Anneliese Gray 3081771- Assignment EDUC4064

Research and Presentation of a Learning Difficulty

Identification of Learning Difficulty- Spelling Lower/Middle Primary

Students with a spelling learning difficulty find the task of spelling incredibly difficult and become

frustrated by their inability to write correctly the words that they can use easily in speech (Westwood,

2005).The experience of failure can make these students vulnerable to stress, often resulting in avoidance-

type and ego-defensive type behaviours. These students also have a lack of motivation and their

confidence is undermined (Poskiparta, Niemi, Lepola, Ahtola & Liane, 2003). These students are not

necessarily of low intelligence and are sometimes labelled by educational psychologists as ‘learning

disabled’ or ‘dyslexic’ (Westwood, 2005). These students require much more explicit, extensive and

structured teaching and their spelling developmental level is often reflected by the processes they have

been directly taught (Graham, Harris and Loynachan, 1996).

Fulk and Stormont-Spurgin (1995) indicate the weaknesses evident in the spelling of students with learning

difficulties or learning disabilities may be related to underlying problems with visual processing (reversals

of letters and words, incorrect letter order, letters added or omitted), phonological awareness (auditory

processing deficiencies-sounds not know, sounds omitted, sounds added, confusion of similar sounds)

(Foreman, 2005), language, memory and inefficient learning strategies. However inadequate or insufficient

instruction may also cause poor spelling.

Description of Specific Characteristics Relating to a Spelling Learning Difficulty

Students need to be taught how to spell through formal, explicit, systematic and sequential instruction

within an integrated language environment (Gibb, 2006).

Learning to spell involves the following types of spelling knowledge and abilities:

Visual imagery (Visual skills)-Being able to remember a word from its visual pattern or from groups of

letters within it.

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Anneliese Gray 3081771- Assignment EDUC4064

Phonological Knowledge (Auditory skills)- Being able to identify the separate sounds that occur within a

word and then being able to represent these sounds with letters.

Morphemic Knowledge (Thinking skills)-The understanding of the meaning or function of words, or parts

of words. The way words can be added to with prefixes and suffixes.

Etymological Knowledge (Thinking skills)- Involves an understanding of the origins and history of words .

Kinaesthetic imagery- Using the physical memory of the feeling when saying different sounds and words,

and when writing the shapes and letters and words. This relates to tactile perceptual awareness (Gibb,

2007).

These different spelling abilities and knowledge must be well coordinated for a student to become a

proficient speller. Learning is much more likely to generalise to other words when phonemic and

morphemic information is combined with visual information. (Dixon, 1991). Students with a spelling

learning difficulty may rely much more heavily on one ability and may need to be explicitly taught other

skills to accurately construct words (Westwood, 2005). In addition, students with a spelling learning

difficulty will need additional support and explicit teaching to assist them to gain the knowledge, skills and

strategies they need to become effective spellers. Guided spelling sessions which involve planned

instruction that has been carefully matched and sequenced to meet the specific spelling needs of the

group or individual is the most significant opportunity for improvement. Students should also participate in

whole class modelled spelling demonstrations and independent spelling tasks (NSW Department of

Education and Training Curriculum Support Document, 1998).

The following table shows examples of difficulties experienced by students and the possible intervention

strategy for students is lower primary.

Knowledge/Ability Difficulty/Problem Intervention / Activity

Phonological

Knowledge

Problems

segmenting spoken

words into separate

units of sound

E.g. Los instead of

Picture sorting: Categorisation task of grouping

pictures with similar sound features (initial

consonant sounds, consonant blends or

diagraphs, rhyming families or vowel sounds

(New South Wales Department of Education

and Training, 2000).

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Anneliese Gray 3081771- Assignment EDUC4064

lots

Word Sorts: Identifying recurring patterns and

contrasting features within target word groups.

Word families:

(NSW DET, 2000)

Accurate

identification of the

sounds

Elkonin Boxes:

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Anneliese Gray 3081771- Assignment EDUC4064

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Anneliese Gray 3081771- Assignment EDUC4064

(NSW DET, 2005)

Morphemic

Knowledge

Poor awareness of

morphemic

knowledge.

E.g. Screamd instead

of screamed.

Cald for called.

(NSW DET, 2000)

A word web (NSW DET, 2000)Visual

Knowledge-

Irregular words

cannot be spelled

by relying on the

sounds e.g. said.

