Annaklaile Why Are So Few Women

7/23/2019 Annaklaile Why Are So Few Women

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Department of: Economics Type of work: Master’s

Thesis

Author: Anna Klaile Date: 6.10.2013

Title of thesis: "#$ %&' () *'+ +),'- .&),)/'0 /) /). ,%-%1','-/ .)(2/2)-(3

Abstract:

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Keywords: statistical discrimination, promotions, female leadership, career

aspirations, family and work balance



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4%56' 98

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Z

1

INTRODUCTION

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9),.%-1'( Q1N10LS

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G- /'&,( )* 1-9&'%(1-2 /#' .&).)&/1)- )* +),'- 1- /#' #12#'(/ 9)&.)&%/' .)(1/1)-(I

,)&' (.'91*19%66$ 1- /#' N)%&0&)),(I /#'&' %&' % K%&1'/$ )* .)((1N161/1'(L M#'(' 1-96H0'

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Purpose1.1.

M#' .H&.)(' )* /#1( (/H0$ 1( /) 'J%,1-' +#$ +),'- 6%2 N'#1-0 ,'- +#'- 1/ 9),'( /)

.&),)/1)-( 1-/) 'J'9H/1K' ,%-%2','-/ %-0 N'$)-0L M#' .H&.)(' 1( &'%9#'0 N$

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(1,.6$ 0) -)/ %(.1&' /) ('-1)& ,%-%2','-/ .)(1/1)-( )& /#'$ 21K' H. /#'1& 9%&''&

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&'6'K%-/ 1-*)&,%/1)- /) /#' 9H&&'-/ 01(9H((1)-L

Problem background and scope1.2.

^1K'- /#' %6,)(/ 'TH%6 .'&9'-/%2' )* ,'- %-0 +),'- 1- ,1006' ,%-%2','-/

.)(1/1)-(I )-' +)H60 'J.'9/ /) #%K' (''- % (/'%0$ 1-9&'%(' )* +),'- 1- ('-1)&

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/#' .&).)&/1)- )* +),'- .&),)/'0 /) 'J'9H/1K' ,%-%2','-/ .)(1/1)-( #%( &',%1-'0

6)+L M#1( /#',' 1( %9/1K'6$ 01(9H(('0 +)&60+10'L E)& 'J%,.6' TH)/% 6'21(6%/1)-

&'2%&01-2 *',%6' &'.&'('-/%/1)- )- 9)&.)&%/' N)%&0(I *1&(/ .%(('0 %( % 6%+ N$ A)&+%$

1- =>>Ì #%( (/1&&'0 /#' NH(1-'(( 9),,H-1/$ %-0 0&%+- %//'-/1)- /) /#' (1/H%/1)- %/

#%-0L 46()I 1-*6H'-/1%6 NH(1-'(( .').6' (H9# %( i)&,% C6616%I "%&&'- OH**'// %-0 <#'&$6



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<%-0N'&2 #%K' .HN6196$ K)19'0 /#'1& 9)-9'&- &'2%&01-2 +),'-X( 6)+ &'.&'('-/%/1)- 1-

('-1)& ,%-%2','-/L

M#'&' %&' ,H6/1.6' /#')&1'( %-0 %&2H,'-/( .&'('-/'0 /) 'J.6%1- /#' )N('&K'0 2'-0'&

2%. 1- ('-1)& ,%-%2','-/ .)(1/1)-(L M#1( /#'(1( %..&)%9#'( /#' .&),)/1)- 2'-0'& 2%. N$ 0'K'6).1-2 % *&%,'+)&; %&)H-0 (/%/1(/19%6 01(9&1,1-%/1)-I ,)&' (.'91*19%66$ OP'&;X(

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Delimitations1.3.

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OP'&; Q=>>RSL M#' (/H0$ 9)-9'-/&%/'( )- 01**'&'-9'( N'/+''- ,'- %-0 +),'-I

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.&),)/1)- )..)&/H-1/1'( *)& ,'- %-0 +),'-L G/ 1( %6() &'9)2-1W'0 /#%/ '(.'91%66$

+),'- 2%1- .($9#)()91%6 %-0 9%&''&f0'K'6).,'-/ (H..)&/ *&), ,'-/)&1-2I +#19# ,%$

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.)((1N6' &'%()- *)& /#' )N('&K'0 .&),)/1)- 2%. 1- /#' /#')&'/19%6 .%&/V #)+'K'&I 0H' /)

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+),'-X( .&),)/1)- .)((1N161/1'(L

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E1--1(# G-0H(/&1'(I =>?@SL M#'(' *%9/)&( %&' 9)K'&'0 1- /#' /#')&'/19%6 .%&/I #)+'K'&

(1-9' /#' ',.1&19%6 (/H0$ *)9H('( )- ,1006' ,%-%2'&( +1/# /#' (%,' /$.'( )*

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/#' ',.1&19%6 .%&/L

Structure1.4.

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N$ &'K1'+1-2 .&'K1)H( &'('%&9# %-0 61/'&%/H&' 1- /#1( *1'60L A'J/I #$.)/#'('( %&'

0'(9&1N'0 *)66)+'0 N$ % 0'(9&1./1)- )* /#' &'('%&9# ,'/#)0)6)2$L M#1( 1( *)66)+'0 N$ %

9#%./'&I 1- +#19# &'(H6/( *&), /#' ',.1&19%6 (/H0$ %&' .&'('-/'0L G- /#' 6%(/ 9#%./'& /#'

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2

THEORY

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.&'('-/'0L

Statistical discrimination2.1.

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)99H& +#'- ',.6)$'&( #%K' 1,.'&*'9/ 1-*)&,%/1)- &'2%&01-2 +)&;'& (;166(I

.&)0H9/1K1/$I TH%61*19%/1)-( '/9L G- 9)-/&%(/ /) 96%((19%6 01(9&1,1-%/1)- /#')&1'(I %6()

9%66'0 /%(/'fN%('0 01(9&1,1-%/1)-?I ',.6)$'&( 0) -)/ #%K' 01&'9/ 01(9&1,1-%/)&$

.&'*'&'-9'( NH/ %&' 1-(/'%0 9)-(10'&'0 /) N' &%/1)-%6 H/161/$ ,%J1,1W1-2 %2'-/(L

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[#'6.( Q?bZ=S +%( /#' *1&(/ )-' /) 0'K'6). % (/%/1(/19%6 ,)0'6 )* 01(9&1,1-%/1)-L :'

%&2H'0 /#%/ ',.6)$'&(I +#) /&$ /) ,%J1,1W' /#'1& 'J.'9/'0 .&)*1/I +166 01(9&1,1-%/'

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N'6)-2( /) Q[#'6.(I ?bZ=S.

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j('6*f*H6*1661-2 .&).#'91'(k

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01**'&'-9'( 1- .&),)/1)-I /#' 26%(( 9'161-2 %-0 (/19;$ *6))&I %&' .&'('-/'0L

2.1.1. Glass ceiling

M#' 26%(( 9'161-2 9)-9'./ &'*'&( /) %- 1-K1(1N6' NH/ .)+'&*H6 N%&&1'& /#%/ #1-0'&( +),'-

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9),,1/,'-/L M#' *1&(/ )-' 1( 1,.)&/%-/ (1-9' 1/ 1( '**191'-/ /) %66)9%/' /#' ,)(/ 9%.%N6'

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,%&;'/ %6/'&-%/1K' 1- .'&1)0 /#&'' 1( /#' (%,' *)& %66 ',.6)$''(I 1/ 1( '**191'-/ /)

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2.1.2. Sticky floor

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(6)+'& +%2' 2&)+/# H.)- .&),)/1)-L M#'&' %&' /+) %6/'&-%/1K' 'J.6%-%/1)-( /) /#'

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M#' ,)0'6 01**'&'-/1%/'( N'/+''- 1-1/1%6 +%2' 1-9&'%('( %(()91%/'0 +1/# .&),)/1)-(

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Promotion model2.2.

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1-/'-(1/$I 9%- 6'%0 /) .&),)/1)- 1-'TH%61/$ N'/+''- 2&)H.(L M#' 1-'TH%61/$ N'9),'(

,)&' .&)-)H-9'0 1* ,)&' /#%- )-' )* /#' %N)K' 01**'&'-9'( 'J1(/( (1,H6/%-')H(6$L

M#'(' 01**'&'-9'( ,%$ 6'%0 /) ,',N'&( )* )-' 2&)H. #%K1-2 % 6)+'& .&)N%N161/$ )*

&'%9#1-2 /#' /). 9)&.)&%/' .)(1/1)-( /#%- 'TH%66$ 9),.'/'-/ ,',N'&( N'6)-21-2 /)

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2.2.1.

Model

G- OP'&;X( Q=>>RS 0$-%,19 .&),)/1)- ,)0'6 %- ',.6)$'& 2&%0H%66$ 6'%&-( ,)&' %N)H/

'%9# +)&;'&X( %N161/1'( 0H&1-2 #1( )& #'& 9%&''&L M#'&' %&' /+) /$.'( )* ',.6)$''(d /$.'f

# ',.6)$''( +#) %&' #12#f(;166'0 %-0 /$.'f6 ',.6)$''( +#) %&' 6)+f(;166'0L G- /#1(

9)-/'J/ j(;166k &'*'&( /) H-)N('&K%N6' .'&()-%6 9#%&%9/'&1(/19( (H9# %( %,N1/1)-I '**)&/

%-0 .&)0H9/1K1/$ Q<,1/# '/ %6LI =>?=SL 8,.6)$''( 9),' *&), /+) )N('&K%N6' 2&)H.(I 2I

1- /#1( 9%(' ,'- %-0 +),'-I 2 m ,I + =L G- /#' ,)0'6 1-01K10H%6( 9%- N' &'9&H1/'0 )&

.&),)/'0 1-/) /#&'' P)N 6'K'6(d 6)+f6'K'6 P)N( I 9%&''&f/&%9; P)N( I %-0

= OP'&;( ,)0'6 1( -)/ &'(/&19/'0 /) 2'-0'& 01**'&'-9'(I NH/ 9%- %6() N' H('0 /) %-%6$W' )/#'& /$.'( )* 2&)H.(

'L2L &%9'I ,1-)&1/1'(L



?a

01&'9/)& 6'K'6 P)N( L 4 +)&;'& -''0( /) .'&*)&, % -H,N'& )* /%(;( %/ '%9# 6'K'6

N'*)&' N'1-2 '6121N6' *)& % .&),)/1)- /) /#' -'J/ 6'K'6L "#'- % +)&;'& (H99'((*H66$

9),.6'/'( % /%(;I &'K'-H'( 'TH%6 /) %&' 2'-'&%/'0 *)& /#' *1&,L C- /#' )/#'&

#%-0I % *%16H&' )* % /%(; 2'-'&%/'( % 6)(( )*

L EH&/#'&,)&'I 1/ 1( %((H,'0 /#%/

*)& P m?I =L G- )/#'& +)&0(I 6)(('( 0H' /) *%16H&' %&' 2&'%/'& /#'

#12#'& /#' P)N 6'K'6 %-0I (1,16%&6$I &'K'-H'( %(()91%/'0 +1/# (H99'(( %&' 2&'%/'& /#'

#12#'& /#' P)N 6'K'6L

M#' .&).)&/1)- )* /$.'f# ',.6)$''( 1- % 2&)H. 2I %&' 0'-)/'0 L 4 /$.'f# +)&;'& 1(

(H99'((*H6 %/ /%(; +1/# /#' .&)N%N161/$ )* ?L 4 /$.'f6 +)&;'&I (H99''0( +1/# /#'

.&)N%N161/$ )* I #)+'K'& *%16( +1/# /#' .&)N%N161/$ +#'&' L M#1(

,'%-( /#%/ % /$.'f6 +)&;'& +166 %6+%$( (H99''0 1- % P)N > +#'&' %( /#'&' 1( % .)(1/1K'

.&)N%N161/$ )* *%16H&' 1- P)N ? %-0 =L G- )/#'& +)&0(I %66 ',.6)$''( 9%- %/ ,1-1,H, 2'/%-0 (H99''0 %/ P)N >L "#'- ',.6)$''( &'%9# 6'K'6 ? )& =I ',.6)$'&( 9%- &'K'%6 +)&;'&

/$.' N$ )N('&K1-2 (H99'(( &%/'( )* 9),.6'/'0 /%(;(L M#' #12#'& /#' P)N 6'K'6I /#' #12#'&

/#' 61;'61#))0 )* /$.'f6 ',.6)$''( *%161-2 /#' /%(;( /#'$ #%K' N''- %((12-'0L

4 9'-/&%6 %((H,./1)- )* OP'&;X( Q=>>RS ,)0'6 1( /#%/ ',.6)$'&( 9%--)/ 01&'9/6$ )N('&K'

',.6)$''(X (;166 /$.' 0H' /) 1-9),.6'/' 1-*)&,%/1)-L E1&,( 9%- )-6$ )N('&K' ',.6)$''(X

.&'K1)H( (H99'(( %-0 *%16H&' #1(/)&$ %-0 /#' (12-%6( /#'$ ('-0 %N)H/ /#'1& %N161/1'(L

M#'(' (12-%6(I +#19# 9%- N' '1/#'& .)(1/1K' )& -'2%/1K'I %&' ',1//'0 N'*)&' '-/'&1-2 /#'

+)&; *)&9' %-0 1- /#' 6)+ 6'K'6 P)N(L M#' 61;'61#))0 /#%/ ',.6)$''(I +#) N'6)-2 /)2&)H. 2I #%K' %- )..)&/H-1/$ /) (12-%6 /#'1& (;166( 0H&1-2 % .'&1)0I 1( 'TH%6 /) L ^1K'- /#%/ %66 ',.6)$''( %&' %((H,'0 /) (H99''0 1- /#' P)N 6'K'6 > /%(;(I /#'&' 1(

-) )/#'& +%$ *)& ',.6)$'&( /) 6'%&- %N)H/ 1-01K10H%6(X %N161/1'( %/ /#1( (/%2' /#%- N$

)N('&K1-2 (;166 (12-%6(L M#H(I (12-%6( %&' 1-*)&,%/1K' %/ /#1( P)N 6'K'6L <1-9' /$.'f#

',.6)$''( %6+%$( ',1/ .)(1/1K' (12-%6( %N)H/ /#'1& %N161/1'(I 21K'- /#' )..)&/H-1/$I /#'

.&)N%N161/$ )* .)(1/1K' (12-%61-2 'TH%6( ?L M#' .&)N%N161/$ )* % /$.'f6 +)&;'& ',1//1-2 %

.)(1/1K' (12-%6 1( 'TH%6 /) L M#' 6%&2'& 1(I /#' ,)&' %99H&%/' /#' (12-%6L

"#'- % +)&;'& #%( &'%9#'0 P)N ? )& = 1/ 1( %((H,'0 /#%/ ',.6)$''( -) 6)-2'& #%K'

('.%&%/' )..)&/H-1/1'( /) (12-%6 /#'1& %N161/1'(I 1-(/'%0 .&),)/1)- 0'91(1)-( %&' N%('0

)- /%(; (H99'(( %-0 *%16H&' #1(/)&$L



?`

2.2.2.

