by mangrove run-off in the south stretch and by upwelling bottom water in the northern stretch. 2.1 Land-based (both point and non-point sources of pollution) The quality of seawater and sediment along the Andaman Coast is generally affected by land-based sources. The quality of seawater and sediment in the nearshore zone in dry season (end of the year) is better than in wet season. In 2009, Noctiluca scintillans was blooming along the Andaman Coast after storm and heavy rains in wet season. Most municipalities, industries and agriculture in Thailand discharge wastes into nearby waterways or reservoirs and usually not directly into the sea, not even large coastal cities such as Phuket province. The waste, however, will eventually reach the sea as part of loading by rivers. Therefore, phytoplankton and macroalgae blooms are usually occurring. Figure 7 illustrates the bloom of green algae, Ulva spp., on Laem Saparn Hin beach in Phuket province during May to August 2009.17 The six provinces along the Andaman Sea coast are among the most popular tourist destinations in the world due to a combination of pleasant climate, beautiful coastline and diving spots. Rapid development and the building of infrastructure have been encouraged by governments to support the large numbers of tourists visiting the region each year. This overcrowded urban development and uncontrolled conventional tourism has posed serious erosion and pollution discharges into the sea.

16 http://www.tongkahharbour.com/Tongkah/company_SML.html 17 Phuket Marine Biological Center (PMBC) 2009 Annual Report.


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Figure 7: A bloom of Ulva spp. on Laem Saparn Hin beach in Phuket province.18 2.2. Sea/Marine-based The Andaman Sea Basin is still considered frontier with respect to hydrocarbon exploration. Recent 2D seismic reprocessing has highlighted the potential of this area and has identified likely source, reservoir and seal intervals. In addition, recently acquired seismic data have revealed possible evidence of a large gas-hydrate prospect in the Andaman Sea, between India and Myanmar, which is estimated to contain as much as 6 trillion m3 of gas.19

Although there is no oil exploration and production in Thai’s waters of the Andaman Sea yet, there are petroleum production platforms located in the Myanmar’s waters, i.e. those of Yadana and Yetagun gas fields (Fig. 8). Exploration, production and pipelines operation, as well as accidents, can result in the spills of oil and gas into the Andaman Sea.

Currently, Sea Minerals Ltd is in constant contact with the local communities around the Ban Nam Khem area, Phang-nga. There is the firm believe, that this mining project will enhance the well-being, will offer employment for the local people and is an important industrial project for the local economy in total. Sea Minerals Ltd confirmed in February 2011 that the final stage of planning operations now concludes with the proposed agreement by two communities around Nam Khem to start the dredging operations.

However, the mining operation will cause seabed resuspension and elevated of seawater turbidity. As such there are a number of questions remain. For example, how will renewed deep water tin mining activities on such a huge scale affect the livelihoods of local people and how will it affect tourism which is the biggest industry in the area? The critical question and concern is what effect will it have on the

18 Phuket Marine Biological Center (PMBC) 2009 Annual Report. 19 Downey, M.W., Threet, J.C. and Morgan, W.A. (2001) Petroleum Provinces of the Twenty-first

Century, The American Association of Petroleum Geologists, USA.


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marine life? It is hoped that the government and industry has learned from the mistakes made 30 years earlier.

Figure 8: The Yetagun off-shore gas rig, located at the Andaman Sea in Myanmar water.20

2.3. Priority categories of parameters Pollution Control Department (PCD) has set up more than 200 monitoring stations in 23 provinces along the 2,600 km coastline and significant islands. Despite the rapid growth, the overall coastal water quality in the Andaman Sea were still in very “good” condition, except for the few areas which revealed slight concerns of dissolved oxygen and coliform bacteria levels. According to PMBC monitoring programs, some area of the Andaman coasts region has nutrient loading problems. Much of this pollution is associated with the urban development and tourism activities. In wet season, loading of agricultural tailwater and associated pollutants, nutrient and sediment through surface runoff into the coastal seawater run-off is considerable high. At the south end of Patong Beach is a polluted stream, at the north end of Patong Beach is a large drain pipe which probably takes water from the street drains into Patong Bay especially after raining. These situations cause an elevation of nutrient levels in the area which then induce phytoplankton bloom, particularly during December to February of every year. Moreover, high organic matter in untreated wastewater from urban area, such as Phuket town, discharged into the sea is a main course of dissolved oxygen depletion in coastal water. The nutrient released from oxidation process of the organic matter

20 Sources: http://kyspeaks.com/2007/06/04/ky-travels-yetagun-off-shore-gas-platform-myanmar/


13

induces plankton and algae bloom. In 2009, the bloom of Ulva spp. was found in the area of Laem Saparn Hin (Fig. 7). In Phuket, hotel and road construction, tourists getting in and out of the water and improperly treated wastewater that flows into the sea all have destroyed the water quality. However, some evidences occurring in Andaman coast may be caused by natural conditions. During January to April 2007, there were reports of massive fish-kill off Phi Phi and Hin Moung-Hin Dang Islands (Krabi province) and offshore of Satun province. Most of dead fishes and organisms were demersal species. Coinciding evidence during the period of massive fish-kill were algae and phytoplankton bloom along the Andaman coast, cool water mass was reported in many areas, and turbid water mass was reported in some areas. The species of plankton blooming was unusual including Ceratium spp., Trichodesmium spp. and Chaetoceros spp. etc. Although these phenomena occur every year during the beginning of the year, it was suspected that the intrusion of cool deep water mass, caused by internal wave, was pushed closer to the shore due to an unusual shallow depth of pycnocline layer in 2007. It is questionable that this unusual shallow pycnocline was a consequence or impact of global warming and climate change.21 Although tourism is an essential source of income for countries across the Andaman coast, many put that livelihood in jeopardy when they lose control of garbage collection. A popular tourist spot can represent a ‘paradise’ to visitors, but when it becomes too popular and no local garbage collection systems or the system collapse under the burden, ‘paradise’ can soon turn to an environmental hell. Amounts of plastics, which is non-biodegradable, use in packaging, bottles, toothbrushes, disposable lighters, netting and a thousand and one other items are increasing. Unlike organic rubbish, plastics will be around for a long time. When plastics are thrown into the sea, some of it will sink, but some may be ingested by the food chain and may end up on your plate. Marine floating garbage is posing a real threat to wildlife. Moreover, some plastics have the ability to absorb and concentrate poisonous chemicals such as DDT and PCBs - so that they are possibly a million times stronger than the amounts floating in the water.22 3. Existing water and sediment quality objectives and targets 3.1 National Seawater Standard In Notification of the National Environmental Board (NEB) No.7, dated January 20, B.E. 2537 (A.D. 1994), the NEB sets the water quality standard for each class, as well as defines the “coastal water” as the water seaward of the river mouth or lake including water surrounding an island in the sea. In 2007, Thailand by Marine Environment Section of PCD has revised the National Seawater Standard. The details of the Thai Coastal Water Standard are shown in Table 1. 21 Somkiat Khokiattiwong, PMBC,

http://map.seafdec.org/FixedFADs/documents/OceanographicAspectsofAndamanSea_Dec2009.pdf 22 Natural History, Vol. 112, No. 9, November 2009.


14

3.2 National Sediment Quality Guideline/Standard PCD is in the process of drafting the national sediment quality guideline/standard. The sediment guideline/standard will be developed based on the review of the Sediment Standard or Criteria which are already established by other countries. Previously, under the project UNEP-GEF, PCD had compiled the sediment standards and criteria based on Thai sediments quality data and the review of several Sediment Guidelines/Standards, i.e. US-EPA, Australia and Canada. The proposed criteria were finally using the values of US-EPA Sediment Quality criteria. In 2010, PCD has set up the Committee comprising national experts from organizations and universities to provide professional judgments on the draft Sediment Quality Standard. The National Sediment Quality Guideline/Standard of Thailand is expected to be established in 2011. 4. The National Program - Coastal Ocean Monitoring And Prediction System 4.1 Mapping hotspots along the coast From 240 PCD’s monitoring stations in 23 provinces along the 2,600 km coastline and significant islands, the results from the program that conducted monitoring 2 times/year (in summer and early raining season) during 2007-2009 showed about 60 % of coastal water quality ranges from “good” to “excellent”, while 30% was in “fair” condition , and 5% being “extremely deteriorated”. Compared to the data in the past, the coastal water quality has been significantly declining (Fig. 9), specifically in the areas into which the 4 main rivers are flowing. The concerned pollutants are total coliform bacteria (TCB) and high nutrients. The Western Seaboard, areas of tourist attraction sites, tiger shrimp and oyster culture, generally appeared to have “good” water quality. However, TCB levels in some particular areas where domestic wastewater discharged into the sea without treatment exceeded the standard. Water quality in most areas of the Eastern Seaboard was in “good” condition, except for high levels of nutrient (ammonia, nitrate, phosphate) and TCB at the areas of Lam Cha Bang Port and Map Ta Phut Industrial Estate. Despite the rapid growth, the overall coastal water quality in the Andaman Sea were still in very “good” condition, except for the few areas that revealed slight concerns of dissolved oxygen (DO) and TCB levels.