Note: Mastery is

reached when a

word is correct in

a test or student’s

writing, three

times in

Students progress to

the phonetic stage of

spelling (see

Appendix 1 and are

unable to use visual

imagery. They

remain overly

dependent on sound

and spelling by ear

(Moats, 1995).

Identify irregular words to be taught (from

assessment, relating to a unit of work, relating

to a stage in the syllabus, high frequency word

list (Appendix 2)

Teach ‘Look, say, cover, write, check

‘technique:

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Anneliese Gray 3081771- Assignment EDUC4064

consecutive

lessons, again

after a week, and

again after a

month (NSW DET,

2000)

E.g. Sum for some

Eny for any

Sed for said

Have-a-go sheet:

Lists of common but irregular words introduced

and explicitly taught (three words a day) (See

Appendix 3)

Games

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Anneliese Gray 3081771- Assignment EDUC4064

Etymological

Knowledge

Difficulty with larger

words.

(NSW DET, 2005)

AssessmentBy examining a student’s errors on a well constructed spelling assessment a teacher can be guided on the

stage of development of a student, identify specific weaknesses or special instructional needs a student

and gain information about what next to teach the student (Westwood, 2005). Assessments can include

observation, analysis of work samples, reference to benchmark documents and profile guides, testing and

conferencing with the student. A highly detailed analysis of spelling errors is usually only required where a

student has a specific learning disability, and where the individualised tutorial intervention is going to be

provided (Jenkins & Dix, 2004).

Type of Assessment Gaining information for teaching from the

assessment

Observation How the student approaches a spelling task.

Are they hesitant, how do they feel about

themselves as spellers, do they check and

monitor own spelling, do they self correct,

do they need help?

Work Samples Number of relative number of correct

spellings, known visual patterns, significant

error patterns, evidence of self correction.

Are the child’s strategies predominately

visual, phonically based, or are there other

types of patterns e.g reversals,

perseveration, errors associated with word

structures or meanings (O’Sullivan &

Thomas, 2007).

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Anneliese Gray 3081771- Assignment EDUC4064

Spelling Conferences Can be in a group or individual context.

Teacher questions students about the

spelling decisions/strategies they used to

spell a word. Teacher then points out the

correct strategy/ability that should be used

e.g. elefant- teach the students /f/ sound is

made by the letter pattern ph.

Self Assessment Students can be encouraged to reflect on

their own spelling through learning journals

or learning logs and take responsibility of

their future learning needs (Gibbs, 2007).

Benchmarks Indicate what the standard might be

expected of most students at a particular

age level. E.g. First Steps Spelling

Developmental Continuum (Education

Department of Western Australia, 1994).

Curriculum Based Tests Teacher made tests relating to a theme or

specific strategy taught by the teacher. Used

to check understanding or whether revision

or reteaching necessary.

Diagnostic tests Specific tests to assess in more detail a

child’s grasp of particular spelling patterns,

rules and conventions. (See Appendix 4)

Tests can be teacher made or published test

materials e.g.

-Ganske (1999)

-Waddington (1998) (Appendix 5)

-Greenbaum (1987)

-Peters and Smith (1993)

-Vincent and Claydon (1982)

Standardised, Norm Referenced Tests Used to compare an individual student with

that of average students of the same age.

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Anneliese Gray 3081771- Assignment EDUC4064

The student’s performance is expressed as a

spelling age. A limitation is that they cannot

adequately sample the full range of a

student’s knowledge of word forms, rules

and exceptions.

E.g. The South Australian Spelling Tests,

Form A and Form B

Monitoring Sheets Monitoring sheets should be created to keep

a record of progress.

Points to consider concerning error analysis-

-It is only worth the effort if a specific form of intervention based on the student’s results will follow

-A single error may appear to fall into several different categories and an element of subjectivity enters the

process

-Howell, Fox and Morehead (1993) suggest at least 75 errors are needed to give a clear picture of a

student’s existing knowledge and skills

-In addition to assessing errors it is necessary to assess the student’s use of spelling strategies (Westwood,

2005)

Learning and Teaching Strategies

Spelling can be improved with systematic, explicit and balanced instruction where the instruction is

tailored to match the developmental level of the student’s word knowledge (Westwood, 2005). Research

concludes the following strategies to be the most important for students with a spelling learning difficulty

(Westwood, 2005).