Group differences

G- OP'&;X( ,)0'6I /+) 2&)H.( 9%- 01**'& 1- /#&'' 01**'&'-/ +%$(L E1&(/I %K'&%2' (;166 6'K'6

,%$ 01**'& N'/+''- 2&)H.(L <,1/# '/ %6L Q=>?=S .)1-/ )H/ /#%/ ',.6)$'&( ,%$ N'61'K'

/#%/ /#'&' 1( % 6%&2'& .&).)&/1)- )* ,'- )* /$.'f# /#%- +),'- )* /#1( /$.'I

L

</%K%0 %-0 A1'6('- Q=>?=S (H22'(/ /#%/ % .)((1N6' &'%()- *)& /#1( 1( /#%/ ',.6)$'&(

'K%6H%/' %99),.61(#,'-/( )* ,'- %-0 +),'- 01**'&'-/6$I %-0 /#%/ /#'&' 'J1(/( (),'

(/%/1(/19%6 01(9&1,1-%/1)- 1- /#' 'K%6H%/1)- )* +),'-X( (H99'((*H6 /%(; 9),.6'/1)-L

4-)/#'& .6%H(1N6' &'%()- 9)H60 N' /#%/ +),'- 6))(' #H,%- 9%.1/%6 +#'- N'1-2 %+%$

*&), /#' 6%N)& ,%&;'/ 1- 9)--'9/1)- /) 9#160N1&/#L 46/'&-%/1K'6$I /#' '**)&/ 6'K'6 /#%/

+),'- .H/ 1-/) +)&;I ,%$ 9#%-2' %*/'& #%K1-2 #%0 9#160&'-I 1,.6$1-2 /#%/ +),'- 2)

*&), N'1-2 % )* /$.'f# /) /$.'f6 +)&;'& 0H&1-2 /#'1& 9%&''&L Q</%K%0 %-0 A1'6('-I =>?=S

<'9)-0I /#'&' ,%$ N' 01**'&'-9'( 1- #)+ +'66 ,'- %-0 +),'- (12-%6 /#'1& (;166(I ,)&'

(.'91*19%66$ #)+ .&'91('6$ /#'(' (12-%6( %&' ',1//'0L OP'&; Q=>>RS %((H,'( /#%/ /#'('

(12-%6( Q.)(1/1K' )& -'2%/1K'S %&' ,)&' '%(16$ H-0'&(/))0 N$ (H.'&K1()&( 9),1-2 *&),

/#' (%,' 2&)H.I 1L'L +),'- %&' N'//'& %/ H-0'&(/%-01-2 %-0 0'9)01-2 (12-%6( *&),

)/#'& +),'- %-0 ,'- %&' N'//'& %/ H-0'&(/%-01-2 %-0 0'9)01-2 (12-%6( *&), )/#'&

,'-L G* 1/ 1( %((H,'0 /#%/ ,)(/ 6'%0'&( +#) ,%;' .&),)/1)- 0'91(1)-( %&' ,'- %-0

/#%/ ,'- 0'9)0' (12-%6( *&), ,%6' (HN)&01-%/'( N'//'& /#%- (12-%6( *&), *',%6'

(HN)&01-%/'(I /#'- Q<,1/# '/ %6LI =>?=SL M#'&' ,%$ %6() N' 01**'&'-9'( 1- +#%/

%9/1K1/1'( ,'- %-0 +),'- .%&/191.%/' 1- 0H&1-2 /#'1& %0)6'(9'-9' Q'L2L *))/N%66 K(L

0%-9'S %-0 ,%6' (H.'&K1()&( ,%$ #%K' ,)&' 01**19H6/1'( %(('((1-2 #)+ (;166( 6'%&-'0 1-

6'(( *%,161%& %9/1K1/1'( 9)H60 /&%-(6%/' /) /#' +)&; +)&60L 4- %6/'&-%/1K' 'J.6%-%/1)- 1(

/#%/ *)&,%6 %-0 1-*)&,%6 ,'-/)&1-2 .&)2&%,( )*/'- /%;' .6%9' N'/+''- /#' (%,' ('J

Q<,1/# %-0 %6L =>?=SL :%K1-2 ,)&' +),'- 1- ,%-%2','-/ /'%,( )& )- /#' N)%&0 )*

01&'9/)&(I ,%$ #'6. 1- 0'9)01-2 (12-%6( %-0 'K%6H%/1-2 /#' /%(; (H99'(( )* *',%6'

',.6)$''(L

M#1&0I ,'- %-0 +),'- ,%$ 01**'& 1- /#'1& )..)&/H-1/1'( /) (12-%6 /#'1& %N161/$L OP'&;

Q=>>RS ('/( *)&+%&0 ,H6/1.6' &'%()-( +#$ ,'- #%K' ,)&' *&'TH'-/ )..)&/H-1/1'( /)

(12-%6 /#%- +),'-I L M#1( 9%- N' N'9%H(' +),'- )- %K'&%2' #%K' ,)&'

9%&''& %N&H./1)-( /#%- ,'- 0H' /) 'L2L ,%/'&-1/$ 6'%K'L 4-)/#'& &'%()- ,%$ N' /#%/

#12# .)/'-/1%6 *',%6'( ()91%61W' 6'(( +1/# /#'1& (H.'&1)&( /#%- /#' ,%6' 9)H-/'&.%&/(I

'1/#'& N'9%H(' /#'$ %&' -)/ .%&/ )* /#' (%,' -'/+)&;( )& N'9%H(' /#'$ %&' -)/ 1-K1/'0 /)

1-*)&,%6 ()91%6 'K'-/( 'L2L 2)6* )H/1-2(L G- %001/1)- +),'-I %99)&01-2 /) OP'&; Q=>>RSI

%&' 6'(( 61;'6$ /) %9/1K'6$ .%&/191.%/' %-0 (.'%; %/ ,''/1-2( %-0 9)-*'&'-9'(L <,1/# '/ %6L



?Z

Q=>?=SI %..&)%9# /#' (12-%61-2 01**'&'-9'( *&), % 01**'&'-/ %-26'I (H22'(/1-2 /#%/

+),'- ,%$ (12-%6 6'(( /#%- ,'- N'9%H(' /#'$ #%K' *'+'& .&'*'&'-9'( *)& ('-1)&

,%-%2','-/ .)(1/1)-( /#%- ,'-L M#1( 9)H60 N' 'J.6%1-'0 N$ +),'- #%K1-2 6)+'& ('6*f

9)-*10'-9' 1- /#'1& %N161/1'( %-0g)& /#%/ /#'$ %6/'&-%/1K'6$ N'9%H(' /#'$ ,%$ #%K' 6)+'&

%,N1/1)-( *)& ,%-%2','-/ /%(;(L M#'(' 01**'&'-9'( +166 N' *H&/#'& 'J%,1-'0 1- 9#%./'&

/#&'' )- j.%&%,'/'&(kL

2.2.3. Equilibrium

O%('0 )- /#' %N)K' ,)0'61-2I OP'&; Q=>>RS ('/( H. % .'&*'9/ O%$'(1%- 'TH161N&1H,I

+#19# 9)-(1(/( )*d

4 ('/ )* .%$ %&&%-2','-/( %-0 .&),)/1)- &H6'( )**'&'0 N$ '%9# *1&, /#%/

9)-(/1/H/'( % A%(# 8TH161N&1H, )* % (1,H6/%-')H( ,)K' 2%,'I 21K'- '%9# *1&,( N'61'*( %N)H/ +)&;'& /$.'L

8%9# *1&,X( N'61'*( %N)H/ +)&;'& /$.' %&' 9%69H6%/'0 N$ %..6$1-2 O%$'( &H6'I

+#'-'K'& .)((1N6'L

Wage and Job Assignment

M) 0'&1K' % A%(# 'TH161N&1H,I OP'&; Q=>>RS *1&(/ 9)-(10'&( +%2' (9#'0H6'( %-0 P)N

%((12-,'-/ &H6'(L 466 *1&,( #%K' 'TH%6 %99'(( /) 1-*)&,%/1)- %-0 /#'&'*)&' /#' (%,'

'TH161N&1H, N'61'*( &'2%&01-2 +)&;'& /$.'L ^1K'- /#'(' N'61'*(I % H-1TH' A%(#

'TH161N&1H, 1( 0'&1K'0 1* ',.6)$''( %&' %((12-'0 P)N( +#'&' /#'$ +166 #%K' /#' #12#'(/

.&)P'9/'0 &'K'-H' 1- /#' (HN('TH'-/ /%(; %-0 % +%2' /#%/ 'TH%6( /#' 'J.'9/'0 &'K'-H'

*&), % /%(;L M#1( 9)-(/1/H/'( % H-1TH' A%(# 'TH161N&1H, (1-9' -) *1&, #%( %- 1-9'-/1K'

/) 0'K1%/'d 1* % *1&, )**'&( 6)+'& +%2' /#'- ',.6)$''( +)H60 *1-0 )/#'& P)N( +1/# %

#12#'& +%2'( %-0I (1,16%&6$I 1* % *1&, )**'&( ',.6)$''(X +%2'( /#%/ 'J9''0 /#' #12#'(/

'J.'9/'0 &'K'-H' *&), /#' 9),.6'/'0 /%(;(I /#'- /#' *1&, +166 N' ,%;1-2 % 6)((L A)/'

/#%/ /#'&' %&' -) )/#'& (/&%/'21'( *)& 9),.%-1'( /) ,%;' .&)*1/(I +#19# '-(H&'( /#%/

*1&,( +166 -)/ 0'K1%/' *&), 'TH161N&1H, N'#%K1)&L G- )/#'& +)&0(I %/ % A%(# 'TH161N&1H,I

*1&,( +166 %6+%$( #%K' %- 'J.'9/'0 .&)*1/ )* W'&)I )/#'&+1(' (),' *1&,( +)H60 #%K' %-

1-9'-/1K' /) 0'K1%/'L

G- /#' *)66)+1-2I 1-019%/' % P)N +#'&' /#' +)&;'& +1/# /#' .&)N%N161/$ 1( )*

/$.'f# +1/# /#' #12#'(/ 'J.'9/'0 &'K'-H'L <1,16%&6$I 1( 'TH%6 /) /#' 'J.'9/'0

.&)0H9/1K1/$ )* /#' +)&;'&L E1&, 'TH161N&1H, N'#%K1)& 9%- N' 9#%&%9/'&1W'0 N$ %..6$1-2



?R

(),' (1,.6' &H6'(L G* % *1&, N'61'K'( % +)&;'& /) N' )* /$.'f# +1/# /#' .&)N%N161/$ I

/#'- /#' 'J.'9/'0 &'K'-H' *&), /#' -'J/ /%(; .'&*)&,'0 N$ /#1( +)&;'& %/ P)N P /) N'

'TH%6 /)d

Q?S

^1K'- /#' 'J.'9/'0 &'K'-H'I N'9),'( /#' ,1-1,H, .&)N%N161/$ /#%/ /#' +)&;'& #%( %

#12#'& 'J.'9/'0 &'K'-H' *)& 0)1-2 #1( )& #'& -'J/ /%(; %/ % P)N P /#%- %/ P)N Pf?L M#H(

1( /#' ,1-1,H, . /#%/ ()6K'(d

C& 'TH1K%6'-/6$I /#%/ 1( /#' ,1-1,H, . /#%/ ()6K'(d

^1K'- /#' .&'K1)H(6$ ,'-/1)-'0 %((H,./1)- /#%/ I /#' %N)K'

'TH%/1)- 1,.61'( /#%/ M#1( ,'%-( /#%/ %-0 %&' /#&'(#)60( *)& .&),)/1)-(

N%('0 )- /#' N'61'*( /#%/ ',.6)$'&( #%K' %N)H/ ',.6)$''(L M#H(I 1/ 1( )./1,%6 *1&,

N'#%K1)& /) .&),)/' )& &'9&H1/ % +)&;'& *&), P)N > /) P)N ? 1*I %-0 )-6$ 1*I % *1&,

N'61'K'( /#%/ /#' .&)N%N161/$ /#%/ % 21K'- +)&;'& 1( /$.' #I 'J9''0( D1;'+1('I 1/ 1(

)./1,%6 /) .&),)/' )& &'9&H1/ *)& P)N( = 1*I %-0 )-6$ 1*I /#' *1&, N'61'K'( /#%/ 'J9''0(

L

^1K'- 'TH%/1)- Q?S /#' 'TH161N&1H, +%2' )**'&'0 N$ *1&,( /) % +)&;'& /#'$ N'61'K' +1/#

.&)N%N161/$ . /) N' % /$.'f# +)&;'& +#) 1( )./1,%66$ %((12-'0 P)N PI 1( %( *)66)+(d

Q=S

Beliefs

A'J/I *)9H( (#1*/( /) *1&, N'61'*( %N)H/ +)&;'& /$.'L E1&(/I % *1&,X( 'TH161N&1H, N'61'*(

&'2%&01-2 % ,',N'& *&), 2&)H. 2I +#) #%( +)&;'0 %/ 6)+f6'K'6 P)N > )& %6/'&-%/1K'6$



?b

-)/ +)&;'0 %/ %66 1( 9)-(10'&'0L <1-9' %66 ',.6)$''( (H99''0 %/ P)N > /%(;(I )N('&K1-2

+)&; .'&*)&,%-9' %/ P)N > +166 -)/ &'K'%6 %-$ 1-*)&,%/1)- %N)H/ % +)&;'&X( (;166(L

S 0'-)/'( % *1&,X( N'61'*( %N)H/ /#' %N)K' +)&;'&I 21K'- /#%/ #'g (#' %( ',1//'0 -

.)(1/1K' (12-%6(L E1&,( #%K' -) )/#'& 1-*)&,%/1)- /#%- 2&)H. %**161%/1)- )* %- 1-01K10H%6

+#) #%( -)/ $'/ #%0 %-$ (12-%61-2 )..)&/H-1/1'( Q- m >SI %-0 /#'&'*)&' L

OP'&; Q=>>RS (#)+( /#%/ I +#19# 1-019%/'( /#%/ *1&,( -'K'& *1-0 1/ )./1,%6

/) .&),)/' ',.6)$''( /) P)N ? )& =I +#'- /#'$ 9%- )-6$ )N('&K' /#' 2&)H. /) +#19# /#'