15

Table 1: Thai Coastal Water Quality Standards23

Parameter Units Standard Value for Class 1 2 3 4 5 6

Floatable solids – Not objectionable Color Forel-Ule scale Not objectionable Odor – Not objectionable Temperature oC from ambient ↑ <1 n ↑ <1 ↑ <2 pH – 7.0 – 8.5 Transparency – ↓ <10% of the lowest ambient value Suspended solids mg/l ↑ less than (average + standard deviation) Salinity – ↓ <10% of the lowest ambient value Floatable Oil & Grease not visible DDPH μg/l (chrysene eq.) <0.5 <1 <5 Dissolved Oxygen mg/l >4 >6 >4 Total coliform bacteria MPN/100 ml <1,000 Fecal coliform CFU/100 ml <70 <100 Enterococci bacteria CFU/100 ml – <35 – <35 – – Nitrate μg-N/l <20 <60 Ammonia μg-N/l <70 <100 <70 Phosphate μg-P/l <15 <45 <15 <45 Total Mercury μg/l <0.1 Cadmium μg/l <5 Total Chromium μg/l <100 Chromium (VI) μg/l <50 Lead μg/l <8.5 Copper μg/l <8 Manganese μg/l <100 Zinc μg/l <50 Iron μg/l <300 Arsenic μg/l <10 Fluoride μg/l <1 Residual chlorine μg/l – – – – <0.01 Phenols μg/l <0.03 Sulfide μg/l <10 Cyanide μg/l <7 PCBs μg/l nil TBT ng/l <10 Radioactivity α Gross β Gross (excl. K-40)

Bq/l Bq/l

<0.1 <1.0

Total organochlorine pesticides

Aldrin Chlordane DDT Dieldrin Endrin Endosulfan Heptachlor Lindane Others*

μg/l

<1.3 <0.004 <0.001 <0.0019 <0.0023 <0.0087 <0.0036 <0.16

Not detected * Include: Alachlor, Ametryn, Atrazine, Carbaryl, Carbendazim, Chlorpyrifos, Cypermethrin, 2,4-D, Diuron Glyphosate,

Malathion, Mancozeb, Methyl parathion, Parathion, Propanil

23 Notification of the National Environmental Board, No. 27, B.E. 2549 (A.D. 2006), issued under the

Enhancement and Conservation of National Environmental Quality Act B.E.2535 (A.D. 1992), published in the Royal Government Gazette, Vol. 124, Part 11d, dated February 1, B.E.2550 (A.D. 2007).


16

Table 1 (cont.)

Classification of Coastal Waters

Class Description 1 Preservation Areas 2 Coral Conservation 3 Water for Coastal Farms 4 Water Contact Sports 5 Industrial and Port Areas 6 Water Proximity Activities (near communities)

Figure 9: Percentage of Coastal Water Quality in along Thai Coastline, Gulf of Thailand and Andaman Sea, in terms of Water Quality Index between 2007 and 2009.24

24 PCD data

12

36

49

12

16

29

48

16

55

34

51

5

%

%

%

%

%

%

%

%

%

%

% ExcellentGoodFairDeterioratedExtremely deterioratedเเ

ดีดี

2007 2008 20090

100Unit %


17

Table 2 indicates the critical parameters and areas where the water quality does not meet the National Seawater Standard. Figure 10 shows the situation of coastal water quality in terms of water quality index along the Andaman coast in the year 2009. In 2002, PCD had established the Environmental Quality Index for Tourist Beach and Islands, so-called Beach Index25, to evaluate environmental conditions suitable for tourists. PCD conducted excessive survey throughout since 2003 for 4 components including (i) coastal water quality in term of total suspended solids (TSS) and TCB, (ii) amount of solid waste found on beaches, (iii) land use, and (iv) conditions of sand dune, beach erosion and coral reef. Results from the 2009 survey, 229 beaches, show the environmental quality was in “good” condition with a slight improvement in some areas. Six beaches had excellent conditions with clear and clean marine water, and had been classified as 5-star beaches (including Ao-Ka beach and Sam-Sao beach in Suratthani province; Ko-Rok beach and Bi-Lea beach (Hong island) in Krabi province; Koh Lidee in Satun province; and Tai-Mueang beach in Phang-nga province). There was almost no garbage in the community, on the beach and in the ocean. There were tourism facilities, e.g. direction signage, environmental campaign signage, relax area, toilet, etc. All of these were in good condition and compatible with the environment. The importance was there were activities for public to participate in keeping the clean beach e.g. garbage collection, planting tree, etc. Not only the beautiful beach that counted as a “5-star”, but also good management needs to be part of it. Table 3 indicates the beach status along the Andaman coast and the Gulf of Thailand in terms of beach index in the year 2009.

25 The standard of tourist beach comprises 4 components.

1) Environment and Pollution – the indicators are environment (air, noise, oil spill and oil & grease), cleanliness (garbage in the sea and on the beach), water quality (Total Coliform Bacteria and Suspended Solids),

2) Nature – the indicators are trees along beaches, sandbank, life on beach, sand color, 3) Management – the indicators are wastewater treatment from hotels, shops and community,

wastewater drainage management, garbage collection on the beach, areas allocated for activities, landscape management, community activities for beach improvement and development, tourism beach environment improvement projects, and participants satisfactory survey,

4) Safety-facilities and infrastructure – the indicators are the convenient of getting to and from the beach, tourism service, life and property safety management.


18

Figure 10: Coastal water quality in terms of Water Quality Index along Andaman coast in the year 2009.


19

Table 2: Critical Parameters and Areas along the Andaman Coast of Thailand26

Key Parameters Low – High Classification Critical Area

Floating Solid 9.2% (12/130)*

Straws, Plastic Bags, Plastic Bottles

Class 1 – 6 Ranong Phuket Krabi Trang Satun

Had Bang-Ben Had Surin, Had Kamara, Had Patong (Patong Beach Hotel, Patong Bay Hotel, Diamond Clift), Had Kata-Yai (South) Rai-Lay Bay Had Yong - Ling Park-Ba-Ra Fish Pier

Grease & Oil 2.3% (3/130)*

Oils - Pang-nga Phuket

Ban Tab-Lamu, Park Klong Tab-Lamu Bangrong Bay

D.O. 0.8% (1/130)*

3.88 – 7.92 mg/l Class 1, 3 – 6 ≥ 4 Class 2 ≥ 6

Ranong Had Chan-Dumri, Parknum Ranong**

NO3 7.7%(10/130)*

< 2 – 222.1 μg-N/l Class 1 – 2 ≤ 20 Class 3 – 6 ≤ 60

Ranong Pang-nga Phuket Trang Satun

Had Chan-Dumri, Parknum Ranong, Had Bang-Ben Ban Khow-Pi-Lai Had Patong (Patong Merrin**, Patong Beach Hotel, Diamond Clift) Had Somran (Central) Park-Ba-Ra Fish Pier

PO4 6.1%(8/130)*

< 1 – 769.4 μg-P/l Class 1 – 2, 4 ≤ 15 Class 3, 5 – 6 ≤ 45

Ranong Phuket Pang-nga Krabi Trang

Had Chan-Dumri, Parknum Ranong** Had Patong (Patong Merrin, Patong Beach Hotel), Had Mai-Kaw Ban Kug-Kuk Had Ton-Sai (Ton-Sai Village) Had Somran (Central)

TCB 8.5%(11/130)*

< 1.8 – 160,000 MPN/100 ml Class 1 – 6 ≤ 1,000 Ranong Pang-nga Phuket Krabi Trang

Had Chan-Dumri, Parknum Ranong** Ban Tub-La-Mu, Park Klong Tub-La-Mu, Ban Num-Kem Had Patong (Patong Merrin, Patong Beach Hotel) Had Noparat-Tara, Ban Saladan (Koh Lanta) Had Somran (Central)

26 PCD data


20

Table 2 (cont.)