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Strategy How or Why this Works or is Used

Limit the study of words in one session Three words a day brings the best rate of

retention and learning (Westwood, 2005)

Early instruction should focus on high

frequency words and easy words students

have misspelled in their own writing

See easy high frequency word lists (see

resource list)

Monitoring of own spelling errors

General Activities (Education Department of

Western Australia, 1994)

-Decorate or illustrate the words

-Write the word on graph paper. Cut the

letters out. Build the word from the cut out

letters.

-Frame sentences. Make up sentence

patterns based on concepts. E.g. ‘What is

round?’

A ball is round.

A hoop is round.

An apple is round.

Bingo-

Use high frequency words in the traditional

game of Bingo.

1. Write the words on the board.

2. Cover the words and call them out

3. Students write their words onto their

Bingo cards.

4. Uncover words. Students check their

spelling and correct any words

incorrectly spelt

5. Play Bingo.

Use of different and multisensory response

modes can be motivating and can aid

assimilation

Creating visual images with target words.

E.g. writing, tracing, copying using pens of

different colour, using plastic letters,

keyboarding, writing in sand, writing in the

air with a finger. This can be done with eyes

open of closed. Tell the students to look at

the word and think of words with the same

letter patterns. Ideally this should be a 20

Anneliese Gray 3081771- Assignment EDUC4064

The following table provides examples from the NSW Department of Education and Training (1998) Focus

on Literacy: Spelling document which have not been mentioned in the above table.

Strategy How or Why this Works or is Used

A daily focus on spelling skills and strategies For example spelling focus of the initial

consonant ‘L’. Make the L sound focusing

where in the mouth and throat the sound is

made. Brainstorm all the words students can

think of that contain the ‘L’ sound. Make a

tongue twister using ‘L’. Rehearse and

exaggerate the ‘L’ sound.

Purpose and value of the spelling instruction

are made explicit (intrinsic motivation to

learn)

Relate why the students are learning to real

life experiences e.g. filling out a job

application.

Teachers should be interesting and

enthusiastic when talking about language and

words and build a positive and supportive

classroom where students are encouraged to

take risks with their spelling (Westwood,

2000).

Frequent exposure to and experience with

spelling activities in the context of talking,

reading and writing (integrated language

environment)

(Board of Studies New South Wales, 2007)

The following diagram shows the links

between elements of language and language

learning. It is recommended that all aspects of

language are interelated in a teaching context

(Westwood, 2005).

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Anneliese Gray 3081771- Assignment EDUC4064

Explicit teaching of skills and strategies Improvement on spelling can be achieved

when students are taught how to learn words,

and how to check the spellings of the word.

‘Thinking Aloud’ is the standard way of

showing how they might apply a strategy.

-Do I know this word?

-How many syllables can I hear?

-Do I know any other words that sound almost

the same?

-How are those words written?

-Does the word I have written look right?

-I’ll try it again.

-Does it look better?

(Westwood, 2005).

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Anneliese Gray 3081771- Assignment EDUC4064

Regular monitoring, analysis and feedback

on spelling performance

Decide how a student’s progress will be

monitored regularly to determine the

effectiveness of the teaching and learning

experiences and intervene when a student is

not making the progress expected

Ensure content is age appropriate Ensure resources are age appropriate.

Providing guided instruction to individuals or

small groups

Research shows this is the most significant

teaching opportunity for student improvement

(NSW Department of Education and Training

Curriculum Support Document, 1998).

Students with high support needs in spelling will need daily guided spelling sessions, with frequent revision

and checking for retention of prior learning (New South Wales Department of Education and Training,

2000).

Resources

Book:Word Sorts and MoreBy Kathy Ganske

A tremendous timesaver for teachers, this indispensable book contains more than 200 word, picture, and letter sorts, ready to photocopy and use in K-3 classrooms. 

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Anneliese Gray 3081771- Assignment EDUC4064

Teaching kids to spell / J. Richard Gentry, Jean Wallace Gillet

Links assessment and teaching strategies with a developmental stage.

This teacher resource book provides full teacher support for the Spelling Rules! Workbooks A-C. It contains invaluable background information about spelling development and spelling knowledge, along with practical resources

This book presents a highly practical approach to assessing children's spelling and word knowledge abilities and offering effective, appropriate instruction.