+)&;'& N'6)-2(L G* ',.6)$''(I &'2%&06'(( )* P)N 6'K'6I ('-0 % -'2%/1K' (12-%6 /#'$ +166 N'

0'-)/'0 /$.'f6 ',.6)$''( *)& /#' &'(/ )* /#'1& 9%&''&(L E)& % 2&)H. 2 +)&;'& +#) #%( -)/

+)&;'0 %/ %66 )& )-6$ +)&;'0 %/ % P)N >I NH/ #%( #%0 (12-%61-2 )..)&/H-1/1'( %-0 ',1//'0

- .)(1/1K' (12-%6(I /#'- *1&,(X 'TH161N&1H, N'61'*( Q%99)&01-2 /) O%$'( &H6'S +166 N' 'TH%6

/)

+#19# 9%- N' &'f+&1//'- %(

Q@S

G- )&0'& /) N' .&),)/'0 *&), P)N > /) P)N ? % +)&;'& -''0( /) ('-0 % ,1-1,H, %,)H-/

)* .)(1/1K' (12-%6(I

I () /#%/

M#' ,)0'6 9)-(10'&( /#'(' /) N' .&),)/1)- &'TH1&','-/( ?L "#'- I 1/ +166 #)60

/#%/ +166 N' (H9# /#%/ I 1- )/#'& +)&0( 1-01K10H%6( +166 -)/ N'

#1&'0g.&),)/'0 1-/) % P)N = N'*)&' (/%&/1-2 %/ % P)N ?L

4 +)&;'& +#) *%16( /#' *1&(/ /%(; %/ P)N ?I 1( 9)-(10'&'0 % /$.'f6 +)&;'&I %-0 +166 2) N%9;

/) P)N 6'K'6 >I '1/#'& /#&)H2# 0',)/1)- )& 01(,1((%6L C- /#' )/#'& #%-0I 1* % +)&;'&

(H99'((*H66$ 9),.6'/'( /#' *1&(/ /%(;I /#' +)&;'& 1( N'61'K'0 /) N' )* /$.'f# +1/#

.&)N%N161/$ A)/' /#%/ /#' .&)N%N161/$ 0)'( -)/ 0'.'-0 )- +#19# 2&)H. % +)&;'&

N'6)-2( /)L M#1( ,'%-( /#%/ +#'- % +)&;'& #%( N''- .&),)/'0 /) P)N 6'K'6 ?I /#' )-6$

/#1-2 /#%/ ,%//'&( *)& 9%&''& %0K%-9','-/ 1( /) (H99'((*H66$ 9),.6'/' /%(;(L 4*/'& %

+)&;'& #%( (H99'((*H66$ 9),.6'/'0 (? /%(;( %/ P)N ?I /#' *1&, N'61'K'( /#%/ /#' +)&;'& 1(

)* /$.'f# +1/# .&)N%N161/$ I +#'&'



=>

G- )&0'& /) N' .&),)/'0 *&), 6'K'6 ? /) 6'K'6 = % +)&;'& -''0( /) 9),.6'/' % ,1-1,H,

-H,N'& )* (H99'((*H6 /%(;(I I () /#%/

G- % (1,16%& +%$I 'TH161N&1H, N'61'*( 9%- N' 9)-(/&H9/'0 *)& ',.6)$''( %/ P)N = %( *)&

',.6)$''( %/ P)N ? (#)+- %N)K'L 42%1-I %66 ',.6)$''( %&' &'2%&0'0 /) #%K' /#' (%,'

.&)N%N161/$ )* N'1-2 /$.'f# ',.6)$''(I -) ,%//'& )* 2&)H. %-0 (;166 (12-%61-2 #1(/)&$L

M#1( ,'%-( /#%/ /#' -H,N'& )* (H99'((*H6 /%(;(I (2I 1( /#' )-6$ .%&%,'/'& /#%/ %**'9/(

*1&, N'61'*( %N)H/ ',.6)$''( %/ P)N ?I /#H( 1,.6$1-2 /#%/ /#'&' 1( -) (/%/1(/19%6

01(9&1,1-%/1)- 1- .&),)/1)-( /) P)N =L

G* % +)&;'& 1( .&),)/'0 /) P)N = %-0 *%16( % /%(;I /#'- #'g(#' +166 N' 0',)/'0 /) 6'K'6 >L

G* /#' +)&;'& (H99''0(I /#'- %*/'& 9),.6'/'0 /%(;( %/ /#1( 6'K'6 /#' *1&, +166 N'61'K'

/#%/ /#%/ /#' +)&;'& 1( )* /$.'f# +1/# % .&)N%N161/$ I +#'&'

Equilibrium Wage

M#' %N)K' 'TH161N&1H, 0'&1K'0 N$ OP'&; Q=>>RS (H9# /#%/ ',.6)$''( *&), 2&)H. 2

N'21- +1/# % P)N > 2'//1-2 .%10

Q\S

+1/# % .&)N%N161/$ )* % (12-%61-2 )..)&/H-1/$ 1- '%9# .'&1)0L C-9' % +)&;'& #%(

',1//'0 .)(1/1K' (12-%6(I #' )& (#' +166 N' .&),)/'0 /) P)N ?L C-9' 1- P)N ?I %*/'&

#%K1-2 9),.6'/'0 P)N ? /%(;( (H99'((*H66$I /#' +)&;'& +166 N' .%10

QaS

E1-%66$I +#'- ',.6)$''( #%K' 9),.6'/'0 (n P)N ? /%(;( (H99'((*H66$I /#' +)&;'& +166 N'

#1&'0g .&),)/'0 /) P)N =L <1,16%&6$ %( 1- P)N ?I )-9' 1- P)N = %*/'& #%K1-2 9),.6'/'0 (=

P)N = /%(;( (H99'((*H66$I /#' +)&;'& +166 N' .%10



=?

Q`S

2.2.4. Model implications

OP'&; Q=>>RS .&'('-/( /#' ,%1- 1,.619%/1)-( *&), /#' 0'&1K'0 'TH161N&1H,L OP'&;

%&2H'( /#%/ 01(9&1,1-%/1)- 1- 'TH161N&1H, +166 )-6$ &1(' 1- .&),)/1)- /) P)N ?L E&),

'TH%/1)- a )-' 9%- ('' /#%/ 1* %-0 g )& I /#'- *)& %-$

21K'- -L M#1( ,'%-( /#%/ *)& % 21K'- -H,N'& (12-%6(I *1&,( N'61'K' /#%/ ,%6' ',.6)$''(

1- P)N 6'K'6 >I %&' ,)&' 61;'6$ /) N' /$.'f# ',.6)$''(L M#1( 9)H60 '1/#'& N' N'9%H(' /#'&'

%&' ,)&' ,'- )* /$.'f# 1- 6)+f6'K'6 P)N(I )& 1/ ,%$ N' N'9%H(' ',.6)$'&( *1-0 1/ '%(1'&

/) 0'9)0' (12-%6( *&), ,'- /#%- *&), +),'- 1- P)N >L M#H(I 1/ 9%- %6() N' (/%/'0 /#%/ 1*

%-0 g )& /#'- L M#1( ,'%-( /#%/ +),'- ,H(/ ('-0 ,)&'

.)(1/1K' (12-%6( /#%- ,'- 1- )&0'& /) N' ',.6)$'0 )& .&),)/'0 /) 9%&''&f/&%9; P)N(L G* +),'- #%K' 6)+'& (12-%61-2 1-/'-(1/$I ,'%-1-2 /#'$ #%K' *'+'& )..)&/H-1/1'( /) (12-%6

/#'- /#' '**'9/ 1( (/&'-2/#'-'0I &'(H6/1-2 1- +),'- )- %K'&%2' N'1-2 )60'&

/#%- ,'- +#'- /#'$ %&' .&),)/'0 /) 9%&''& /&%9; P)N(L

OP'&; Q=>>RS .)1-/( )H/ /#%/ /#'&' +166 N' -) +%2' 01(9&1,1-%/1)- 1- 'TH161N&1H,I 'K'-

1* /+) 2&)H.( 01**'& 1- /#'1& %K'&%2' (;166I (12-%61-2 .&'91(1)- %-0g)& (12-%61-2

)..)&/H-1/$ Q'L2L I %-0g)& SL M#1( 9%- N' (''- *&), 'TH%/1)-(

\f` 9)-(10'&1-2 /#%/ /#'(' 0) -)/ 0'.'-0 )- /#' %N)K' .%&%,'/'&( )& % ',.6)$''(

2&)H. %**161%/1)-L G- /#' ,)0'6I /#' +%2' *)& % 21K'- P)N 6'K'6 1( % *H-9/1)- ()6'6$ N%('0)- (H99'((*H66$ 9),.6'/'0 /%(;(L

2.2.5.

Extended model with focus on top management

<,1/# '/ %6L Q=>?=S N%(' /#'1& .&),)/1)- ,)0'6 )- OP'&;X( Q=>>RS ,)0'6 NH/ %0%./ 1/ /)

'J.6%1- .&),)/1)-( 1-/) /#' #12#'(/ 9)&.)&%/' .)(1/1)-(L G/ 1( %((H,'0 /#%/ /#' 9%&''&

/&%9; *)& /). 'J'9H/1K'( #%( /#&'' (/%2'(d % .)/'-/1%6 /). 'J'9H/1K' 9%- N' .&),)/'0 /)

o19' [&'(10'-/ Qo[SI %-0 *H&/#'& /) B#1'* 8J'9H/1K' C**19'& QB8CSL <,1/# '/ %6 Q=>?=S

%&2H' /#%/ OP'&;X( ,)0'6 1( -)/ *H66$ %..619%N6' +#'- *)9H(1-2 )- .&),)/1)-( /) /)..)(1/1)-(L M#1( 1( N'9%H(' 0'91(1)- ,%;'&( %-0 /#' 0'91(1)- .&)9'(( )* +#) /) #1&' 1-/)

/). .)(1/1)-( )*/'- 01**'& *&), /#' #1&1-2 .&)9'(( 6)+'& 0)+- 1- /#' #1'&%&9#$L G- %-

'6'9/1)- )* % -'+ B8C 1/ 1( /#' 9#%1&,%- )* /#' N)%&0 %-0 N)%&0 )* 01&'9/)&(I )*/'-

%((1(/'0 N$ .&)*'((1)-%6 #'%0#H-/'& )& 9)-(H6/%-/(I +#) ,%;' /#' 0'91(1)-L <,1/# '/ %6

Q=>?=S %6() .)1-/ )H/ /#%/ /#' 0'91(1)- .&)9'(( ,%$ *H-9/1)- ,)&' 61;' /)H&-%,'-/



==

N'/+''- % -H,N'& )* -),1-''( +#'&' )-6$ )-' j+1--'&kI /#' 9%-010%/' +#) #%(

.'&*)&,'0 N'(/ %-0 (H..61'0 /#' #12#'(/ 6'K'6 )* '**)&/I 2'/( /#' B8C .)(1/1)-L M#H(I 1-

01**'&'-9' /) OP'&;X( ,)0'6 /#'&' 1( -) .&),)/1)- (/%-0%&0I &%/#'& /#' N'(/ 9%-010%/'

+166 N' .&),)/'0 /) B8CL 499)&01-2 /) <,1/# '/ %6L Q=>?=S /#' %N)K' ,%$ 6'%0 /) %

2'-0'& 2%. 1- .&),)/1)- 9#%-9'( 1-/) B8C .)(1/1)-(I +#19# *%K)&( ,'-L M#' %H/#)&(

.&'('-/ /#&'' N&)%0 &'%()-( *)& /#1( .)((1N6' 2'-0'& 2%.d

Q1S G- 9%(' /#' 0'91(1)- ,%;'&( QN)%&0 )* 01&'9/)&(S %&' &1(;f%K'&('I /#'$ ,%$ N' 6'((

61;'6$ /) 9#))(' 9%-010%/'( *&), % ,1-)&1/$ 2&)H. /) *166 % B8C .)(1/1)-L 7'91(1)-

,%;'&( ,%$ %6() N' ,)&' 'J/'&-%6 /) /#' *1&,I /#H( N%(1-2 /#'1& 0'91(1)-( )- 2'-0'&f

(/'&')/$.19%6 %//1/H0'( %-0 N1%('0 'K%6H%/1)-( 1-(/'%0 )* (H99'((*H6 /%(; &'9)&0( %-0

&'6'K%-/ 1-*)&,%/1)-L M#1( 01**'&( *&), /#' .&),)/1)- .&)9'(( 1- 6)+'& 6'K'6(I +#19# 1(

,)&' )*/'- #%-06'0 N$ %- 1-/'&-%6 %2'-/ +#) 9%- ,)&' '%(16$ )N('&K' %9/H%6

.'&*)&,%-9'L

Q11S G* ,%6' 0'91(1)- ,%;'&( )& #'%0f#H-/'&( #%K' )60f*%(#1)-'0 N'61'*( &'2%&01-2

*',%6' N'#%K1)& %-0 '**)&/ /#'- /#'(' N'61'*( ,%$ %**'9/ /#'1& .'&*)&,%-9' 'K%6H%/1)- )*

+),'-I 1,.6$1-2 /#%/ (/%/1(/19%6 01(9&1,1-%/1)- 9)H60 N' .&'('-/L 46()I 1* /#'&' %&'

2'-0'& 01**'&'-9'( 1- o[X( &'(.)-(1N161/$ %&'%(I /#'- 1/ 9)H60 N' /#%/ /$.19%6 *',%6' /%(;(

Q'L2L #H,%- &'()H&9' ,%-%2','-/S %&' 6'(( K%6H'0 /#%- /$.19%6 ,%6' /%(;( Q'L2L *1-%-9'

/%(;(S

Q111S E',%6' o[X( ,%$ *1-0 B8C .)(1/1)-( /) N' H-%//&%9/1K'L "),'- 9)H60 #%K' *'+'&.&'*'&'-9'( *)& /#' &'(.)-(1N161/$ /#%/ 9),'( +1/# % B8C .)(1/1)-I )& /#'$ 9)H60 #%K'

6'(( 9)-*10'-9' 1- /#'1& )+- %N161/1'( )& N' 6'(( 9),.'/1/1)- 0&1K'- /#%- /#'1& ,%6'

9)66'%2H'(L



=@

3

PARAMETERS

4( (/%/'0 1- /#' 1-/&)0H9/1)- 1/ 1( .)((1N6' /) )N('&K' .&),)/1)- 01(.%&1/1'( N'/+''-

,'- %-0 +),'- 1- E1-6%-0L G- /#1( 9#%./'&I 01**'&'-/ .%&%,'/'&( /#%/ 9)-/&1NH/' /)

'J.6%1-1-2 /#'(' .&),)/1)- 01(.%&1/1'( %&' .&'('-/'0L [%&%,'/'&( %&' 2&)H.'0

%99)&01-2 /) /#' /#&'' 9%/'2)&1'( 1- OP'&;X( .&),)/1)- ,)0'6 Q('' E12H&' ? N'6)+SL

E)9H( +166 N' )- +#$ /#'&' 9)H60 N' % 6)+'& .&).)&/1)- )* #12# (;166'0 +),'- /#%-

,'-I I +#$ (12-%61-2 .&'91(1)- 9)H60 N' 6)+'& *)& +),'- /#%- ,'-I I

%-0 6%(/I +#$ (12-%61-2 1-/'-(1/$ 9)H60 N' 6)+'& *)& +),'- /#%- ,'-I L

Figure 1

Parameters organized according to the three categories in Bjerk’s promotionmodel

Average skills3.1.