FCB 12.3%(16/130)*

< 1 – 6,500 CFU/100 ml Class 1 – 3 ≤ 70 Class 4 – 6 ≤ 100

Ranong Pang-nga Phuket Krabi Trang Satun

Had Chan-Dumri, Parknum Ranong** Ban Tub-La-Mu, Park Klong Tub-La-Mu, Ban Num-Kem Had Patong (Patong Merrin) Ban Saladan (Koh Lanta) Had Somran (Central), Had Yong-Ling, Had Yao (South) Park-Ba-Ra Fish Pier, Ban Tung-Rin, Ban Park-Bang

Note: * Percentage of Monitoring Stations where key parameters exceeded the Coastal Water Quality Standards ** The Area where key parameters most exceeded the Coastal Water Quality Standards

Key Parameters Low – High Classification Type Critical Area

Enterococci 23.8%(31/130)*

<1 – 1,600 CFU/100 ml Class 2, 4 ≤ 45 Ranong Pang-nga Phuket Krabi Trang Satun

Had Chan-Dumri, Parknum Ranong ** Ban Tub-La-Mu, Park Klong Tub-La-Mu, Ban Num-Kem, Ban Kug-Kuk, Ban Bang-Neing, Ban Koh Ko-Kow Had Patong (Patong Merrin, Patong Beach Hotel), Bang-Long Bay, Chalong Bay (Central) Had Noparat-Tara, Ban Saladan (Koh Lanta), Loa-Ba-Gow Bay, Koh Phi Phi (East), Had Ton-Sai (Ton-Sai Village), Koh Phi Phi (West), Rai Lay Bay Had Park-Meng, Had Somran (Central) Park-Ba-Ra Fish Pier, Ban Tung-Rin, Ban Park-Bang

Fe 41.2%(14/34)*

< 8 – 2,824.85 μg/l Class 1 - 6 ≤ 100 Ranong Phuket Pang-nga Krabi Trang Satun

Had Chan-Dumri, Parknum Ranong** Pak-Klong Tha-Jene, Ban Koh Si-Lae, Bang-Rong Bay, Chalong Bay (Central) Ban Tub-La-Mu, Park Klong Tub-La-Mu, Ban Num-Kem, Ban Kug-Kuk, Ban Bang-Neing, Ban Koh Ko-Kow Had Chum-Chon-Ban-Sri-La-Ya, Koh Lanta (South of Had Klong-Kwang) Ban Bo-Muang Park-Ba-Ra Fish Pier, Ban Tung-Rin

Mn 5.3%(29/34)*

<2 – 160.85 μg/l Class 1 - 6 ≤ 300 Ranong Had Chan-Dumri, Parknum Ranong**


21

Table 3: Beach status in term of Beach Index in the year 2009.27

Province Index Beach Name Trad Kong Ra Han Ao Ta Au, Ta Kean, Ao Bon

Ban Cheurn, Sai Khao (Chang Island), Klong Prao (Chang Island), Kai Bae (Chang Island), Bai Lan (Chang Island), Bang Bao (Chang Island), Klong Chao (Good Island), Lan Sai, Sai Ngern, Klong Ma Nao, Tub Tim, Ao Bang Bao, Yai Kee (Good Island), Ao Prao (Good Island), Ao Suan Yai (Mak Island), Ao Ban Yai (Mak Island), Ban Ta Nauk, Tan Koo, Suk Sam Ran, Bai Tang, Klong Hin, Ta Pao, Ao Noi, Ao Ban Jak, Ploi Dang, Ko Kham, Ko Kra Dad, Ra Yang Nok

Ngam Kho (Good Island), Yai Kerd Rachagarun, Muk Kheaw, Ta Tin (Good Island), Loa Ya (Loa Ya Island), Ko Wai (Wai Island), Ao Khoa (Mak Island), San Chao (Rang Island)

Chan Ta Buri Ao Kung Wi Man Rayong Sang Chan, Su Cha Da, Son Kra Sib

Sai Kheaw (Sa med Island), Mae Rum Paung, Ao Prao (Sa Med Island), Ao Kiw (Sa Med Island), Ao Wai (Sa Med Island), Ao Chor (Sa Med Island), Sua Son, Pa Yuan, Pla, Nam Rin

Ko Ta Lu Chonburi Won Na Pa, Pattaya, Jom Tean, Na Jom Tean

Bang San, Ao Ang Si La, Ta Wan (Lan Island), Tam Pang (Si Chang Island), Bang Sa Re, Sa Mae (Lan Island)

Petchaburi Ban Bang Ket Prachuabkirikan Ta Keab

Hua Hin, Ban Krud Wa Ko, Lam Sa La, Wa Na Korn

Chumporn Tung Wua Lan, Bo Mao, Tung Sang, Nao, Pa Nang Tak (Na Cha Ang), Pak Nam Chum Porn, Sai Ree (Sa Wi), A Ru No Thai, Cor Son, Leam Cor Kwang, Tung Kai

Bang Berd, Leam Son, Tham Tong Suratthani Cha Waeng (Sa Mui Island), La Mai (Sa Mui Island), Cherng Mon (Sa Mui Island),

Mae Nam (Sa Mui Island), Bo Pud (Sa Mui Island), Yao (Pa Ngan Island), Mae Hard (Pa Ngan Island), Khom (Pa Ngan Island), Cha Waeng Noi (Sa Mui Island)

Tam Rang (Moo Ko Ang Tong) Ao Ka (Moo Ko Ang Tong), Sam Sao (Moo Ko Ang Tong)

Nakhorn Sri Thammarat

Hin Ngam, Pi Ti, Si Chon Nai Proa, Na Dan, Leam Ta Lum Pook, Bang Por, Kwang Pao, Jun Jang, Tong

Ching, Tong Nod, Pred, Prak Maeung, Chim La, Tung Sai Ranong Pra Pas, Ta Le Nok, Ao Keary

Bang Ben, Kwang Peeb (Moo Ko Pa Yam), Koa Kwai (Moo Ko Pa Yam), Ao Yai (Moo Ko Pa Yam)

Songkhla Ma Ha Racha Sa Kom, Pech Lee Lad, Bang Hoi Tong, Sing Korn, Kheaw Jun La Dit Sa Mi La, Muang Ngam, Sai Kheaw

Pattani Kae Kae, Pa Na Ra, Wa Su Kri, Lo Ka Por Narathiwat Na Ra Tat, Ao Ma Noa Satun Pak Ba ra, Chao Le, Son Mai, Pra Mong, Ao Pattaya, Ko Bu Lon Don, Ra Wai

Pan Te Ma La, Moa Lea, Lo Yu, Ko Khai, Tung Nui, Ao Ruer Bai, Ko Bu Lon Le Leam Son, Ko Bu Lon Mai Pai, Sai Khao Ko Li Dee

Trang Ban Chao Mai, Chang Lang, Ma Prao, San, Lo Yai, Yong Lam, Tung Ke, Ban Lam, Lao Leang, Lam Ju Hoy, Pe Tra, Sai Tong

Chao Mai, Yong Ling, Pak Meng, Racha Mongkol, Ko Gra Dan, Yoa, Bae Na, Yoa, Sam Ran, Wi Wa Tai Sa Mut, Ta Keang, Sai Yao

Krabi Klong Dao, Ao Nang, Rai Le, Lo Da Lam (Phi Phi Island), Yao (Phi Phi Island), Klong Top, Klong Nin, Ba Gun Teang, Pra Ea, Klong Kong, Nui, Klong Hin, Ao Nui, Ao Chong lad, Lang Kao

Nop Pa Rat Ta Ra, Klong Jak, Yoa, Ma Ya, Sai Leam Ta Nod, La Le Wak, Ko Mai Pai,

Bi Le, Ko Rok, Phuket Ao Por

Pa Tong, Ka Ron, Ka Ta, Ka Ta Noi, Nai Han, Ra Wai, Ko He, Ko Ra Cha, La Yan, Leam Sing, Ta La, Mai Khao

Ko Na Ka Phang Nga Tai Mueng, Ao Bo Le, Lo Pa Rat, Pi Lai, Ban Na Tai

Bang Sak, Ko La Wa Yai, Na, Lek (Meang Island), Ao Kaeug (Si Mi Lan Island), Lek

27 PCD data


22

4.2 Time series analysis and significant findings Since 2002, PCD has set up 240 monitoring stations in 23 provinces along the 2,600 km coastline and significant islands. In comparison of the data from 2002 to 2009, the coastal water quality has been slightly deteriorated. Water quality in the Inner Gulf of Thailand, into which 4 main rivers and several canals discharged, revealed high concentration of domestic pollutants. Very low DO level were found in the areas of the river mouth. The concerned pollutants are DO, TCB, FCB, Enterococci, nitrate-nitrogen (NO3

--N), phosphate-phosphorus (PO43--P), iron (Fe), manganese (Mn) and

oil & grease. Elevated concentrations of these pollutants were found in the stations near river mouth, tourist attraction sites and local settlement. The 2009 monitoring results were summarized in Table 4, while Fig. 11 shows percentage of coastal water quality in each condition along Thailand coastline from 2002 to 2009. Table 4: Summary of coastal water quality in the year 2009

Area Number of Station Summary of coastal water quality

Inner Gulf of Thailand 7 Water quality in all stations was highly deteriorated. The concerned parameters were DO, TCB, FCB, Enterococci, PO4

3-, NO3- and Fe.

East coast of the Gulf 77 Mainly in fair to good condition, but slightly degraded when compared with the previous year. Only Talad Nakue in Cholburi province and Laemchabang deep sea port are in deteriorated and highly deteriorated condition, respectively. The concerned parameters were Fe, FCB and Enterococci.

West coast of the Gulf 91 Mainly in fair to good condition, but slightly degrade when compared with the previous year. Only Klong Banlaem river mouth is extremely deteriorated. The concerned parameters were FCB, Enterococci, Fe and Mn.

Andaman coast 65 Mainly in fair to good condition, but slightly degraded when compared with the previous year. The concerned parameters were Enterococci, Fe and Mn.