Spelling: Approaches to Teaching and Assessment by Peter Westwood (Jun 29, 2005)

Strategies for spelling interventions for students with difficulties.

http://www.spellingcity.com/ Teachers can make individual word lists on line for each student

http://specialeducationannagray.wikispaces.com/Learning+Difficulties-Spelling

Website made up by me with all the resources listed

http://www.kidsspell.com/ Spelling games and lists for students

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Anneliese Gray 3081771- Assignment EDUC4064

http://www.woodlands-junior.kent.sch.uk/interactive/literacy.html

Words and spelling games.

http://annasenglish.wikispaces.com/ Website I have made with English related strategies and resources

http://www.schools.nsw.edu.au/media/downloads/schoolsweb/studentsupport/programs/disabilitypgrms/pshandbook.pdf

Link for Programming and Strategies Handbook

http://www.curriculumsupport.education.nsw.gov.au/primary/english/assets/pdf/spelling/fol_spell.pdf

Link for Focus on literacy: Spelling

http://learningplace.com.au/deliver/content.asp?pid=15432

Heaps of files to download and website links

References

Beringer, V.W., Abbott, R.D., Sylvester, L. & Nolen, S.B. (1995). Integrating low and high-level skills in

instructional protocols for writing disiabilities. Learning Disabilities Quarterly, 18, 4, 293-309.

Dixon, R.C. (1991). The application of sameness to spelling. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 24, 5,

285-291.

Education Department of Western Australia. (1994). Spelling resource book. Melbourne: Longman.

Foreman, P. (Ed).(2005). Inclusion in action. Melbourne: Cengage Learning.

Fulk, B.M. & Stormont-Spurgin, M. (1995). Spelling interventions for students with disabilities: a

review. The Journal of Special Education, 28, 4, 488-513.

Gibb, T. (2006). Spelling rules. South Yarra: Macmillian Teacher Resources.

Glazener, L. (2004). Sensorcises. Active Enrichment for the Out-of-Step Learner. San Diego:The Brain Store.

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Anneliese Gray 3081771- Assignment EDUC4064

Graham, S., Harris, K. & Loynachan, C. (1996). The Directed Spelling Thinking Activity: application with high

frequency words. Learning Disabilities: Research and Practice, 11, 1, 34-40.

Howell, K., Fox, S. & Morehead, M. (1993). Curriculum-based evaluation. Pacific Grove: Brooks-Cole.

Jenkins, H.J. & Dix, S.B. (2004). The role of action research in learning support: a case study. Special

Education Perspectives, 13, 2, 47-68.

Moats, L.C. (1995). Spelling: development, disability and instruction. Baltimore: York Press.

New South Wales Department of Education and Training Curriculum Support Dictorate. (1998). Focus on

Literacy: Spelling. Retrieved September 2nd 2011 from

http://blackboard.newcastle.edu.au/webapps/portal/frameset.jsp?tab_id=_2_1&url=%2fwe

bapps%2fblackboard%2fexecute%2flauncher%3ftype%3dCourse%26id%3d_1326642_1%26u rl

%3d

New South Wales Department of Education and Training. (2000). Programming and strategies handbook:

Assisting Year 3 and Year 5 students who need additional support in literacy. Retrieved September 1st ,

2011 from http://blackboard.newcastle.edu.au/webapps/portal/frameset.jsp?

tab_id=_2_1&url=%2fwe bapps%2fblackboard%2fexecute%2flauncher%3ftype%3dCourse%26id

%3d_1326642_1%26u rl%3d

New South Wales Department of Education and Training. (2007). Writing and Spelling Strategies:

Assisting students who have additional learning and support needs. Retrieved September 2nd, 2011

from http://blackboard.newcastle.edu.au/webapps/portal/frameset.jsp?tab_id=_2_1&url=%2fwe

bapps%2fblackboard%2fexecute%2flauncher%3ftype%3dCourse%26id%3d_1326642_1%26u rl

%3d

O’Sullivan, O. & Thomas, A. (2007). Understanding Spelling. New York: Routledge.

Poskiparta, E., Niemi, P., Lepola, J. Ahtola, A, & Liane, P. (2003) Motivational-emotional, vulnerability and

difficulties in learning to read and spell. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 73, 2, 187-206.

Westwood, P. (2005). Spelling: Approaches to teaching and assessment. Camberwell: ACER press.

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