E%9/)&( /#%/ ,%$ %**'9/ %K'&%2' (;166 6'K'6 )* ,'- %-0 +),'- +166 N' 'J.6%1-'0 %-0

01(9H(('0 1- /#' -'J/ 9#%./'&L M#' %K'&%2' (;166 6'K'6 1( 0'-)/'0 L

3.1.1.

Education and work orientation

M#' '0H9%/1)-%6 N%9;2&)H-0 %-0 +)&; )&1'-/%/1)- #%K' %- 1,.%9/ )- 1-01K10H%6(X

.&),)/1)- 9#%-9'(L 4 &'.)&/ N$ E1-6%-0 B#%,N'& )* B),,'&9' Q=>??SI 9)K'&1-2 %66

!"#"$%&%#' (%#)*%( +#,$ -.%#/0' 1#,$,&),2

$,(%3

4/)33 3%*%3 5!

6(78"&),2 "2( 9,#/ ,#)%2&"&),2

:%2(%# '&%#%,&;1%'

4,8)%&"3 '&#78&7#%

4)<2"3)2< 1#%8)'),2 5!

=,$$72)8"&),2

>1?#)2<)2< "2( "8&)*)&)%'

@%2&,#)2< "2( #,3%

$,(%3'

4)<2"3)2< )2&%2')&; 5!

A%&9,#/)2<

4,8)%&"3 '&#78&7#%

B)$% "33,8"&),2

A,#$'

!#%+%#%28%'



=\

61(/'0 9),.%-1'( )- /#' :'6(1-;1 </)9; 8J9#%-2'I *1-0( /#%/ /#' ,%P)&1/$ )* B8CX( #%K'

'1/#'& % /'9#-19%6 Q\=LZhS )& NH(1-'(( Q\aL=hS N%9;2&)H-0L G/ 1( 61;'6$ /#%/ /#' 2'-0'&

01(/&1NH/1)- )* B8CX( 1( 1,.%9/'0 N$ /#' *%9/ /#%/ % ,%P)&1/$ )* '-21-''&1-2 (/H0'-/( %&'

,%6' 'L2L 1- =>?=I )-6$ =Z h )* %0,1//'0 O%9#'6)& 6'K'6 '-21-''&1-2 (/H0'-/( %/ 4%6/)

Y-1K'&(1/$ +'&' *',%6' Q4%6/)I =>?@SL

499)&01-2 /) % &'.)&/ N$ /#' B)-*'0'&%/1)- )* E1--1(# G-0H(/&1'( Q=>?@S +),'- 01**'&

*&), ,'- 1- N)/# /#'1& '0H9%/1)-%6 9#)19'( %-0 +)&; )&1'-/%/1)- 1- 01**'&'-/ 1-0H(/&1'(L

"1/#1- 01**'&'-/ ('9/)&( %-0 +)&; .6%9'( +),'- %6() '-0 H. 1- 01**'&'-/ /%(;( /#%-

,'-L M#'(' 01**'&'-9'( %&' 96'%&6$ &'*6'9/'0 1- #1&1-2 01(.%&1/1'( %-0 /#' 2'-0'& +%2'

2%.L G- =>?=I % ,%P)&1/$ )* ,'- QR=hS +)&;'0 1- /#' .&1K%/' ('9/)& +#'&' %( )-6$

%&)H-0 #%6* )* +),'- Qa`hS 010L "),'- %&' N'(/ &'.&'('-/'0 1- /#' *1-%-91%6 ('9/)&

%-0 #'%6/# 9%&'I /#' 6'%(/ 1- 9)-(/&H9/1)- %-0 /&%-(.)&/%/1)-L M#' #12#'(/ .&).)&/1)- )*

*',%6' ,%-%2'&( 9%- N' )N('&K'0 1- 1-0H(/&1'( %-0 N&%-9#'( 1- +#19# +),'- %&'

)/#'&+1(' +'66 &'.&'('-/'0L 71**'&'-9'( +1/#1- 1-0H(/&1'( %&' %6() )N('&K'0L G- ,%6'f

0),1-%/'0 1-0H(/&1'(I +),'- +)&; ,%1-6$ 1- )**19'f )& %0,1-1(/&%/1)-%6 /%(;( %-0 1-

/#' *',%6'f0),1-%/'0 #'%6/#f9%&' %-0 '0H9%/1)- ('9/)&( ,'- %&' ,)&' )*/'- 1-

,%-%2','-/ %-0 (H.'&K1()&$ .)(1/1)-(L 4001/1)-%66$I /#'&' %&' 2'-0'& 01**'&'-9'( 1-

,%-%2','-/ %-0 (H.'&K1()&$ .)(1/1)-(V ,'- +)&; ,)&' )*/'- /#%- +),'- 1- ).'&%/1K'

,%-%2','-/I +),'- )- /#' )/#'& #%-0 +)&; ,)&' )*/'- 1- .'&()--'6 ,%-%2','-/

%-0 9),,H-19%/1)-(L M#' &'.)&/ (/%/'( /#%/ 1- )&0'& /) 1-9&'%(' /#' %,)H-/ )* +),'-

1- ('-1)& ,%-%2','-/I /#' -H,N'& )* +),'- 1- 61-' ,%-%2','-/ %-0 ).'&%/1)-%6

/%(;( (#)H60 1-9&'%('L Q861-;'1-)'6p,p- ;'(;H(611//)I =>?@S

M#' %N)K' 1( %6() 9)-*1&,'0 1- % (/H0$ N$ <,1/# %/ %6L Q=>?=SI +#19# (#)+( /#%/

'J'9H/1K' ,%-%2'&( 1- :UI GM %-0 Ul7 #%K' % (12-1*19%-/6$ 6)+'& .&)N%N161/$ )* N'1-2

.&),)/'0 /) B8CX( /#%- BECX(I <%6'( %-0 o19' B8CX( 1- 7'-,%&;L G- E1--1(# 61(/'0

9),.%-1'(I +),'- %&' N'//'& &'.&'('-/'0 1- (/%** ,%-%2','-/ .)(1/1)-( /#%- 61-'

.)(1/1)-(I 'L2L +),'- #'60 % /#1&0 )* /#' :U 'J'9H/1K' .)(1/1)-( 1- 61(/'0 9),.%-1'( 1-

=>?? +#'&'%( )-6$ @ h )* +),'- #'60 61-' .)(1/1)-( QE1-6%-0 B#%,N'& )* B),,'&9'I

=>??SL M#1( 1-019%/'( /#%/ +),'- ,)&' )*/'- 9#))(' /) ,%;' 9%&''&( 1- %&'%( +1/# 6'((

)* % 9#%-9' /) 2'/ /) /#' /).I +#'&'%( ,'- 9#))(' %&'%( +1/# #12#'& 9#%-9'( )*

.&),)/1)-( /) /#' /). 6'K'6L M#H(I /#'&' %&' )- %K'&%2' *'+'& +),'- +1/# /#' &12#/

(;166( 1- /'&,( )* +)&; )&1'-/%/1)- %-0 '0H9%/1)-%6 N%9;2&)H-0 /) ,%;' 1/ /) /#' /).

,%-%2','-/ .)(1/1)-(I 1,.6$1-2 /#%/ L



=a

3.1.2.

Gender stereotypes

<1-9' 2'-0'& (/'&')/$.'( #%K' /#' '**'9/ /#%/ ,'- %-0 +),'- %&' .'&9'1K'0 /) 01**'& 1-

/#'1& 2'-'&%6 9#%&%9/'&1(/19(I (/'&')/$.19%6 N'61'*( +166 %6() #%K' %- 1,.%9/ )- #)+ ,'-

%-0 +),'- %&' .'&9'1K'0 %( ,%-%2'&(L <9#'1- Q?bZ@S ('/( *)&+%&0 /#' jM#1-; ,%-%2'&

c M#1-; F%6'k ($-0&),'I +#19# (H22'(/( /#%/ /#'&' 1( % 96)(' &'6%/1)-(#1. N'/+''-

2'-0'& &)6' (/'&')/$.'( %-0 /#' 9#%&%9/'&1(/19( %(()91%/'0 +1/# % (H99'((*H6 ,%-%2'&L

<9#'1- Q?bZ@S *1-0( /#%/ j(H99'((*H6 ,1006' ,%-%2'&( %&' .'&9'1K'0 /) .)(('((

9#%&%9/'&1(/19(I %//1/H0'( %-0 /',.'&%,'-/( ,)&' 9),,)-6$ %(9&1N'0 /) ,'- 1-

2'-'&%6 /#%- +),'- 1- 2'-'&%6kL M&%1/( (/'&')/$.19%66$ %(()91%/'0 +1/# ,'- 1-96H0'

%22&'((1K'-'((I (/&'-2/#I 1-0'.'-0'-9'I %-0 0'91(1K'-'((L "),'- )- /#' )/#'& #%-0

%&' .'&9'1K'0 %( ;1-0I #'6.*H6I ',.%/#19 %-0 1-96H(1K'I +#19# %&' *'%/H&'( -)/

%(()91%/'0 +1/# 6'%0'&(#1. Q"%P9,%- ?bbÌ UH/#'&*)&0 =>>?SL 499)&01-2 /) "%P9,%-

Q?bb`S -'2%/1K' .'&9'./1)-( %N)H/ *',%6' 6'%0'&(#1. 'J1(/I +#19# %&' +10'6$ (.&'%0I0''.f&))/'0 %-0 01**19H6/ /) 9#%-2'L EH&/#'&,)&'I (/'&')/$.19%66$ +),'- %&' -)/

.'&9'1K'0 /) N' %( 1-/'&'(/'0 1- .)(1/1)-( )* .)+'& %( ,'- QUH/#'&*)&0I =>>?SL

B)-(10'&1-2 /#%/ /#' *'%/H&'( %(()91%/'0 +1/# % (H99'((*H6 ,%-%2'& %&' (/'&')/$.19%66$

,%(9H61-' %-0 /#' -'2%/1K' .'&9'./1)-( %N)H/ *',%6' 6'%0'&(#1.I /#'- %- ',.6)$'&

+1/# %($,,'/&19 1-*)&,%/1)- %N)H/ ',.6)$'' %N161/1'( ,%$ N'61'K' /#%/ +),'- %&' 6'((

9%.%N6' /) #)60 .)(1/1)-( )* .)+'&I ()6'6$ N%('0 )- 2'-0'& Q</%K%&0 %-0 A1'6('-I =>?=SL

G* ',.6)$'&( 'K%6H%/' +),'- )- %K'&%2' /) N' 6'(( (;166'0 ,%-%2'&( /#%- ,'-I /#'-

L

o%-#%6% %-0 ['()-'- Q=>>RS (/H01'0 E1--1(# F1006' ,%-%2'&(X .'&9'./1)-( %N)H/

*',%6' 6'%0'&(#1. N$ *)9H(1-2 )- N'61'*( &'2%&01-2 *',%6' 01(9&1,1-%/1)- %-0 ,%6'

6'%0'&(#1. (H.'&1)&1/$ %,)-2 )/#'& *%9/)&(L U'(H6/( (#)+ /#%/ -'1/#'& ,'- -)& +),'-

N'61'K' /#%/ j/#' ,%6' +%$ )* 6'%01-2 1( ,)&' '**191'-/kL G-/'&'(/1-26$I #%6* )* ,'- %-0

/#&'' )H/ )* *)H& +),'- %2&''0 /) /#' (/%/','-/ j"#%/ #1-0'&( +),'- *&), 2'//1-2 /)

/#' /). .)(1/1)-( 1( /#%/ +),'- &%/#'& (/%$ 1- () 9%66'0 (.'91%61(/ .)(1/1)-( /#%- 2'/ 61-'

,%-%2','-/ 'J.'&1'-9'kL "),'- %6() /'-0'0 /) %2&'' ,)&' /#%- ,'- +1/# /#'

(/%/','-/ j+),'- %&' 6'(( +1661-2 /) /%;' &'(.)-(1N161/$k %-0 /#%/ j+),'- 6%9; /#'

9)H&%2' /) /%;' )- 9#%66'-21-2 /%(;(kL M#' &'(H6/( +)H60 1,.6$ /#%/ *',%6' ,1006'

,%-%2'&( /'-0 /) #%K' ,)&' (/'&')/$.19%6 N'61'*( %N)H/ +),'-X( +166 /) %0K%-9'L M#1( 1(

(),'+#%/ (H&.&1(1-2 +#'- 9),.%&1-2 /) /#' Y< +#'&' '(.'91%66$ +),'-X( K1'+ )-

+),'- %-0 6'%0'&(#1. 1( (#1*/1-2 /)+%&0( % ,)&' 2'-0'&f-'H/&%6 01&'9/1)- Q<9#'1-I

=>>?SL



=`

3.1.3.