23

Figure 11: Percentage of coastal water quality in each condition along Thailand coastline during 2002-2009.28 4.3 Role of Ministry of Environment and Ministry of Fisheries Department of Marine and Coastal Resources (DMCR), Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment (MoNRE) was given the mandate to develop appropriate regulations in order to achieve updated and effective managerial action with the objective of looking after the nation’s marine and coastal fragile and vulnerable resources including resources preservation, conservation aimed at sustainable use and rehabilitation. DMCR has proposed the new law, which emphasizes on the marine resources management, to enhance the community participation on using and managing of marine resources to the cabinet. It is under the processes of regulation. Phuket Marine Biological Center (PMBC) under Department of Marine and Coastal Resources (DMCR) is taking an important role of research to manage and improve of marine resources in the Andaman Sea. There are a number of national and international projects and programmes that have been going on since past few years to rehabilitate and collect information to assess the status of marine resources. 4.4 National Laboratories Most of the organization in the MoNRE has their own laboratories, i.e. Environmental Research and Training Center (ERTC) under Department of Environmental Quality Promotion (OEQP), Environmental Quality and Laboratory Section under PCD, and PMBC, etc. These laboratories conduct environmental monitoring programmes and research. According to the limitation of man-date of the organizations, some of the projects conducted by these organizations were outsourced. 28 PCD data


24

5. Present status of marine pollution: contaminant levels in water, sediments, fish and other biological resources

5.1 Eutrophication and nutrient dynamics; Chlorophyll; Suspended substances Total suspended solid and nutrient statuses of the coastal water in the year 2009 are summarized in Table 5. In all cases except the west coast of the Gulf of Thailand, suspended solids load to the coastal sea via river input was higher in rainy season than in summer. During low flow period, the nutrient supply particularly nitrogen from 4 major rivers runoff was limited and resulted in a low primary productivity in the upper Gulf of Thailand.29 The chlorophyll maxima depth in the Andaman Sea off coast of Phang-nga and Phuket provinces was found to exist at about 20-30 m depth, and found deeper offshore. Table 6 presents the concentration of nutrients, chlorophyll a and TSS off coast of Phang-nga and Phuket provinces in March 2008 (10 stations). These stations were further offshore than PCD’s stations. Chlorophyll a ranged from 0.047 to 0.408 μg/l, with an average of 0.103 μg/l. The water was clearer than in nearshore stations of PCD. Distribution of total nitrogen (TN) and total phosphorus (TP) in the Andaman Sea at various depths during February – April 2007 survey are shown in Figs. 12 and 13. Table 5: Total suspended solid and nutrient statuses in the year 2009.30

Parameter TSS (mg/l) DIN (μg/l) DIP (μg/l) N/P molar ratio

Inner gulf Summer Average 30.5 200 48.0 13.1 Min - Max 2.4 – 266 15.2 – 1,802 4.9 – 4,942 0.9 – 46 Rainy season Average 90.2 444 52.7 15.2 Min - Max 2.5 – 952 13.5 – 15,330 2.0 – 497 1.6 – 109 East coast Summer Average 11.6 95 38.2 34.1 Min - Max 2.5 – 77 14.0 – 593 1.8 – 620 0.3 – 178 Rainy season Average 67.7 71 9.2 19.2 Min - Max 4.6 – 992 8.7 – 574 1.9 – 43 1.2 – 94 West coast Summer Average 30.8 111 12.3 27.7 Min - Max 2.8 – 188 27.1 – 507 3.5 – 75 6.2 – 225 Rainy season Average 24.4 61 14.9 13.5 Min - Max 3.4 – 267 8.7 – 428 2.1 – 64 0.5 – 108 Andaman Summer Average 19.0 91 7.3 29.4 Min - Max 2.3 – 540 22.0 – 1,208 1.0 – 54 9.9 – 94 Rainy season Average 43.6 60 20.3 16.8 Min - Max 2.5 – 422 8.9 – 414 1.5 – 769 0.1 – 52

Note: DIN = dissolved inorganic nitrogen DIP = dissolved inorganic phosphorus

29 Associate Professor Dr. Thaithaworn Lirdwitayaprasit (personal communication) and the authors’

experiences. 30 PCD data


25

Table 6: Concentration of nutrients, chlorophyll a and total suspended solids off coast of Phang-nga and Phuket provinces in March 2008.31

Parameters Average Minimum – Maximum

TSS (mg/l) 5.0 2.4 – 14.3 DIN (μg/l) 148 119 – 231 TN (μg/l) 2,430 2,213 – 3,266 DIP (μg/l) 8.29 2.56 – 9.71 TP (μg/l) 24.7 17.7 – 38.3 DIN/DIP molar ratio 46.3 29.5 – 128 Chlorophyll a (μg/l) 0.103 0.047 – 0.408 Dissolved silica (μg/l) 76.1 40.3 – 107.8

5.2 Sediment quality Surface sediments at the water depth <200 m were mostly grayish olive color and containing high percentage of coarser particles (>63 μm) on the average of 62.9±15.2%, while the fine particles (<63 μm) were on the average of 37.1±15.2%. The sediment was low organic carbon content, but high in calcium carbonate (CaCO3) content, with the average of 0.47±0.24% and 33.5±13.8%, respectively. Ammonia, nitrite and nitrate-nitrogen were 103.5±38.8, 0.054±0.016 and 1.45±0.16 mg-N/kg dry weight, respectively. Average total phosphorus in sediments was 577.8±187.4 mg-P/kg dry weight. Approximately 89.9±10.8% of phosphorus in sediment was present in the phosphate form. 32 In Year 1999, surface sediment from 39 stations in Andaman Sea between Latitudes 6º 00' – 9º 51' N and Longitudes 95º 30' – 99º 36' E were collected, and were analyzed for total metals, calcium carbonate and organic carbon. 33 Figures 14 and 15 illustrate sediment texture, CaCO3 and organic carbon, and metal contents in surface sediment of the study area. The sediment offshore Ranong, Phang-nga, Phuket, and north of Krabi was coarser than sediment in the southern part, and also containing higher CaCO3. The sediment offshore south of Krabi, Trang and Satun contained higher organic carbon (Fig. 14) than those of the northern part. Higher cadmium was found in more offshore station, while zinc was found in oppositional situation. Higher lead and iron in sediment was found near Malacca Strait (Fig. 15).

31 Penjai Sompongchaiyakul’s unpublished data. 32 Sompongchaiyakul and Khokiattiwong (2008). Investigation of biogeochemical processes in the

Andaman Sea, Final Report SARCS Project No. 96/01/CW. 33 Penjai Sompongchaiyakul’s unpublished data.


26

Figure 12: Distribution of total nitrogen (μM) at various depths in Andaman Sea (February – April 2007).34

34 Penjai Sompongchaiyakul’s unpublished data.


27

Figure 12 (cont.)


28

Figure 13: Distribution of total nitrogen (μM) at various depths in Andaman Sea (February – April 2007).


29

Figure 13 (cont.)


30

Figure 14: Distribution of fine (<63 μm) and coarse (>63 μm or sand) grain particles, calcium carbonate and organic carbon in surface sediment of Andaman Sea off Thai coast in Year 2009.35



31

Figure 15: Distribution of cadmium (Cd) lead (Pb), zinc (Zn), iron (Fe) and manganese (Mn) in surface sediment of Andaman Sea off Thai coast in Year 2009.36



32

5.3 Contamination of mercury in fishes caught in the Andaman Sea Mercury (Hg) in white flesh of 94 specimens of 18 pelagic fish species obtained from fishery resources survey of M.V. SEAFDEC 2 Cruise No. 24-2/2007 using four different types of fishing gears (bottom vertical longline, bottom trawling, pelagic longline, and fish trap) during February to April 2007 in the Andaman Sea has been studied. Concentration of Hg (in μg/g wet weight) in white flesh is summarized in Table 7 and Fig. 16. 37 In the same species, Hg levels were found to be positively correlated with the fish sizes. According to the guidelines of Thai Ministry of Public Health (1986),38 Codex Alimentarius Commission (2005)39 and EU (2006)40, Hg level of 0.5 µg/g wet weight is permitted for all fishes except some predatory fish in which 1 μg/g wet weight is permitted. It was found that 33% and 8.5% of samples exceeded 0.5 and 1 μg/g wet weight, respectively. Figure 16 shows a comparison of Hg contamination in 18 pelagic fish species caught in the Andaman Sea during February to April 2007. A total of 199 specimens of 26 fish species obtained from fishery resources survey of M.V. SEAFDEC 2 Cruise No. 23-1/2007 using bottom trawling in the Andaman Sea (EEZ of Myanmar waters) during February to March 2007 were analyzed for total Hg. Concentration of Hg (in μg/g wet weight) in white flesh is summarized in Table 8 and Fig. 17.41 The results revealed that Hg concentration ranged from 0.026 to 0.539 μg/g wet weight with an average of 0.077 ± 0.055 μg/g wet weight, respectively. There were only two individuals of Epinephelus coioides, which weighed >2 times higher than the rest, having Hg level exceeding the Codex Alimentarius Commission (2005) and EU (2006) guideline limit of 0.5 μg/g. The rest (197 specimens) had Hg ranging from 0.026 to 0.208 μg/g wet weight with an average of 0.070 ± 0.033 μg/g wet weight, respectively. In the same species, Hg concentration in the flesh increased with the increasing of size. Figure 17 shows a comparison of Hg contamination in 26 fish species caught in the Andaman Sea during February to March 2007.