Societal structure

E1-6%-0I /)2'/#'& +1/# /#' )/#'& A)&019 9)H-/&1'(I 1( 9)-(10'&'0 % *)&'&H--'& 1- *%,16$

*&1'-06$ .)6191'( Q^H./% '/ %6L =>>RSL M#' 9)-*619/( N'/+''- ,)/#'&#))0 %-0 +)&; 61*'

#%K' 0'9&'%('0 +1/# /#' 1-/&)0H9/1)- )* 2'-'&)H( 6'%K' %-0 9#1609%&' ($(/',(L M#1( #%(

#%0 % .)(1/1K' '**'9/ )- *',%6' 6%N)& .%&/191.%/1)- NH/ 1/ ,%$ %6() #%K' % -'2%/1K'

N)),'&%-2 '**'9/ )- +),'- 1- /). ,%-%2','-/ Q^H./% '/ %6L =>>RSL "#'- +),'- %&'

%+%$ *&), /#' 6%N)& *)&9' *)& 6)-2'& .'&1)0( )* /1,' 0H' /) ,%/'&-1/$ 6'%K'I 1/ ,%$ #%K'

% 0%,%21-2 '**'9/ )- /#'1& #H,%- 9%.1/%6L A1'6('- '/ %6L Q=>>\S *1-0 /#%/ 7%-1(# +),'-

/%;1-2 ` /) ?= ,)-/#( )* ,%/'&-1/$ 6'%K' %&' /',.)&%&16$ .H-1(#'0 *)& /#' 1-/'&&H./1)-

0H' /) 0'.&'91%/1)- )* #H,%- 9%.1/%6L M#1( 0'.&'91%/1)- 1- #H,%- 9%.1/%6 .%&/1%66$

'J.6%1- +#$ +),'- )- %K'&%2' 9)H60 N' 9)-(10'&'0 6'(( (;166'0 9),.%&'0 /) ,'-I

%2%1- 1,.6$1-2 /#%/ L D%N)& 1-/'&&H./1)-( ,%$ %6() 1,.%9/ +),'-X(

.)((1N161/1'( /) (12-%6 /#'1& %N161/1'(I +#19# +166 N' 9)K'&'0 1- ('9/1)- @L@L= )- (12-%61-2

1-/'-(1/$L

3.1.4.

Summary of skills

M#' %N)K' .%&%,'/'&( 'J.6%1- +#$ ',.6)$'&( ,%$ .'&9'1K' /#%/ ,'- )- %K'&%2' #%K'

#12#'& (;166( /#%- +),'-L :)+'K'&I +#'- 6));1-2 %/ '0H9%/1)-%6 %//%1-,'-/ 1- 2'-'&%6

/#'&' ('',( /) N' -) 01**'&'-9' 1- (;166 6'K'6 N'/+''- ,'- %-0 +),'- 1- E1-6%-0L 4( %

,%//'& )* *%9/ +),'- /)0%$ %&' #12#'& '0H9%/'0 /#%- ,'- %-0 ,%;' H. a\h )*

H-1K'&(1/$ (/H0'-/( QM16%(/);'(;H(I =>?=SL M#' 2'-0'& 01**'&'-9' 0)'( -)/ 61' 1- /#'

'0H9%/1)-%6 6'K'6 NH/ &%/#'& 1- /#' *1'60 )* '0H9%/1)- %-0 +)&; )&1'-/%/1)-I +#'&'

K%&1%N161/$ 1( 6%&2' %,)-2 ,'- %-0 +),'-L "),'- #%K' 6'(( 'J.'&1'-9' /#%- ,'-

*&), 61-' ,%-%2','-/ %-0 ).'&%/1)-%6 /%(;(I +#19# 1( 1,.)&/%-/ *)& &'%9#1-2 ('-1)&

,%-%2','-/ .)(1/1)-(L M#' %N)K' 2'-0'& 01**'&'-9'( %&' % .%&/1%6 &'%()- *)& () *'+

+),'- N'1-2 *)H-0 %/ /#' /).L

o%-#%6% %-0 ['()-'- Q=>>RS *)H-0 /#%/ E1--1(# ,1006' ,%-%2'&( 0) -)/ %2&'' /#%/ /#'

,%6' +%$ )* 6'%01-2 1( ,)&' '**191'-/I 1,.6$1-2 /#%/ (/'&')/$.19 N'61'*( &'2%&01-2 *',%6'

6'%0'&(#1. N'1-2 1-*'&1)& /) ,%6' 6'%0'&(#1. %&' -)/ /#%/ .&)*)H-0 %/ 6'%(/ %,)-2

,1006' ,%-%2'&(L <'//1-2 %(10' /#%/ +),'- ,%$ #%K' 6'(( 61-' %-0 ).'&%/1)-%6

,%-%2','-/ 'J.'&1'-9' /#%- ,'-I /#' /%&2'/ 2&)H. )* /#' ',.1&19%6 (/H0$ 9)-(1(/( )*

,%-%2'&( +1/# % /'9#-19%6 %-0 NH(1-'(( N%9;2&)H-0I %-0 /#H( /#'&' (#)H60 1- .&1-91.6'

N' -) 01**'&'-9' 1- (;166 6'K'6 N'/+''- ,'- %-0 +),'-L 4001/1)-%66$I (1-9' ,1006'



=Z

,%-%2'&( 0) -)/ ('', /) N'61'K' /#%/ /#' *',%6' +%$ )* 6'%01-2 1( 1-*'&1)& /) /#' ,%6'

+%$ )* 6'%01-2V 01**'&'-9'( 1- (;166 6'K'6 +166 -)/ N' /#' *)9H( 1- /#' ',.1&19%6 .%&/L

Signaling precision3.2.

M#1( 9#%./'& 9)-9'-/&%/'( )- +#'/#'& ,'-/)&1-2 %-0 &)6' ,)0'6(I 9),,H-19%/1)-

01**'&'-9'( %-0 01**'&'-9'( 1- /#' %9/1K1/1'( ,'- %-0 +),'- .%&/191.%/' 1- 0H&1-2 /#'1&

H.N&1-21-2 9%- #%K' %- '**'9/ )- #)+ .&'91('6$ ,'- %-0 +),'- (12-%6 /#'1& %N161/1'( /)

(H.'&1)&(L <12-%61-2 .&'91(1)- 1( 0'-)/'0 L

3.2.1. Communication

</H01'( (#)+ /#%/ ,'- %-0 +),'- 01**'& 1- 9),,H-19%/1)- (/$6'( Q<#'&10%- =>>ZI

M%--'- ?bb\SL M#1( ,%$ 'J.6%1- +#$ 9%&''& .%//'&-( )* ,'- %-0 +),'- 01**'&Q<#'&10%- =>>ZSL 499)&01-2 /) M%--'- Q?bb\S +),'- 9),,H-19%/' 1- % +%$ /#%/

'(/%N61(#'( 9)--'9/1)-(I +#'&'%( *)& ,'- 9),,H-19%/1)- 1( % ,'%-( /) .&'('&K'

1-0'.'-0'-9' %-0 '(/%N61(# (/%/H(L <#'&10%- Q=>>ZS *1-0( /#%/ ,'- %&' ,)&' .&)-' /)

1-/'&&H./I %(; TH'(/1)-(I /%6; 1- ,''/1-2( %-0 *H&/#'&,)&' ,)&' 9),*)&/%N6' +1/#

.HN619 (.'%;1-2 /#%- +),'-L "),'- )- /#' )/#'& #%-0 %&' 9)-(10'&'0 /) N' N'//'&

61(/'-'&(I 6'(( 9)-*10'-/ %-0 /'-0 /) 0)+-.6%$ /#'1& %99),.61(#,'-/( ,)&' )*/'- /#%-

,'-L M#'(' 2'-0'& 01**'&'-9'( 1- 9),,H-19%/1)- 9%- 6'%0 /) ,'- %-0 +),'- /%6;1-2

.%(/ '%9# )/#'&I +#19# #1-0'&( 9),,H-19%/1)- %-0 61,1/( /#' .)/'-/1%6 *)& 9)f).'&%/1)-

Q<#'&10%-I =>>ZSL <#'&10%- Q=>>ZS -)/'( /#%/ +),'- %&' )*/'- PH02'0 /) N' 6'((

9)-*10'-/ )& ()*/'& N'9%H(' /#'1& +%$ )* (.'%;1-2L "),'-X( (12-%6( %&' /#'&'*)&' 61;'6$

/) N' .'&9'1K'0 %( 6'(( %(('&/1K'I .H//1-2 +),'- 1- % 01(%0K%-/%2'0 .)(1/1)- +#'-

.&),)/1)- 0'91(1)-( %&' ,%0'L G- )/#'& +)&0(I /#' (12-%6( ('-/ N$ +),'- %&' -)/ %(

%99H&%/' %( /#)(' ('-/ N$ ,'- +#'- 0'9)0'0 N$ )/#'& ,'-I &'(H6/1-2 1- L

"),'- 9%- %6() 9),,H-19%/' 1- % +%$ /$.19%66$ 9)-(10'&'0 ,%(9H61-'L ]'/I /#1( 9%-

6'%0 /) +),'- N'1-2 ,1(H-0'&(/))0 %-0 1-(/'%0 9)-(10'&'0 %22&'((1K' %-0 -)/

*',1-1-' '-)H2# Q8%26$ %-0 i)#%--'('-f<9#,10/I =>>?S <1,16%&6$I O%N9)9; '/ %6I

Q=>>@S *1-0 /#%/ ,'- +#) %(('&/1K'6$ .'&H(' /#'1& )+- %,N1/1)-( %-0 .&),)/' /#'1&

)+- 1-/'&'(/( %&' 9)-(10'&'0 %,N1/1)H(I +#'&'%( +),'- 0)1-2 /#' (%,' ,%$ N'

9)-(10'&'0 .H(#$L M#1( 1-019%/'( /#%/ /#' (%,' /$.' )* N'#%K1)& 1- ,'- %-0 +),'- %&'

.'&9'1K'0 01**'&'-/6$L



=R

3.2.2.

Upbringing and activities

O)$( %-0 21&6( /%;' .%&/ 1- 01**'&'-/ %9/1K1/1'( /#&)H2#)H/ /#'1& %0)6'(9'-9'L 4 &'.)&/ )-

E1--1(# 9#160&'-X( 'J'&91(1-2 #%N1/( Q5%-(%661-'- D11;H-/%/H/;1,H(I =>?>S (#)+(

(12-1*19%-/ 01**'&'-9'( 1- +#%/ (.)&/( N)$( %-0 21&6( .&%9/19'L 499)&01-2 /) /#' &'.)&/I

21&6( %&' ,)&' 61;'6$ /) .&%9/19' 2$,-%(/19(I *12H&' (;%/1-2 %-0 #)&('N%9; &101-2L O)$(

)- /#' )/#'& #%-0I ,)&' )*/'- 9#))(' /'%, (.)&/( (H9# %( *))/N%66I 19' #)9;'$ %-0 *6))&

N%66L EH&/#'&,)&'I 21&6( /'-0 /) *)9H( ,)&' )- 1-01K10H%6 (.)&/( 9),.%&'0 /) N)$( +#)

%&' ,)&' 61;'6$ /) 9#))(' /'%, (.)&/(L M#H( N)$( %-0 21&6( 9%- N' 9)-(10'&'0 /) 01**'& 1-

/#' (;166( /#'$ 6'%&- *&), .&%9/191-2 /#'(' (.)&/(L 499)&01-2 /) OP'&; Q=>>RS ,%6'

',.6)$'&( ,%$ #%K' 01**19H6/1'( %(('((1-2 #)+ /#' (;166( 6'%&-'0 1- 6'(( *%,161%& (.)&/(

Q'L2L *12H&' (;%/1-2 %-0 2$,-%(/19(S /&%-(6%/' /) ',.6)$''(X .&)*'((1)-%6 61*'L M#1( %2%1-

,%$ 6'%0 /) +),'-X( (12-%6( N'1-2 0'9)0'0 6'(( %99H&%/'6$ /#%- ,'-X( (12-%6( N$ ,%6'

',.6)$'&( 1- 9#%&2' )* .&),)/1)-(I 1,.6$1-2 /#%/

3.2.3.

Mentoring and role models

499)&01-2 /) 4/#'$ '/ %6L Q=>>>S /#' %N161/$ )* % 6)+'& 6'K'6 ',.6)$'' 1( 1-9&'%('0 N$

,'-/)&1-2L F)&' .&'91('6$I %- ',.6)$'' +166 2%1- ,)&' N'-'*1/( *&), ,'-/)&1-2 N$

H..'&f6'K'6 ',.6)$''( /#%/ %&' )* /#' (%,' 2'-0'&L M#' N%(19 10'% 1( /#%/ *',%6'

,'-/)&( ,%$ 1-9&'%(' /#' )..)&/H-1/1'( *)& 6)+f6'K'6 *',%6' ',.6)$''( /) (12-%6 /#'1&

(;166(L B)-(10'&1-2 /#%/ 1- ,)(/ )&2%-1W%/1)-( /#'&' %&' ,)&' ,'- /#%- +),'- 1- H..'&

,%-%2','-/I /#' 1,.619%/1)- 1( /#%/ +),'- +)H60 #%K' 6'(( )..)&/H-1/1'( /) N'

,'-/)&'0 N$ +),'- 1L'L #%K' 6)+'& (;166 (12-%61-2 )..)&/H-1/1'(I () /#%/ L

G- % (H&K'$ N$ B%/%6$(/ Q=>?>SI /%&2'/1-2 \>>> FO4 %6H,-1 *&), 4(1%I B%-%0%I 8H&).'

%-0 4,'&19%I ,'- +'&' *)H-0 /) #%K' 2&'%/'& N'-'*1/( *&), ,'-/)&1-2 N'9%H(' /#'1&

,'-/)&( +'&' #12#'& .6%9'0 1- /#' )&2%-1W%/1)- /#%- /#' ,'-/)&( )* +),'-L 4- %6,)(/

'TH%6 %,)H-/ )* ,'- %-0 +),'- #%0 ,'-/)&( Q=`h )* +),'- K'&(H( =Rh )* ,'-SI

-)-'/#'6'(( ,'- +'&' ,)&' )*/'- .&),)/'0 %-0 #%0 % #12#'& +%2'I 'K'- +#'- /%;1-2

*%9/)&( (H9# %( .&1)& +)&; 'J.'&1'-9'I (/%&/1-2 6'K'6I 1-0H(/&$ %-0 &'21)- 1-/) %99)H-/L

M#' &'(H6/( (),'+#%/ 01**'& *&), /#' /#')&$ ('/ *)&+%&0 N$ 4/#'$ '/ %6L Q=>>>S (1-9'

.)(1/1)- &%/#'& /#%- 2'-0'& 1,.%9/'0 +),'-X( N'-'*1/ 2%1-( *&), ,'-/)&1-2d jM#1( 1(

-)/ (1,.6$ N'9%H(' ,'- #'60 ,)&' ('-1)& .)(1/1)-( /#%- +),'-I &%/#'& ,'-X( ,'-/)&(

+'&' ,)&' ('-1)& 'K'- %*/'& 9)-/&)661-2 *)& /#'1& )+- P)N 6'K'6k QB%/%6$(/I =>?>SL M#H(I

/#' &'(H6/( 1,.6$ /#%/ /#&)H2# ,'-/)& &'6%/1)-(#1.( ,'- #%K' N'//'& .)((1N161/1'( /)

%99H&%/'6$ /&%-(,1/ (12-%6( #12#'& H. 1- /#' )&2%-1W%/1)- /#%- +),'-I () /#%/ L



=b

3.2.4.

Summary of signaling precision

<,1/# '/ %6 Q=>?=S /'(/'0 +#'/#'& .)((1N6' 01**'&'-9'( 1- (12-%61-2 .&'91(1)-I (H9# %(

/#' )-'( ,'-/1)-'0 %N)K'I ,%$ 1,.%9/ +),'-X( .&),)/1)- )..)&/H-1/1'(L M#1( +%(

0)-' N$ (/H0$1-2 +#'/#'& 9),.%-1'( +1/# % *',%6' B8C )& 9#%1&,%- )* /#' N)%&0 #%0

% .)(1/1K' '**'9/ )- +),'- N'1-2 .&),)/'0 1-/) ('-1)& 'J'9H/1K' .)(1/1)-(I /#' 10'%

N'1-2 /#%/ +),'- 9)H60 ,)&' .&'91('6$ 0'9)0' )/#'& +),'-X( (12-%6(L <,1/# '/ %6

Q=>?=S *)H-0 -) .)(1/1K' 9)&&'6%/1)- N'/+''- +#'/#'& % 9),.%-$ +%( 6'0 N$ % +),%-

%-0 +),'-X( 9#%-9'( /) N' .&),)/'0 1-/) B8CX(L 4( % 9)-('TH'-9'I /#' *)9H( 1- /#'

',.1&19%6 .%&/ +166 -)/ N' 1- /#' 01**'&'-9'( 1- (12-%61-2 .&'91(1)- N'/+''- ,'- %-0

+),'-L

A)-'/#'6'((I O%N9)9; %-0 D%(9#'K'& Q=>>@S *1-0 /#%/ +),'- &'(.)-0 (/&)-26$ /)

,'-/)&(#1.I 1- /'&,( )* 1-9&'%('0 9)-*10'-9' %-0 N'9),1-2 ,)&' 61;'6$ /) .&),)/'

/#'1& %99),.61(#,'-/( %,)-2 )/#'& *%9/)&(L M#1( 1- /H&- (#)H60 #%K' /#' '**'9/ /#%/

+),'- /%;' ,)&' %0K%-/%2' )* )..)&/H-1/1'( /) (12-%6 /#'1& (;166(L <12-%61-2 1-/'-(1/$

+166 N' 9)K'&'0 1- /#' *)66)+1-2 9#%./'&L

Signaling intensity3.3.

M#' *%9/)&( %**'9/1-2 ,'-X( %-0 +),'-X( (12-%61-2 1-/'-(1/$ +166 N' 0'(9&1N'0 %-0

01(9H(('0 1- /#1( 9#%./'&L M#'(' 1-96H0' -'/+)&;1-2I ()91'/%6 (/&H9/H&'I /1,' %66)9%/1)-I

-)&,( %-0 .&'*'&'-9'(L <12-%61-2 1-/'-(1/$ 1( 0'-)/'0 L

3.3.1. Networking

499)&01-2 /) <%6)-'& Q?bRaS % *)&,%6 ('6'9/1)- .&)9'(( 1( )-6$ % .%&/ )* /#' #1&1-2

.&)9'(( )* % -'+ +)&;'&L M#'&' 1( %6() %- 1-*)&,%6 ,'9#%-1(, +#'&' .'&()-%6 ).1-1)-(

%&' )N/%1-'0 *&), % /#1&0 .%&/$I +#19# #%K' %- 1,.%9/ )- /#' 'K%6H%/1)- .&)9'(( %-0

.6%$ %- 1,.)&/%-/ &)6' 1- /#' ('6'9/1)- .&)9'((L M#' 1-*)&,%/1)- )N/%1-'0 ,%$ .%&/1%66$

N' N%('0 )- )NP'9/1K' 1-*)&,%/1)- %N)H/ %- %..619%-/I (H9# %( 'J%, &'(H6/(I NH/ 9%-

%6() N' N%('0 )- /#' ',.6)$'&X( (HNP'9/1K' %(('((,'-/ )* %..619%-/X( ,)/1K%/1)-I %N161/$

%-0 61;'61#))0 )* (H99'((L G- ,%-$ 9%('( /#'(' .'&()-%6 ).1-1)-( %&' &'.'%/'06$

)N/%1-'0 *&), /#' (%,' 2&)H. )* .').6' %9/1-2 %( %- 1-*)&,%6 -'/+)&;L Q<%6)-'& ?bRaS

G-*)&,%6 2&)H.( %-0 -'/+)&;( %&' 1,.)&/%-/ *)& ',.6)$''(X .&),)/1)- .)((1N161/1'(L

:)+'K'&I +),'- )*/'- #%K' 61,1/'0 %99'(( )& %&' 0'-1'0 %99'(( *&), /#'(' -'/+)&;(

QD1-'#%-I =>>?SL A'/+)&;( 9)-(1(/ )* 1-01K10H%6( +#) %&' 1- .)+'&*H6 .)(1/1)-( 1-



@>

)&2%-1W%/1)-(I -%,'6$ ,'- %-0 /#H( )*/'- 9%66'0 j)60fN)$k -'/+)&;(L 4( /#'(' -'/+)&;(

#%K' )*/'- 0'K'6).'0 ,%6' 9H(/),( %-0 /&%01/1)-(I 1/ ,%$ N' 01**19H6/ *)& +),'- /) 2'/

1-/) /#'(' -'/+)&;(L D1-'#%- Q=>>?S 1-/'&K1'+'0 a> +),'- 1- ('-1)& ,%-%2','-/I

+#) 'J.&'(('0 /#%/ ()f9%66'0 ,%6' N)-01-2 'J1(/(L M#' H-)**191%6 N)-01-2 /%;'( .6%9'

%*/'& +)&; #)H&( %/ (.)&/1-2 'K'-/(I 96HN( %-0 N%&(I +#19# +),'- *'6/ 'J96H0'0 *&),L

M#' ('-1)& ,%-%2'&( %6() (/%/'0 /#%/ /#'$ 0) -)/ #%K' %( ,H9# /1,' /) -'/+)&; %*/'&

+)&; #)H&( %( ,'-I N'9%H(' )* *%,16$ &'(.)-(1N161/1'(L CK'&%66I ,%-%2'&(X .'&9'1K'0

/#%/ H('*H6 9)-/%9/( %&' ,%0' %-0 NH(1-'(( +%( 01(9H(('0 +#'- ,%6' ,%-%2'&(

-'/+)&; 1-*)&,%66$I +#19# 1- /H&- +%( *%K)&%N6' *)& /#'1& 9%&''&(L <1-9' +),'-I ,)(/

)*/'-I %&' 'J96H0'0 *&), /#'(' 1-*)&,%6 (1/H%/1)-( /#'$ 0) -)/ #%K' /#' (%,'

)..)&/H-1/1'( /) NH160 1-*)&,%6 9)--'9/1)-( %-0 N' -)/19'0 1L'L (12-%6 /#'1& %N161/1'( /)

.').6' +#) ,%$ 1,.%9/ /#'1& 9%&''& %0K%-9','-/I #'-9' L

3.3.2.

Societal structure

M#' ,%/'&-1/$ 6'%K' .'&1)0 1( 6)-2 %-0 9#1609%&' 9)K'&%2' 1( &'6%/1K'6$ #12# 1- /#'

A)&019 9)H-/&1'( +#'- 9),.%&1-2 /) )/#'& C8B7 9)H-/&1'( Q^H./% '/ %6I =>>RSL M#1(

#%( ,%0' 1/ .)((1N6' *)& A)&019 +),'- /) N' )H/ )* /#' 6%N)& *)&9' *)& 6)-2'& .'&1)0( 1-

9)--'9/1)- /) 9#160N1&/#L M#' E1--1(# 6'%K' .'&1)0 1( %..&)J1,%/'6$ ?= ,)-/#(V /#' *1&(/

\ ,)-/#( Q?>a +)&;1-2 0%$(S *)& /#' ,)/#'&I /#'- %&)H-0 ` ,)-/#( Q?aR +)&;1-2 0%$(S

)* .%&'-/%6 6'%K' %-0 PH(/ )K'& = ,)-/#( Qa\ 0%$(S )* .%/'&-1/$ 6'%K' Q58D4I =>?@SL M#'

.%/'&-1/$ 6'%K' #%( 2&%0H%66$ 1-9&'%('0 *&), +#'- 1/ +%( *1&(/ 1-/&)0H9'0 1- ?bZ@L

46/#)H2# /#' .%&'-/%6 6'%K' ,%$ 1- .&1-91.%6 N' /%;'- N$ '1/#'& .%&'-/ )& N' 01K10'0I 1/

1( H(H%66$ /#' ,)/#'& +#) /%;'( 1/L 4 TH%&/'& )* *%/#'&( 0) -)/ /%;' %-$ 6'%K' %/ %66 %-0 1/

1( )K'&%66 &%&' /#%/ ,'- /%;' .%/'&-1/$ 6'%K' Q:p,p6p1-'- %-0 M%;%6%I =>>ZSL G- =>?>I

*%/#'&(X (#%&' )* /#' /)/%6 6'%K' .'&1)0 +%( %&)H-0 ZhL M#' &'%()-( +#$ +),'- /'-0 /)

/%;' /#' /)/%6 %66)+%N6' 6'%K' .'&1)0I #%( .%&/6$ /) 0) +1/# /#' 10'%6( .').6' #%K'

&'2%&01-2 2))0 ,)/#'& c%-0 *%/#'&#))0 Q('' ,)&' )- 10'%6( 1- ('9/1)- @L@L@ )- -)&,(S

%-0 N'9%H(' ,'- )- %K'&%2' '%&- #12#'& +%2'( /#%- +),'-L "#'- /#' &'.6%9','-/

&%/' )* /#' 6'%K' %66)+%-9' 1( 6'(( /#%- )-' #H-0&'0 .'&9'-/I % 2&'%/'& 1-9),' 6)((

)99H&( +#'- % .%&'-/ +#) '%&-( ,)&' (/%$( %/ #),'L G- %001/1)-I /#' &'.6%9','-/ &%/'

)* %66)+%-9' 0'9&'%('( %*/'& 1-9),' 1-9&'%('( %N)K' % 9'&/%1- 6'K'6L M#H( /#'&' %&'

'9)-),19 1-9'-/1K'( *)& /#' .%&'-/ +#) '%&-( ,)&'I H(H%66$ /#' *%/#'&I -)/ /) /%;'

.%&'-/%6 6'%K' Q:p,p6p1-'- %-0 M%;%6%I =>>ZSL



@?

"#'- /#' (/%-0%&0 6'%K' .'&1)0 '-0( /#' 9#160 1( %&)H-0 b ,)-/#( )60L 4*/'& /#1(

9#1609%&' %/ #),' Q*%,16$ 6'%K'S 1( (HN(101W'0 H-/16 /#' 9#160 /H&-( @I +#19# 1- E1-6%-0

1( % .).H6%& +%$ /) )&2%-1W' 9%&' )* (,%66 9#160&'-L A'%&6$ `>h )* ?f$'%&f)60( %-0 @af

\>h )* 9#160&'- %2'0 = %&' 9%&'0 *)& %/ #),' QF1'//1-'-I =>?=SL F1'//1-'- Q=>?=S

&'K1'+'0 ('K'&%6 (/H01'( )- .&'*'&'-9'( *)& #),' 9%&' %-0 *)H-0 /#%/ #),' 9%&' 1( /#'

,)(/ .).H6%& )./1)- *)& ?f= $'%& )60(L M#' .).H6%&1/$ )* #),' 9%&' 9%- %6() N' (''-

+#'- 6));1-2 %/ /#' .&).)&/1)- )* @f$'%&f)60( 1- .HN6196$ )**'&'0 0%$ 9%&'I +#19# 1(

(12-1*19%-/6$ 6)+'& 1- E1-6%-0 /#%- 1- )/#'& A)&019 9)H-/&1'(L G- =>>b H-0'& % /#1&0 )*

?f= $'%& )60( 1- E1-6%-0 +'&' 1- 0%$ 9%&' +#16' /#' &'(.'9/1K' %,)H-/ 1- )/#'& A)&019

9)H-/&1'( +%( %6,)(/ #%6* Q1N10LSL D)-2 6'%K'( %-0 /1,' /%;'- )** /#' 6%N)& ,%&;'/ %&'

,%1-6$ 9)-9'-/&%/'0 )- +),'-I +#19# 1( +#$ *%,16$ 6'%K' +'%;'-( +),'-X( .)(1/1)-

)- /#' 6%N)& ,%&;'/L EH&/#'&I ,%/'&-1/$ 6'%K' #%( N''- *)H-0 /) #%K' % -'2%/1K' '**'9/

)- +),'-X( .&),)/1)- .)((1N161/1'( Q('' 'L2L <,1/# '/ %6LI =>?= %-0 O'&/&%-0 '/ %6LI

=>?>SL <1-9' +),'- /%;' %0K%-/%2' )* /#' 2'-'&)H( 6'%K' ($(/', %-0 %&' %+%$ *&),

/#' 6%N)& ,%&;'/ *)& 6)-2'& .'&1)0( /#'$ %6() #%K' *'+'& )..)&/H-1/1'( /) (12-%6 /#'1&

(;166(I &'(H6/1-2 1- L M#1( 1,.61'( /#%/ /#' .%&'-/%6 6'%K' (9#','( 9&'%/' % ()f

9%66'0 N)),'&%-2 '**'9/ *)& +),'- )- /#' 6%N)& ,%&;'/I 6'%01-2 /) +),'- N'1-2

.&),)/'0 /) /). .)(1/1)-( 6'(( /#%- ,'-L Q^H./% '/ %6I =>>RS

46/#)H2# E1--( %&' )**'&'0 2'-'&)H( .%&'-/%6 6'%K' (9#','( %-0 .HN6196$ (H..)&/'0

9#1609%&' 1/ 9%- (/166 N' 01**19H6/ /) 9),N1-' 'K'&$0%$ 61K1-2 +1/# (,%66 9#160&'- %-0 %

0',%-01-2 9%&''&L 4,)-2 )/#'& /#1-2(I %( ,%-$ )* /#' .HN6196$ )**'&'0 0%$ 9%&'( 96)('

&%/#'& '%&6$I /#' .%&'-/ 1- 9#%&2' )* .19;1-2 H. /#' 9#160 ,H(/ 6'%K' +)&; '%&61'& /#%-

/#' )-' +1/#)H/ /#' &'(.)-(1N161/$L M#1( 9%- N' .&)N6',%/19 1- % #)H('#)60 +#'&' N)/#

.%&'-/( #%K' % 9%&''& /#%/ &'TH1&'( ,)&' /#%- @Z #)H&( )* +)&; % +'';I +#19# 1( )*/'-

/#' 9%(' *)& ',.6)$''( +#) %(.1&' /) /). ,%-%2','-/ .)(1/1)-(L 4( 9%- N' (''- 1- /#'