37 Apairat, H., Sompongchaiyakul, P., Laongmanee, P., Promjinda, S., Yoosuk, N. and Charnrajakij, I.

(2010). Assessment of mercury contamination in fishery resources of the Andaman Sea. In Proceedings of 2008 Marine Science Conference, 25-27 August 2008, Phuket, Thailand. (in Thai with English Abstract)

38 Food Quality Standard. Thai Ministry of Public Health Announcement, Vol. 98, dated January 21, B.E. 2526 (A.D. 1986).

39 Codex Alimentarius Commission (2005). Discussion paper on Guideline Levels for Methylmercury in Fish. CX/FAC 05/37/35. 37th Session, URL: ftp://ftp.fao.org/codex/ccfac37/fa37_35e.pdf, 20 August 2008.

40 EU (2006). European Commission Regulation (EC) No. 1881/2006 of 19 December 2006 setting maximum levels for certain contaminants in foodstuffs. Official Journal of the European Union, L 364/5 – 364/24.

41 Hantow, J., Sompongchaiyakul, P., Promjinda, S., Laongmanee, P., Khunthong, N. and Charnrajakij, I. (2010). Contamination of mercury in edible tissue of fishes from upper Andaman Sea. In Proceedings of 2008 Marine Science Conference, 25-27 August 2008, Phuket, Thailand. (in Thai with English Abstract)

ftp://ftp.fao.org/codex/ccfac37/fa37_35e.pdf


33

Table 7: A comparison of Hg contamination in white flesh of 18 fish species caught in the Andaman Sea during February to April 2007 by M.V. SEAFDEC 2 Cruise No. 24-2/2007.42

Scientific name Common name Hg (μg/g wet weight) Average ± SD min – max

Alopias pelagicus Pelagic thresher 0.849 0.849 Alopias superciliosus Bigeye thresher 0.642 ± 0.251 0.169 – 1.105 Brotula multibarbata Goatsbeard brotula 0.410 Hapologenys nitens Grunts 0.347 ± 0.206 0.033 – 0.660 Istiophorus platypterus Indo-Pacific sailfish 0.147 ± 0.061 0.088 – 0.230 Isurus oxyrinchus Shortfin mako 0.923 0.923 Lepturacanthus savala Savalani hairtail 0.902 ± 0.493 0.139 – 1.456 Makaira mazara Indo-Pacific blue marlin 1.165 1.165 Mustelus manazo Starspotted smooth-hound 0.226 ± 0.106 0.135 – 0.375 Nemipterus bathybius Yellowbelly threadfin bream 0.021 ± 0.001 0.020 – 0.023 Parupeneus heptacanthus Cinnabar goatfish 0.054 ± 0.014 0.036 – 0.071 Priacanthus macracanthus Red bigeye 0.049 ± 0.023 0.023 – 0.079 Saurida undosquamis Brushtooth lizardfish 0.037 ± 0.011 0.022 – 0.047 Sphyraena barracuda Great barracuda 0.400 ± 0.225 0.175 – 0.624 Squalus mitsukurii Shortspine spurdog 0.560 ± 0.245 0.111 – 0.978 Thunnus albacares Yellowfin tuna 0.180 ± 0.078 0.096 – 0.294 Trachinocephalus myops Snakefish 0.036 ± 0.015 0.017 – 0.054 Xiphias gladius Sword fish 0.281 ± 0.178 0.132 – 0.806

42 Apairat et al. (2010)


34

Figure 16: Box plot comparison of the median of mercury level in white flesh of 18 fish species, mainly pelagic fishes, caught in the Andaman Sea using 4 different types of fishing gears (bottom vertical longline, bottom trawling, pelagic longline, and fish trap) during February to April 2007 by M.V. SEAFDEC 2 Cruise No. 24-2/2007.43

43 Apairat et al. (2010)


35

Table 8: A comparison of Hg contamination in white flesh of 26 fish species caught bottom trawling in the Andaman Sea using bottom trawling during February to March 2007 by M.V. SEAFDEC2 Cruise No. 23-1/2007.44

Scientific name Common name Hg (μg/g wet weight)

Average ± SD min – max Alepes djedaba Shrimp scad 0.113 ± 0.086 0.031 – 0.203 Chrysochir aureus Reeve's croaker 0.060 ± 0.007 0.052 – 0.067 Cynoglossus cynoglossus Bengal tongue sole 0.050 ± 0.007 0.042 – 0.055 Decapterus russelli Indian scad 0.093 ± 0.034 0.055 – 0.121 Drepane punctata Spotted sicklefish 0.107 ± 0.026 0.079 – 0.130 Ephippus orbis Orbfish 0.099 ± 0.011 0.088 – 0.110 Epinephelus coioides Orange spotted grouper 0.519 ± 0.027 0.500 – 0.539 Nemipterus bipunctatus Delagoa threadfin bream 0.071 ± 0.018 0.046 – 0.103 Nemipterus japonicus Japanese threadfin bream 0.081 ± 0.027 0.055 – 0.153 Nemipterus peronii Notchedfin threadfin bream 0.080 ± 0.015 0.065 – 0.095 Nemipterus spp. Threadfin bream 0.079 ± 0.023 0.039 – 0.107 Parupeneus spp. Goatfish 0.099 ± 0.028 0.059 – 0.166 Pennahia macrocephalus Big head pennah croaker 0.073 ± 0.056 0.040 – 0.138 Pennahia anea Greyfin croaker 0.074 ± 0.019 0.053 – 0.091 Priacanthus macracanthus Red bigeye 0.069 ± 0.040 0.026 – 0.208 Pseudorhombus sp. Flatfish 0.109 ± 0.024 0.093 – 0.136 Rastrelliger karnagurta Indian mackerel 0.036 ± 0.007 0.028 – 0.042 Saurida elongata Slender lizardfish 0.035 ± 0.004 0.031 – 0.038 Saurida undosquamis Brushtooth lizardfish 0.052 ± 0.017 0.028 – 0.102 Saurida sp. Lizardfish 0.068 ± 0.051 0.037 – 0.126 Sphyraena forsteri Bigeye barracuda 0.088 ± 0.045 0.035 – 0.114 Sphyraena jello Pickhandle barracuda 0.071 ± 0.006 0.066 – 0.078 Trachinocephalus myops Snakefish 0.070 ± 0.023 0.042 – 0.131 Trichiurus lepturus Largehead hairtail 0.051 ± 0.006 0.044 – 0.056 Upeneus moluccensis Goldband goatfish 0.085 ± 0.019 0.064 – 0.099 Upeneus sp. Goatfish 0.090 ± 0.031 0.054 – 0.108

44 Hantow et al. (2010)


36

Figure 17: Box plot comparison of the median of mercury level in white flesh of 26 fish species caught in the Andaman Sea using bottom trawling during February to March 2007 by M.V. SEAFDEC2 Cruise No. 23-1/2007.45 6. Trans-boundary coastal pollution issues and concerns In the past, the oil spills in the Gulf of Thailand resulted from ships. However, since the demand of oil is increasing, the oil exploration in the area is also escalating. Most of the drilling in the Gulf of Thailand until now is natural gas, but in the future it will be more of crude oil, especially in the dispute area between Thailand and Cambodia. At the regional level, the ASEAN-OSRAP (Oil Spill Response Action Plan) was set up in 1993 by six ASEAN countries, namely Brunei Darussalam, Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Thailand and Singapore. The objective of the OSPAR Projects is to improve the capability of the ASEAN countries to deal with oil spill incidents based on

45 Hantow et al. (2010)


37

the ASEAN Oil Spill Response Action Plan (OSRAP). The focal point for the project is located at the Environment Impact Management Agency, Indonesia. The agency in Thailand is the Marine Department under the Ministry of Transport. Moreover, Cambodia, Thailand and Vietnam signed a Joint Statement on June 12, 2006 to protect the coastal waters and environment of the Gulf of Thailand from oil spills. The Joint Statement endorsed the tripartite intergovernmental “Framework Programme for Joint Oil Spill Preparedness and Response in the Gulf of Thailand”. The mission is to enhance national and regional capabilities on oil pollution prevention, preparedness and response through a Gulf-wide exchange of information, joint research and development projects, training, oil spill response exercises, and mutual assistance in response, collaborative arrangements, partnership building and implementation. At present, Myanmar’s government is implementing several international highways including ASEAN Highways which is connected the ASEAN member countries. In addition to linkages by highways, Myanmar also has to find ways to facilitate the maritime transportation network. As such the “Development of the Dawei Deep Sea Port Project” was presented to the Sixth BIMSTEC Ministerial Meeting, held in Phuket in 2004. The Dawei-Nyaw Byin International Deep Sea Port is expected to facilitate trade and commerce of freight forwarders and exporters within BIMSTEC region.46 Actually, if the Dawei project proceeds as planned, it might have environmental impacts, especially in the case that the deep sea port will be used for oil/chemical transportation. However, the project has just started in January 2011 and will be completed in 2015. Therefore, the project might change due to economic and politic situation.