*)66)+1-2 ('9/1)- )- /1,' %66)9%/1)- Q@L@L=S +),'- %&' ,)(/ )*/'- &'(.)-(1N6' *)&

.19;1-2 9#160&'- *&), 0%$ 9%&' %-0 (9#))6I #%K' /#' ,%1- &'(.)-(1N161/$ )* /%;1-2 9%&'

)* (19; 9#160&'- %-0 *H&/#'& /%;' )- % ,%P)&1/$ )* #)H(' 9%&' 0H/1'(L M#1( (H22'(/( /#%/

+),'- +)H60 #%K' *'+'& )..)&/H-1/1'( /) (12-%6 /#'1& %N161/1'( 1L'L L 4 ()6H/1)-

/) /#1(I +#19# +)H60 1-9&'%(' +),'-X( /1,' %66)9%/1)- )- ,%&;'/ +)&;I 1( /) )H/()H&9'

(),' )* /#' 9#1609%&' %-0 #)H('#)60 0H/1'( 'L2L #1&1-2 -%--1'( %-0 #)H(';''.'&( %-0

'%/1-2 )H/ ,)&'L U'6$1-2 )- )H/(10' #'6. 1- E1-6%-0 1(I #)+'K'&I 'J.'-(1K' 1-

9),.%&1()- /) )/#'& C8B7 9)H-/&1'(I 'J96H01-2 /#' A)&019(I 0H' /) /#' #12# /%J NH&0'-

%-0 #12# ,1-1,H, +%2'(L M#1( ,'%-( /#%/ ,%-$ *%,161'( 9%--)/ %**)&0 /) )H/()H&9'

/#'(' /%(;(L C- )-' #%-0 /#' E1--1(# +'6*%&' (/%/' #%( .)(1/1K' '**'9/( )- +),'-X(



@=

',.6)$,'-/V )- /#' )/#'& #%-0 1/ ('',( /) 9&'%/' &'(/&19/1)-( )- +),'-X(

)..)&/H-1/1'( /) (12-%6 /#'1& (;166( () /#%/ /#'$ %&' -)/ .&),)/'0 /) /#' (%,' 'J/'-/ %(

,'-L

3.3.3. Time allocation

M#' 01(/&1NH/1)- )* ,%&;'/ %-0 -)-f,%&;'/ +)&; N'/+''- ,'- %-0 +),'- 1( )*

1-/'&'(/ (1-9' /#' -H,N'& )* #)H&( (.'-/ 1- ,%&;'/ +)&; #%( %- 1,.%9/ )- N)/# (%6%&$

%-0 .&),)/1)- )..)&/H-1/1'(L G- E1-6%-0I /#' /)/%6 %,)H-/ )* +)&;1-2 #)H&( 1(

(),'+#%/ 2&'%/'& *)& +),'- /#%- *)& ,'- +#) #%K' 9#160&'-V ?>L\R Q#L,1-S *)&

+),'-I &'(.'9/1K'6$ ?>L=? Q#L,1-S *)& ,'- Q]61;p--q =>??SL "#'- 01K101-2 /#' -H,N'&

N'/+''- ,%&;'/ %-0 -)-f,%&;'/ +)&;I 1/ 9%- N' (''- *&), /#' /%N6' N'6)+ /#%/ ,'-

(.'-0 %6,)(/ %- #)H& ,)&' )- ,%&;'/ +)&; /#%- +),'-L "),'- )- /#' )/#'& #%-0 0)

,)&' /#%- %- #)H& ,)&' -)-f,%&;'/ +)&; /#%- ,'-L A)-f,%&;'/ +)&; 1-96H0'( N)/#

)&01-%&$ #)H('+)&; %-0 9#1609%&'L B)H.6'( +#) 0) -)/ #%K' 9#160&'- +)&; 96)(' /)

'TH%6 #)H&( Q,'- bL@?I +),'- bL=?S #)+'K'& ,'- 0) %6,)(/ %- #)H& Qa=,1-S ,)&'

,%&;'/ +)&; /#%- +),'-I +#16' +),'- )- /#' )/#'& #%-0 0) ,)&' -)-f,%&;'/ +)&;

/#%- ,'-L

Table 1

Working men and women’s time allocation divided into paid work, domestic work and free-time (h.min/24 h)

@"#/%& 9,#/ A,2$"#/%& 9,#/ B,&"3 9,#/ C#%%&)$%

@%2" DEFG FEGH HGEFH IEFJ

K,$%2" LEFJ IEFJ HGEJD FEHM

%M#' *12H&'( &'.&'('-/ E1--( +#) %&' 9)#%N1/1-2 %-0 +#)(' $)H-2'(/ 9#160 1( >f` $'%&(f)60

4-)/#'& 01**'&'-9' 1( /#%/ +),'- /%;' )- ,)&' /1,' ('-(1/1K' -)-f,%&;'/ +)&;I (H9#

%( 9));1-2 %-0 9#1609%&'L F'- %&' ,)&' 61;'6$ /) /%;' )- 0),'(/19 +)&;I +#19# 9%- N'

0)-' %/ %-$ /1,' Q'L2L #),' &'.%1&( %-0 $%&0 +)&;SL 499)&01-2 /) %- 8TH%61/$

O%&),'/'& .HN61(#'0 N$ /#' F1-1(/&$ )* <)91%6 4**%1&( %-0 :'%6/# Q511%-,%%I =>?=S /#'

,)/#'&(X (#%&' )* 9#1609%&' &'(.)-(1N161/$ 1( %N)H/ \>hI *)& ,'- /#' &'(.'9/1K' (#%&' 1(

?>hL M#' (%,' 9%- N' )N('&K'0 1- /%;1-2 %-0 .19;1-2 H. 9#160&'- H. *&), 9#1609%&'

%-0 (9#))6I +#'&' *%/#'&(X (#%&' 1( %&)H-0 ?Z hL F)/#'&( %6() #%K' % 6%&2'&

&'(.)-(1N161/$ 1- /%;1-2 9%&' )* (19; 9#160&'-d 1- a>h )* /#' 9%('( /#' ,)/#'& /%;'( /#'

.&1-91.%6 &'(.)-(1N161/$ %-0 \>h )* /#' 9%('( /#' &'(.)-(1N161/$ 1( (#%&'0L <1-9' +),'-

0) /#' ,%P)&1/$ )* /1,' ('-(1/1K' -)-f,%&;'/ +)&;I /#'$ %&' 6'(( *6'J1N6' 1- /#'1& ,%&;'/

+)&; %-0 /#'&'*)&' #%K' *'+'& )..)&/H-1/1'( /) (12-%6 /#'1& (;166(I 1L'L



@@

3.3.4.

Norms

<)91%6 -)&,( 1- % ()91'/$ ,%$ H-;-)+1-26$ #%K' %- 1,.%9/ )- .').6'X( N'#%K1)& %-0

.&),)/1)- .)((1N161/1'( Q</%K%&0 %-0 A1'6('-I =>?=SL M#' 8H&).'%- B),,1((1)- #%(

9)-0H9/'0 /+) &'.)&/(I )-' )- 1-'TH%61/$ Q8H&)N%&),'/'& =>?>S %-0 /#' )/#'& )-

+),'- 1- 0'91(1)-f,%;1-2 .)(1/1)-( Q8H&)N%&),'/'& =>?=SI +#19# N)/# 9)K'& ,',N'&

(/%/'(X ).1-1)-( %N)H/ K%&1)H( /).19 &'6%/'0 1((H'(L U'(H6/( *&), /#' *1&(/ &'.)&/ Q8H&)

N%&),'/'&I =>?>S (H22'(/ /#%/ E1-6%-0 ,%$ -)/ N' %( 'TH%6 %( 2'-'&%66$ /#)H2#/ %( abh

)* &'(.)-0'-/( (/%/' /#%/ 2'-0'& 1-'TH%61/$ 1( +10'(.&'%0L D1;'+1(' \b h )*

&'(.)-0'-/( %&' )* /#' ).1-1)- /#%/ (/'&')/$.1-2 )99H&( 1- /#' +)&;.6%9'L M#1( 1-019%/'(

/#%/ /#'&' 'J1(/( % 9'&/%1- 0'2&'' )* 1-'TH%61/$ N'/+''- ,'- %-0 +),'-I %-0 /#%/ /#1(

1-'TH%61/$ 1( &'*6'9/'0 1- (/'&')/$.19%6 %9/1)-( 1- /#' +)&;.6%9'L 4-)/#'& 1-/'&'(/1-2

*'%/H&' 1( /#%/ E1-6%-0 (#)+( /#' /#1&0 #12#'(/ .'&9'-/%2' Qa>hS )* &'(.)-0'-/(

)..)(1-2 /) j,'- ,%1-6$ 6));1-2 %*/'& 9#160&'- %-0 /#' #),'kL 4001/1)-%66$I \Z h )*E1--( %2&'' +1/# /#' (/%/','-/ j4 ,)/#'& ,H(/ .H/ 6));1-2 %*/'& #'& $)H-2 9#160 %#'%0

)* #'& 9%&''&kL U'(H6/( (H22'(/ /#%/ E1--( /) (),' 'J/'-/ (#)+ /&%01/1)-%6 2'-0'&

(/'&')/$.19%6 K1'+( /#%/ +),'- (#)H60 (/%$ %/ #),' %-0 /%;' /#' &)6' )* 9%&'21K'&(I

+#16' ,'- %&' %((12-'0 /#' &)6' )* N&'%0+1--'&(L

M#'(' -)&,( 9%- 1-*6H'-9' /#' 9#)19'( ,%0' N$ ,'- %-0 +),'- &'2%&01-2 /#'1& *%,16$

%-0 /#'1& 9%&''&L 4( /#' 8H&)N%&),'/'& Q=>?>S (#)+(I /#'&' 1( % +10'(.&'%0 %//1/H0'

/#%/ +),'- (#)H60 /%;' /#' 9%&'21K1-2 &)6' %-0 .&1)&1/1W' 9#160&'-L M#1( ,%$ .&'((H&'

+),'- /) .&1)&1/1W' *%,16$ ,)&' %-0 6'%0 /) +),'- #%K1-2 *'+'& )..)&/H-1/1'( /)(12-%6 /#%- ,'-I () /#%/ L

3.3.5.

Preferences

499)&01-2 /) .&'*'&'-9' /#')&$ ('/ *)&+%&0 N$ :%;1, Q=>>@SI 61*'(/$6' 9#)19'( )*

1-01K10H%6( #%K' %- 1,.%9/ )- /#' .&).)&/1)- )* +),'- 1- ,%-%2','-/ .)(1/1)-(L

M&%01/1)-%66$ +),'- #%K' N''- 9)-(10'&'0 /) #%K' #),)2'-)H( .&'*'&'-9'( /)+%&0(

*%,16$I #)+'K'&I .&'*'&'-9' /#')&$ (/%/'( /#%/ +),'-X( .&'*'&'-9'( &'2%&01-2 *%,16$

+)&; N%6%-9' %&' #'/'&)2'-')H(V (),' +),'- .&1)&1/1W' *%,16$I )/#'&( +)&; %-0 (),'

%&' 1- N'/+''-L F'- )- /#' )/#'& #%-0 %&' ,)&' #),)2'-)H( 1- /#'1& .&'*'&'-9'(V

,)(/ ,'- K%6H' +)&; %-0 9),.'/1/1K' &'(H6/( )H/(10' /#' #),' #12#'& /#%- *%,16$

&'6%/'0 +)&;L M#'(' 01**'&'-9'( %&' 9)-*1&,'0 1- % (/H0$ N$ </%K%&0 %-0 A1'6('- Q=>?=SI

+#19# 9)-9'-/&%/'0 )- 7%-1(# H-1K'&(1/$ (/H0'-/(X .&'*'&'-9'( &'2%&01-2 9%&''& %-0

*%,16$L M#' &'(H6/( (#)+ /#%/ *',%6' (/H0'-/( /'-0 /) 01(.6%$ ,)&' .&'*'&'-9'( /)+%&0(



@\

*%,16$ /#%- ,%6' (/H0'-/(L M#' (/H0$ %6() *)H-0 /#%/ +),'-X( .&'*'&'-9'( /'-0 /) (#1*/

/)+%&0( *%,16$ %*/'& #%K1-2 #%0 9#160&'-I % /'-0'-9$ -)/ *)H-0 1- ,'-L G* +),'- 1-

2'-'&%6 .&1)&1/1W' -)-f,%&;'/ +)&; #12#'&I %-0 /%;' 6)-2'& .'&1)0( )** /#' +)&; *)&9'

1- 9)--'9/1)- /) 9#160N1&/#I +),'- %&' -)/ %N6' /) (12-%6 /#'1& (;166( %( ,H9# %( ,'-L

M#1( +)H60 ,'%- /#%/ +),'- +)H60 -)/ N' .&),)/'0 %( )*/'- %( /#'1& ,%6'

9)H-/'&.%&/(I (H22'(/1-2 /#%/

M#'&' ,%$ %6() N' 2'-0'& 01**'&'-9'( 1- .&'*'&'-9'( 1- )/#'& +)&; &'6%/'0 %&'%(I (H9#

%( /#' 0'(1&' /) 9),.'/'L A1'0'&6' %-0 o'(/'&6H-0 Q=>>ZS (#)+ /#%/ ,'- %&' ,)&' /#%-

/+19' %( 61;'6$ /) '-2%2' 1- % /)H&-%,'-/ /$.' 9),.'/1/1)- /#%- +),'- +#'- 21K'- /#'

9#)19'I 'K'- /#)H2# ,'- %-0 +),'- #%K' 'TH%6 %N161/1'(L M#' )N('&K'0 01**'&'-9' 9%-

N' '1/#'& N'9%H(' +),'- 01(61;' 9),.'/1/1)- ,)&' /#%- ,'- )& N'9%H(' +),'- %&'

6'(( ('6*f9)-*10'-/ 1- /#'1& %N161/1'( /#%- ,'-L <,1/# '/ %6 Q=>?=S %((H,' /#%/ /#'

.&),)/1)- /) /). 6'K'6 1( 0'910'0 N$ % /)H&-%,'-/ +1/# )-6$ )-' +1--'&L G* +),'- j(#$

%+%$k *&), 9),.'/1/1)-I 1L'L (#)+ 01**'&'-/ N'#%K1)& +1/# &'2%&0( /) %..6$1-2 %-0

9),.'/1-2 *)& /#' /). .)(1/1)-(I /#'- /#' )N('&K'0 2'-0'& 2%. 1- .&),)/1)-( ,%$ N'