7. International instruments, conventions, protocols and programs adopted and relevant to coastal and marine pollution, and the current status of their implementation in the country (including projects and programs supported by bilateral and multilateral agencies/institutions)

7.1 The Agenda 21 The Agenda 21 (Chapter 17) of the UN Conference on Environment and Development calling for “the protection of the oceans, all kinds of seas, including enclosed and semi-enclosed seas, and coastal areas and the protection, rational use and development of their living resources”, 1992 Thailand signed Agenda 21 on June 14, 1992 and has incorporated “sustainable development” principle into the Constitution, as well as the Policy and Perspective Plan for Enhancement and Conservation of National Environmental Quality (1997-2016) and the Five-Year National Economic and Social Development Plan. The government agencies, which are responsible for handling coastal and marine pollution, also launched a plan for coastal and marine protection. However, the plan has been discontinued. 46 Thein, C.C. (2008). Regional Cooperation in Transport: Myanmar Perspective on BIMSTEC, CSIRD

Discussion Paper No. 42, September 2008. Centre for Studies in International Relations and Development, India.


38

7.2 Global Programme of Action for the Protection of Marine Environment from land-

based Activities (GPA), 1995 Thailand has participated in GPA. However, the first time land-based activities have been investigated is in UNEP-GEF Project on “Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China and Gulf of Thailand”. This project was initiated by UNEP East Asia Seas Regional Coordinating Unit-UNEP EAS/RCU in 2002 and finished in 2006. One of six components of the project is “land-based pollution”, undertaken by the PCD, MoNRE. However, there was little follow-up after the project was finished. In 2005, Thailand had developed a National Plan of Action as framework for pollution management from land-based sources affecting the marine environment, with focus on the Gulf of Thailand, under the UNEP-GEF supported project. Very recently (2011), a National Action Plan for pollution management has been drafted, which covers the entire country and all sources of pollution. This Plan is still awaiting approval by the National Environment Board. 7.3 Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants, 2001 Thailand ratified the Convention on January 31, 2005 and already established the National Implementation Plan (NIP) of the Convention, as well as authorized Pollution Control Department as a National Focal Point. 7.4 London Conventions 1972 and its 1996 Protocol Thailand is neither a Party to this Convention nor its Protocol. 7.5 MARPOL (International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships,

1973 and the Protocol of 1978) Thailand agreed to be bound by its two annexes consisting of Annex I-the Prevention of Pollution by Oil, and Annex II-the Control of Pollution by Noxious Liquid Substances in Bulk since February 2, 2008. The Navigation in Thai Waters Act, 1913 was also amended to comply with MARPOL. 7.6 The International Convention on Oil Pollution Preparedness, Response and Co-

operation 1990 (OPRC) As a Party to the OPRC, Thailand has promulgated the Office of the Prime Minister’s Regulation on the Prevention and Combating of Oil Pollution, 1995, as well as joined the ASEAN-OSRAP (Oil Spill Response Action Plan) at regional level.


39

7.7 The Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal 1989 and Amendment 1995

Thailand ratified the Basel Convention on November 24, 1997 and it became enforceable on February 22, 1998. The Hazardous Substance Act was amended in order to conform to the Convention. 7.8 The East Asian Seas Programme The Regional Seas (RS) Programme was initiated by the United Nations Environment Programme-UNEP in 1974, after the 1972 United Nations Conference on the Human Environment in Stockholm. Currently, Thailand is a part of the East Asian Seas Programme that already has Action Plan for the Protection and Development of the Marine and Coastal Areas of the East Asian Region.47 7.9 The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea 1982 (UNCLOS) and

Agreement on Part XI Thailand signed the UNCLOS since 1982, but has not yet ratified. 7.10 The Vientiane Action Programme 2004-2010 (VAP) The Vientiane Action Programme 2004-2010 (VAP) was adopted and endorsed by the ASEAN Leaders during the 10th ASEAN Summit in Vientiane, Lao PDR, in 2004, following the Hanoi Plan of Action. Environmental cooperation is under the ASEAN Security Community (ASCC) and one of the key strategies of the ASCC is to promote environmental sustainability through environmental and natural resource management. The specific programme area and measures in the VAP on coastal and marine environment are as follows:

• Enhance inter-agency and inter-sectoral coordination at the national, regional and international levels for achieving sustainable development of the ASEAN's coastal and marine environment.

• Further expand and implement the ASEAN Marine Water Quality Criteria. • Implement the ASEAN Criteria for Marine Heritage Areas, and ASEAN Criteria

for National Protected Areas to establish a representative network of protected areas to protect critical habitats.

ASEAN member countries have jointly established the Marine Water Quality Criteria for the ASEAN Region which set values for an initial set of 17 parameters for the protection of aquatic life and human health are shown in Table 9.

47 Other countries participating in the Programme are Australia, Cambodia, China, Indonesia,

Republic of Korea, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore and Vietnam.


40

Table 9: Criteria for the ASEAN Region for the protection of aquatic life and human health.48

For Aquatic Life Protection

Parameter Criteria Values Note

Ammonia (NH3-N) 70 μg/l Cadmium 10 μg/l Chromium (VI) 50 μg/l Criteria value proposed by CPMS II

is 48 μg/l. The Meeting recommended to adopt 50 μg/l, following the existing national standards of member countries

Copper 8 μg/l As the proposed value 2.9 μg/l is too stringent, the Meeting agreed to use round-up value of 7.7 μg/l, the product of the lowest LOEC from a chronic study 77 μg/l for reproduction for Mysidopsis bahia and a safety factor of 0.1.

Temperature Increase not more than 2oC above the maximum ambient temperature

Cyanide 7 μg/l Dissolved oxygen 4 mg/l Lead 8.5 μg/l Mercury 0.16 μg/l Nitrate (NO3

--N) 60 μg/l A single criteria value should be derived for nitrate and nitrite combined in future.

Nitrite (NO2--N) 55 μg/l

Oil and grease 0.14 mg/l Other related parameter, e.g. PAHs, should be proposed in the future.

Total phenol 0.12 mg/l Phosphate (PO4

3--P) 15 μg/l (Coastal) 45 μg/l (Estuarine)

Tributyltin 10 mg/l Total suspended solids Permissible 10% maximum

increase over seasonal average concentration

For Human Health Protection

Parameter Criteria Values Note

Bacteria 100 faecal coliform/100 ml 35 enterococci/100 ml

Coastal water quality for recreational activities

48 Source: http://www.aseansec.org/cme/Marine%20Water%20Quality%20Criteria%20for%20the%20 ASEAN%20Region.pdf


41

8. Policy, economic instruments and legal mechanisms for pollution control In Thailand, different agencies are responsible for coastal zones under their own mandates. The National Environmental Board is the main body to determine the national coastal resource and environment policy. The Pollution Control Department is the main responsible agency for marine environmental protection. Other agencies include: Department of Local Administration, Department of Fisheries, the Royal Forestry Department, the Marine Department, Department of Industrial Work, the Royal Navy, Department of Marine and Coastal Resources, and the Office of Natural Resources and Environmental Policy and Planning. Coordination takes place through the committees in which concerned agencies are members. At policy level, there is the National Environmental Board. At the planning and operational level, coordination is facilitated primarily through the Office of Natural Resources and Environmental Policy and Planning and the Pollution Control Department. The following are the related laws for coastal waters pollution control. 8.1 The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act and rules 8.1.1 The Navigation in Thai Waters Act, 1913 This Act prohibits any person to discard or cause49:

• rocks, gravel, silt, mud, detritus, things, solid waste, sewage, in public watercourses such as rivers, canals, swamps, reservoirs, or lakes, which are used for navigation or public use, and may cause sedimentation, or filthy, except such person receives permission from the Marine Department.

• oil and chemicals or things, in public watercourses such as rivers, canals, swamps, reservoirs, or lakes, which are used for navigation or public use that may result in toxicity in living resources and environment, or endanger the navigation.

• gasoline or water mixing with gasoline to leak into harbor, public watercourses such as rivers, canals, swamps, reservoirs, or lakes, which are used for navigation.

8.1.2 The Factory Act, 1992 The Factory Act empowers the Ministry of Industry to issue regulations imposing limits on the effluent discharge by a factory50 and restricting concentration levels of

49 cause/trigger/source – such person doesn’t throw away the mentioned things intentionally, but may

indirectly cause it, such as, from construction site, or dock. It has to be an action that doesn’t throw things into watercourse directly, but finally these thing found its way to the watercourse.

50 Section 5 of the Factory Act. “Factory” means a building, place, or vehicle which uses a machine from five horsing powers or an equivalent thereof or more or which employs seven workers or more with or without any machine for manufacturing, producing, assembling, filling, repairing, maintaining, testing, improving, altering, transporting, keeping, or destroying anything in accordance with the type or kind of factory as provided for in a ministerial rule. However, government-owned factories and other facilities are exempt from the provisions of this Act.


42

chemical and/or metal pollutants within defined parameters. If the authority51 finds out that any person engaging in a factory business:

• violates or fails to comply with this Act, or • engages in a factory business in such a manner as to cause harms, injuries or

troubles to the persons or property in the factory or its vicinity, the authority has the power to order such person to stop such violating act or to correct or improve or conform correctly or properly within the specified period. If it is appropriate, upon approval of the Permanent Secretary of the Ministry of Industry or a person assigned by the Permanent Secretary, the authority have the power to bind and stamp on the machines to prevent them from operating during the compliance with the order of the authority.52 8.1.3 The Fishery Act, 1947 The objective of the Fisheries Act is to protect the water resources, which characterize as the fishing areas. According to Section 19, it prohibits any person:

• to throw away, discharge, or do anything, which results in the toxic substance (according to the Government Gazette) presents in the fishing area.

• commit an act which causes aquatic animals disorientate. • to throw away, discharge, or do anything, which results in presenting of

substance in the fishing area and may harm the aquatic animal or pollute the fishing area, except for the scientific experiment and the authority allows.

8.1.4 The Petroleum Act, 1971 Ministry Notification Number 5 (B.E. 2514), which was issued under this Act, states that to prevent damage to property or other people, the concessionaires must apply the necessary precautions to prevent any petroleum, saltwater, drilling mud or other waste to contaminate natural groundwater or surrounding area. If there is contamination because of the drilling, the concessionaires must remedy the contamination as soon as possible. Failing to do so, the concessionaires must be liable to fine not exceeding one hundred thousand baht.

51 “Authority” means a person appointed by the Minister of the Industry for the execution of the

Factory Act. 52 Section 37 of the Factory Act. See also Section 42 of the Factory Act. If the person engaging in the

factory business fails to comply with the order of the authority under Section 37, and there is a ground for the government to take over the operations, the permanent secretary or a person assigned by the permanent secretary has the power to order the authority or to assign any person to rectify for the implementation of such order. In this respect, the person engaging in the factory business must bear the expenses for such takeover for the amount actually paid together with the penalty at the rate of thirty percent per annum of the said amount. If the Government has undertaken to solve the pollution problem or the impact on the environment caused by the factory, it could request a subsidy from the Environment Fund under the law on the NEQA to pay for its operation and upon receipt of the money under paragraph one from the person engaging in the factory business, the government must reimburse for the subsidy obtained to the Environment Fund.


43

8.1.5 Office of the Prime Minister’s Regulation on the Prevention and Combating of Oil Pollution, 1995

The Committee on the Prevention and Combating of Oil Pollution established under the Prime Minister’s Regulation had developed the Oil Spill Response Plan (Fig. 18). The plan deals with oil spills that occur in inland waters, port limits, coastal areas and at sea, both in the territorial sea and the exclusive economic zone, as well as, pursuant to requirements of the OPRC.

Figure 18: Flowchart of the Committee on the Prevention and Combating of Oil Pollution Approach. The Marine Department assumes the role of the Coordination Center, with the Director-General as Director of the Center. The Coordination Center has the following duties:

• Notification of the concerned agencies for the purpose of establishing the Command Center and terminating the response operation when completed;

• Reporting of the operation to the Committee; • Dissemination of pertinent information to media; • Coordination of activities with concerned agencies; • Gathering evidence for legal action against polluters for a compensation claim

of clean-up cost The Command Center is operated by the Marine Department or the Royal Thai Navy. If the spill occurs in rivers, estuaries, lakes and port limits, a representative from the Marine Department acts as the Director of the Center. If the incident occurs at sea outside the port limits, a representative from the Royal Thai Navy acts as the Director of the Center.

Committee on the Prevention and Combating of Oil Pollution

Coordination Center

Command Center

Operational Unit

Support Unit

means order line means coordination line


44

The Command Center has the following responsibilities:

• Development of action plan and determination of response strategy; • Direction, coordination and issue of command to achieve efficient oil spill

response operation and minimal environmental damage; • Reporting of the progress of the operation to the Coordination Center

periodically; • Coordination with the Coordination Center for additional response resources.

The Operation Unit consists of representatives from the Marine Department, the Royal Thai Navy, the Provincial Administration, Bangkok Metropolitan Administration and Oil Industry Environmental Safety Group Association. The Support Unit consists of the Air Force, the Army, the Marine Police, Department of Aviation, Meteorological Department, Office of Natural Resources and Environmental Policy and Planning, Pollution Control Department, Fisheries Department, Department of Marine and Coastal Resources, Customs Department, Department of Treaties and Legal Affairs, the Comptroller-General’s Department, Office of Permanent Secretary of the Ministry of Transport, Bureau of Royal Rain-Making and Agricultural Aviation, National Park, Wildlife and Plant Conservation Department, Immigration Bureau, Department of Disaster Prevention and Mitigation, Department of Mineral Fuels, Department of Industrial Works, Port Authority of Thailand, the CAT Telecom. 8.2 The Environment (Protection) Act and rules 8.2.1 The Enhancement and Conservation of National Environmental Quality Act,

1992 The Act is the major legislation of environmental protection. It includes the establishment of water quality standards, effluent standards from point sources, pollution control area, as well as EIA process. 8.2.2 Related Policies on Marine Environment

a) The National Economic and Social Development Plan has some component on restoration of natural resources.

b) The National Marine Security Plan 2005-2009 focuses on the utilization of marine environment.

c) Master Plan on Marine and Coastal Resources Management initiated by Department of Marine and Coastal Resources.

8.3 Water quality standards The details of the Thai Water Quality Standard are shown in Table 10, where as the details of Coastal Water Quality Standard are shown in Table 1 of section 3.1.


45

Table 10: Thai Surface Water Quality Standards.53

Parameter Units Standard Value for Class 1 2 3 4 5

Color – naturally – Odor – naturally – Taste – naturally – Temperature oC Naturally but changing <3 oC – pH naturally 5 – 9 – Dissolved Oxygen mg/l naturally >6 >4 >2 – BOD5 (5days, 20oC) mg/l naturally <1.5 <2.0 <4.0 – Total coliform bacteria MPN/100 ml naturally <5,000 <20,000 – – Fecal coliform MPN/100 ml naturally <1,000 <4,000 – – Nitrate mg-N/l naturally <5.0 – Ammonia mg-N/l naturally <0.5 – Phenols mg/l naturally <0.005 – Copper mg/l naturally <0.1 – Nickel mg/l naturally <0.1 – Manganese mg/l naturally <1.0 – Zinc mg/l naturally <1.0 – Cadmium mg/l naturally <0.005*

<0.05** –

Chromium (VI) mg/l naturally <0.05 – Lead mg/l naturally <0.05 – Total mercury mg/l naturally <0.002 – Arsenic mg/l naturally <0.01 – Cyanide mg/l naturally <0.005 – Radioactivity α Gross β Gross (excl. K-40)

Bq/l Bq/l

naturally naturally

<0.1 <1.0

–

Total organochlorine pesticides

mg/ naturally <0.05 –

DDT μg/l naturally <1.0 – α-BHC μg/l naturally <0.02 – Dieldrin μg/l naturally <0.1 – Aldrin μg/l naturally <0.1 – Heptachlor & Heptachlorepoxide

μg/l naturally <0.2 –

Endrin μg/l naturally none –

Classification and Objectives

Class Objectives/Condition and Beneficial Usage 1 Extra clean fresh surface water resources used for: (1) conservation not necessary pass through water

treatment process require only ordinary process for pathogenic destruction; (2) ecosystem conservation where basic organisms can breed naturally

2 Very clean fresh surface water resources used for: (1) consumption which requires ordinary water treatment process before use; (2) aquatic organism of conservation; (3) fisheries; (4) recreation

3 Medium clean fresh surface water resources used for: (1) consumption, but passing through an ordinary treatment process before using; (2) agriculture

4 Fairly clean fresh surface water resources used for: (1) consumption, but requires special water treatment process before using; (2) industry

5 The sources which are not classification in class 1-4 and used for navigation.

53 Notification of the National Environmental Board, No. 8, B.E. 2537 (A.D. 1994), issued under the

Enhancement and Conservation of National Environmental Quality Act B.E.2535 (A.D. 1992), published in the Royal Government Gazette, Vol. 111, Part 16, dated February 24, B.E.2537 (A.D. 1994).


46

8.4 Environmental Impact Assessment and Strategic Environmental Assessment Environmental Impact Assessment and Strategic Environmental Assessment (EIA/SEA) for clearance and approval of projects are required for the projects or activities that have potential impacts on the water quality and coastal and marine environment in general. The projects or activities that require EIA report are shown in Table 11. Table 11: Projects requiring EIA report. (a) Industry Types Projects or Activities Size Industrial Estate as defined by the Industrial Estate Authority of Thailand Act or projects with similar feature

All sizes

Industries Petrochemical Industry

Using raw materials which is produced from oil refinery and/or natural gas separation with production capacity of ≥ 100 ton/day

Oil Refinery All sizes Natural Gas Separation or Processing Industry All sizes Chlor-Alkaline Industry requiring sodium chloride (NaCl) as raw material for production of sodium carbonate (Na2Co3), sodium hydroxide (NaOH), hydrochloric acid (HCl), chlorine (Cl2), sodium hypochloride (NaOCl) and bleaching powder

Production capacity of each or combined products of ≥ 100 tons/day

Iron and/or Steel Industry Production capacity of ≥ 100 tons/day or more Cement Industry All sizes Smelting industry other than Iron and Steel Production capacity ≥ 50 tons/day Pulp Industry Production capacity ≥ 50 tons/day Sugar industry • Cane sugar, pure cane sugar • Glucose or other product similar

• All sizes • Power produce chemical substance each type

> 20 ton per day Liquor, alcohol (including beer and wine) industry • Liquor, alcohol industry • Wine industry • Beer industry

• Production capacity ≥ 40,000 liters/month (at 28 degree)

• Production capacity ≥ 600,000 liters/month • Production capacity ≥ 600,000 liters/month

Pesticide Industry or Industry producing Active Ingredient by chemical process

All sizes

Chemical Fertilizes Industry using chemical process in production

All sizes

Adjust quality waste industry according to Factory Act

All sizes


47

Table 11 (cont.) (b) Residential Building and Service Community Types Projects or Activities Size

Building in areas adjacent to rivers, coastal areas, lakes or beaches or in the vicinity of National Parks or Historical Parks that might affect the environmental quality

• Height of 23 meters or more; or • Total floor area or any floor area in the

building is 10,000 square meters or more

Building used for selling merchandise

Building used as an office Residential Building as defined by the Building Control Act

• 80 rooms or more; or • Total floor area 4,000 square meters or more

Land allocation for residential or commercial purpose

• 500 land plots or more; or • Total developed area exceed 100 rais

(16 hectares ) Hotel or Resort facility according to the law • 80 rooms or more; or

• Total floor area 4,000 square meters or more Hospital which located a) in area adjacent to rivers, coastal areas,

lakes or beaches (within 50 meters) b) in area other than (a)

• In-patient's bed of 30 bed or more • In-patient's bed of 60 bed or more


48

Table 11 (cont.) (c) Transportation Types Projects or Activities Size Commercial Airport • Construction or enlarge of airport or

temporary air-strip • Water airport

• The length of runway 1,100 meters or more • All sizes

Commercial Port • With capacity for vessels of 500 gross tons or more; or

• The length of port 100 meters or more; or • Port area 1,000 square meters or more

Recreational boat harbor • With capacity for vessels of 50 boats or more; or

• Harbor area 1,000 square meters or more Mass Transit System under the Mass Transit System and Expressway Act or project as the same characteristic or Mass Transit which use rail

All sizes

High way or road as defined by the Highway Act, passing through following areas • Wildlife Sanctuaries and Wildlife Non-

Hunting Areas as defined by Wildlife Conservation and Projection Act

• National park as defined by the National park Act

• Watershed area classified as class 2 by the Cabinet Resolution

• Mangrove Forests Designated as the National Forest Reserve

• Coastal Area within 50 meters from the Maximum Sea Level

• Area in or near (within 2 kilometers) Ramsar Site, World Heritage Site where registered under the international conventions

• Area within 2 kilometers of archaeological or historical site according to the law

All sizes

Coastal reclamation All sizes Construction or enlarge the construction at or in the sea • Beach-wall • Groin, jetty, barrier • breakwater

• 200 meters long or more • All sizes • All sizes


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Table 11 (cont.) (d) Energy Types Projects or Activities Size Thermal Power Plant Capacity 10 MW. or more Development Petroleum • Survey or produce petroleum • Transport petroleum and fuel oil pipe way

All sizes

(e) Water resource Types Projects or Activities Size Dam or Reservoir Storage volume 100,000,000 cubic meters or

more or storage surface area 15 square kilometers or more

Irrigation Irrigated area of 80,000 rais (12,800 hectares) or more

(f) Watershed area Types Projects or Activities Size All types of projects located in the areas where it has been approved by the Cabinet to be watershed area as class 1 B

All sizes

(g) Mining Types Projects or Activities Size Mining as defined by the Mineral Act All sizes

8.5 Other instruments and key sectoral policies (e.g., Agricultural policy dealing with

fertilizer and pesticide use and/or integrated pest management/ organic farming, Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM))

Presently, there has been a campaign to reduce pesticide use. However, it was never taken seriously by the government agencies. There also has been an attempt to manage coastal area by using ICZM approach, but it has never been realized by government sector. Indeed, due to political and financial instability, environmental problem is the government’s lowest priority. 8.6 Market-based instruments – environmental levies, taxes, subsidies, incentives,

etc. Although, according to the law, government agencies could charge wastewater and waste fee, the fee is very low that it couldn’t support the running cost of system. In fact, in some areas the fee hasn’t been charged for political reason.


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9. Institutional Mechanisms for pollution control and enforcement of existing policies and legislations

9.1 Pollution Control Board – at central, regional/state and local levels their

mandates, operational structures and inter-linkages and who does quality control and who ensures enforcement of policies and legislations

The main government agency responsible to pollution control is Pollution Control Department (Fig. 19). This Department establishes the environmental quality standard and the effluent standard according to the Enhancement and Conservation of National Environmental Quality Act, 1992. However, the duty to enforce in most circumstances depends on other agencies, such as Department of Industrial Works – factory, Local Administration for local pollution problems or policeman for every pollution problems. Therefore, the enforcement is still the main issue in Thailand.

Figure 19: Pollution Control Department Organization Chart.

Pollution Control Department

Director General

Deputy Director General (2)

Environmental Quality and Laboratory Division

Water Quality Management Bureau

Office of the Secretary

Air Quality and Noise Management Bureau

Inspection and Enforcement Division

Legal Division

Planning Analysis and Evaluation Division

Waste and Hazardous Substance Management

Bureau

Management System Development Group


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10. Gaps 10.1 Information/Data The collection of information/data is sparse, because:

• Different government agencies responsible to the same or overlap issue. • It depends on annual budget. • The information/data is not collect systematically. When the responsible

personnel transferred, the information/data sometimes lost. 10.2 Policies and legislation Abuse of administrative power and inadequate public participation in the decision-making process resulted in gap between government agencies and the people, as well as, undermining trust and confidence in Thai society. As state above, because of political instability, the environmental problem is given a low priority by Thai politician. 10.3 Implementation issues (capacity constraints both human, technical/infra-

structure) Due to increasing public debt and fiscal stress, Thailand has encountered constraints in rising social awareness over the environmental problems and environmental regulations. Nonetheless, the lack of concern by Thai politician on environmental protection is the main obstacle to environmental movement. 10.4 Report card of pollution status to public Office of Natural Resources and Environmental Policy and Planning reports the state of environment every year54. The latest report is the State of Environment 2009. Nevertheless, the report doesn’t make the priority list of problem or imposes the involved agencies to lessening the pollution.

54 Office of Natural Resources and Environmental Policy and Planning will gather data from other

related departments, including PCD, to write a State of Environment yearly report, which is usually released two years late. The data from responsible agencies which were mentioned previously in this National Report (on Coastal Pollution Loading and Water Quality Criteria of Thailand) are more up-to-date than data in the State of Environment report. The monitoring data of coastal water by PCD are reviewed in section 5 of this report.


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11. Priority actions and Remedial measures required 11.1 National level The climate change has exacerbated the degradation of natural resources and environment and affecting the agricultural production, food and fuel security. Therefore, the related plan/policy concerns the coastal area should consider the climate change issue. 11.2 Regional/State level Although, ASEAN have been established for sometimes, the environmental cooperation is still slow comparing to trade issue. To protect coastal environment, there must be more meaningful collaboration between ASEAN members. 11.3 Local level The lack of budget and expertise in local administration, even though there has been the decentralization process for ten years now, are the main impediment for local government to protect environment. 12. Summary and Conclusions The coastal pollution will be increasing for certain. Unfortunately, intensification of tourism and sea-transportation will escalate pollution on coastal area in most ASEAN countries. The pollution is also seen as national problem rather than regional issue, which is not true for coastal pollution. As a result, every nation must mitigate coastal pollution as well as cooperate within the region to prevent transboundary pollution.

Documents

Annex 1: Pollution Country Report of Thailand › documentRepository › BOBLME-2011...List of Acronyms (v) 1. The Bay of Bengal Coast of Thailand 1 1.1 Bio-geographical features 5