1-9&'%('0L

<1,16%&6$I O%N9)9; %-0 D%(9#'K'& Q=>>@S (H22'(/ +),'-X( 1-*'&1)& -'2)/1%/1)- (;166(

NH/ %6() +166 /) -'2)/1%/' ,%$ (/%-0 1- /#' +%$ )* .&),)/1)-(d j+),'- 0) -)/ )*/'- 2'/

+#%/ /#'$ +%-/ %-0 0'('&K' N'9%H(' /#'$ 0)-X/ %(; *)& 1/kL EH&/#'&,)&'I +),'- %&' 6'((

61;'6$ /#%- ,'- /) .&),)/' /#'1& )+- 1-/'&'(/ %-0 -'2)/1%/' (%6%&$ 1-9&'%('( %-0

.&),)/1)-( QO%N9)9; %-0 D%(9#'K'&I =>>@SL F%-$ ',.6)$''( %&' &'(.)-(1N6' *)&

-'2)/1%/1-2 /#'1& +%2'( %-0 /#'1& &'(.)-(1N161/1'( /#',('6K'(I /#H( -'2)/1%/1-2 1( % +%$

/) (12-%6 /#%/ % +)&;'& N'61'K'( 1- #1( )& #'& )+- (;166(L "),'- %&' /#'&'*)&' 1- %

01(%0K%-/%2'0 .)(1/1)- 1* /#'$ %&' +)&(' %/ -'2)/1%/1-2 )& %6/'&-%/1K'6$ %&' 6'((

1-/'&'(/'0 1- /). .)(1/1)-(I ,'%-1-2 /#%/ /#'$ (12-%6 6'(( /#%- /#'1& ,%6' 9)66'%2H'(I 1L'L

3.3.6. Summary of signaling intensity

G- E1-6%-0I +),'- (.'-0 ,)&' /1,' +1/# /#'1& 9#160&'- /#%- ,'- %-0 /%;' )** 6)-2

.'&1)0( *&), /#' 6%N)& ,%&;'/ 1- 9)--'9/1)- /) 9#160N1&/#L M#1( 1( /#)H2#/ /) N' .%&/6$

0H' /) /#' +%$ /#' E1--1(# ()91'/$ 1( (/&H9/H&'0 %-0 /#' -)&,( E1--( 61K' N$L G- %-

'TH%6 .%&/I /#' *%K)&%N6' 6'%K' 9)-01/1)-( %-0 % 6'(('& 0'(1&' /) 9),.'/' 1- /#' 6%N)&

,%&;'/ 9%- 6'%0 /) +),'- .&'*'&&1-2 /) .&1)&1/1W' *%,16$ %-0 (/%$ #),' +1/# 9#160&'-

6)-2'&I +#19# 6'%0( /) +),'- )- %K'&%2' #%K1-2 *'+'& )..)&/H-1/1'( /) (12-%6 /#'1&



@a

(;166(L 499)&01-2 /) </%K%&0 %-0 A1'6('- Q=>?=S ()91%6 (/&H9/H&'I -)&,( %-0 .&'*'&'-9'(

%&' 96)('6$ 61-;'0I +#19# #%( %-0 % 01&'9/ 1,.%9/ )- /#' 6)+ .&).)&/1)- )* +),'- 1- /).

,%-%2','-/L M#'(' 2&)H. 01**'&'-9'( +166 N' /#' *)9H( )* /#' ',.1&19%6 .%&/I +1/# %-

'J9'./1)- *)& /#' ('9/1)- )* -'/+)&;1-2I +#19# 0H' /) &'()H&9' 61,1/%/1)-( 1( -)/ +1/#1-

/#' (9).' )* /#' (/H0$L :)+'K'&I 1/ 1( 1,.)&/%-/ /) %9;-)+6'02' /#%/ -'/+)&;1-2 %-0

01**'&'-9'( 1- %99'(( /) -'/+)&;(I ,%$ 'TH%6 /) 01**'&'-9'( 1- .&),)/1)- )..)&/H-1/1'(

*)& ,'- %-0 +),'-L



@`

4

HYPOTHESES

O%('0 )- /#' %N)K' 9#%./'& )- j.%&%,'/'&(k /#' %((H,./1)-( %&' /#%/ ()91'/%6

(/&H9/H&'I -)&,(I .&'*'&'-9'( %-0 /1,' %66)9%/1)- ,%$ 'J.6%1- /#' 01**'&'-9'( 1-

(12-%61-2 1-/'-(1/$ N'/+''- ,'- %-0 +),'-L M#H(I 2'-0'& 01**'&'-9'( )N('&K'0 1-

/#'(' .%&%,'/'&( #'6. /) 'J.6%1- /#%/ +),'- %&' N'1-2 .&),)/'0 /) % 6'(('& 'J/'-/ /#%-

,'-L M#&'' N&)%0 #$.)/#'('( %&' 9)-(/&H9/'0 N'6)+ *)9H(1-2 )- 01**'&'-/ %(.'9/( /#%/

,%$ 'J.6%1- 2'-0'& 01**'&'-9'( 1- (12-%61-2 1-/'-(1/$d M#' *1&(/ )-' 9)-9'-/&%/'( )-

,%-%2'&(X 9%&''& %(.1&%/1)-( %-0 .&'*'&'-9'(I /#' ('9)-0 )-' )- 2'-0'& N%6%-91-2 )*

*%,16$ %-0 +)&; %-0 /#' /#1&0 )-' )- /) +#%/ 'J/'-/ ,1006' ,%-%2'&( %-0 E1--( #%K'

(/'&')/$.19%6 N'61'*( &'2%&01-2 +),'-X( 9%&''& 1-/'&'(/( %-0 +#'/#'& /#'&' %&' %2'

0'.'-0'-/ 01**'&'-9'( %,)-2 ,1006' ,%-%2'&(X N'61'*(L

Hypothesis 1 – Career ambition and preferences4.1.

"#$ %&' (') *+,&' -' ,-)).& ,('(/&,&'0 )+ '+0 )-11&2 -' 03&-2 42&1&2&'5&6 1+2

5(2&&2 ()7('5&,&'08 "+*&7&29 ,&' 602-7& 3-/3&29 (2& ,+2& 5+'1-)&'0 -' 03&-2 5(2&&2

42+64&506 (') 6:-..6 (') 3(7& ;&00&2 42&2&<=-6-0&6 1+2 5(2&&2 ()7('5&,&'0 03('

*+,&'8

#8 %&' (') *+,&' -' ,-)).& ,('(/&,&'0 )+ '+0 )-11&2 -' 03&-2 )&6-2& 1+2 5(2&&2

()7('5&,&'0

>8 %&' -' ,-)).& ,('(/&,&'0 602-7& 1+2 ( 3-/3&2 +2/('-?(0-+'(. 4+6-0-+' 03('

*+,&' -' ,-)).& ,('(/&,&'0

@8 %&' -' ,-)).& ,('(/&,&'0 3(7& ,+2& 5+'1-)&'5& -' 03&-2 5(2&&2 42+64&506

(') 03(0 03(0 03&A 3(7& 03& 2&<=-2&) 6:-..6 1+2 5(2&&2 ()7('5&,&'0 5+,4(2&)

0+ *+,&'

B8 %&' -' ,-)).& ,('(/&,&'0 4.(' 03&-2 5(2&&2 ,+2& (') 0(:& ( ,+2& (50-7&

(442+(53 0+ 5(2&&2 ()7('5&,&'0

C8

%&' -' ,-)).& ,('(/&,&'0 (2& ,+2& .-:&.A 0+ /&0 42+,+0-+' +11&26 (') (55&40

03&, 03(' *+,&' -' ,-)).& ,('(/&,&'0

M#' 1-(.1&%/1)- *)& #$.)/#'(1( ?L? %-0 ?L= (/', *&), :H0()- (/H0$ Q=>>RSI *)9H(1-2 )-

,1006' ,%-%2'&(X 9%&''& %(.1&%/1)-( 1- /#' Y<L M#' (/H0$ &'.)&/'0 /#%/ % (1,16%&



@Z

.'&9'-/%2' )* ,%6' %-0 *',%6' ,1006' ,%-%2'&( %(.1&'0 /) ('-1)& 6'K'6 .)(1/1)-( QZbh

%-0 R=hSL A) (1,16%& /$.' )* 9),.%&1()- ('',( /) #%K' N''- 0)-' *)& E1--1(# ,1006'

,%-%2'&(L :)+'K'&I o%-#%6% Q=>??S *1-0(I 1- % (/H0$ )- E1--1(# *',%6' ,1006'

,%-%2'&X( 9%&''& )&1'-/%/1)-(I /#%/ %&)H-0 % /#1&0 %(.1&'0 *)& /). ,%-%2','-/

.)(1/1)-( +#19# 1( % 9)-(10'&%N6$ 6)+'& .&).)&/1)- /#%- )N('&K'0 N$ :H0()-L M#'

:H0()- (/H0$ %6() *)H-0 /#%/ ,'- )- %K'&%2' %1, /) %9#1'K' % #12#'& 9)&.)&%/'

.)(1/1)- /#%- +),'-I +#19# 1( /#' 1-(.1&%/1)- *)& /#' #$.)/#'(1( ?L=L "#'- %(;'0 +#%/

.)(1/1)-( ,1006' ,%-%2'&( +%-/ /) %9#1'K'I @?h )* ,'- -%,' .&'(10'-/ )& Bf(H1/'

.)(1/1)-( Q'L2L B8CI BCCI BECS +#16' /#' &'(.'9/1K' %,)H-/ )* +),'- -%,1-2 /#'('

.)(1/1)-( 1( ==hL M#' ,)(/ 9),,)- &'(.)-(' *)& ,'- 1( K19' .&'(10'-/ +#16' +),'-

%1, 6)+'&I *)& +),'- /#' ,)(/ 9),,)- %-(+'& 1( j01&'9/)&kL

:$.)/#'(1( ?L@ %-0 ?L\ ,%1-6$ 0&%+ 1-(.1&%/1)- *&), % (/H0$ N$ 8H&).'X( G-(/1/H/' )*

D'%0'&(#1. l F%-%2','-/ QE6$-- '/ %6LI =>??SI +#19# &'K'%6'0 /#%/ +),'- 1-

6'%0'&(#1. &)6'( %&' 6'(( 9)-*10'-/ %-0 ,)&' 9%H/1)H( /#%- ,'-L M#' *1-01-2(I N%('0 )-

1-/'&K1'+( %-0 @`> &'.)&/(I (/%/'0 /#%/ Z>h )* ,%6'( #%0 % #12# )& K'&$ #12# ('6*f

9)-*10'-9'I 9),.%&'0 /) a>h )* /#' (H&K'$'0 +),'-L EH&/#'&I #%6* )* /#' (H&K'$'0

+),'- #%0 *''61-2( )* ('6*f0)HN/ &'2%&01-2 /#'1& .'&*)&,%-9' %-0 9%&''&I +#'&'%( @?h

)* ,'- &'.)&/'0 /#' (%,'L M#1( 6%9; )* 9)-*10'-9' &'(H6/'0 1- *',%6' ,%-%2'&(

%..6$1-2 6'(( *)& .&),)/1)-( /#%- ,'-d ?\h )* +),'- +)H60 %..6$ *)& % .)(1/1)-

0'(.1/' -)/ *H66$ ,''/1-2 /#' P)N 0'(9&1./1)-I 9),.%&'0 /) =>h )* ,'-L

G/ ('',( /#%/ -) E1--1(# (/H0$ #%( N''- 0)-' 9)-9'&-1-2 #$.)/#'(1(I ?L\LI $'/ %

9),,)- N'61'* 1( /#%/ +),'- %&' )**'&'0 g %..6$ *)& .&),)/1)-( 6'(( /#%- ,'- %-0 %&'

,)&' 61;'6$ /) 0'961-' .&),)/1)-(L G- %- %&/196' N$ M%6)H('6p,p Q=>?@SI /#' ,)(/

1-*6H'-/1%6 E1--1(# NH(1-'((+),'- +'&' %(;'0 %N)H/ /#'1& ).1-1)-( %-0 .'&9'./1)-(

%N)H/ +),'-X( 9%&''& 0'K'6).,'-/L 4 /#1&0 )* /#' (H&K'$'0 (/%/'0 /#%/ /#%/ /#' 6)+

.&).)&/1)- )* +),'- )N('&K'0 1- 6'%0'&(#1. &)6'( 1( N'9%H(' +),'- /#',('6K'(

0'961-' .&),)/1)- )**'&(L :$.)/#'(1( ?La %1,( /) /'(/ /#1( N'61'*L

Hypothesis 2 – Family and work4.2.

"(7-'/ 53-.)2&' )+&6 '+0 4&2,('&'0.A (.0&2 *+,&'D6 5(2&&2 /+(.6 ,+2& 03(' -0 )+&6

1+2 ,&'E 3+*&7&2 -0 6.+*6 )+*' *+,&'D6 5(2&&2 ()7('5&,&'0 ,+2&8 F53-&7-'/

1(,-.A (') *+2: ;(.('5& 2&<=-2&6 ,+2& 5+,42+,-6&6 (') 0-,& (..+5(0-+' 12+,

*+,&' 03(' 1+2 ,&' -' ,-)).& ,('(/&,&'08 G3&6& (50-+'6 (2& 5+'6-)&2&) 0+



@R

2&42&6&'0 *+,&'D6 42&1&2&'5&69 03=6 *+,&' (2& 4&25&-7&) 0+ 3(7& ,+2& 42&1&2&'5&6

1+2 2(-6-'/ ( 1(,-.A

#8

"(7-'/ 53-.)2&' )+&6 '+0 4&2,('&'0.A (.0&2 03& 5(2&&2 /+(.6 +1 1&,(.& ,-)).&

,('(/&26 ,+2& 03(' ,(.& ,-)).& ,('(/&26

>8 H+,&' -' ,-)).& ,('(/&,&'0 (2& ,+2& .-:&.A 0+ ,(:& 5(2&&2 /+(.

5+,42+,-6&6 03(' ,&' -' ,-)).& ,('(/&,&'0 0+ ;(.('5& 1(,-.A (') *+2:

@8 "(7-'/ 53-.)2&' 0&,4+2(2-.A 6.+*6 )+*' 1&,(.& ,-)).& ,('(/&26D 5(2&&2

()7('5&,&'0 ,+2& 03(' ,(.& ,-)).& ,('(/&26 5(2&&29 (') 1+2 *+,&' 03-6

6.+*)+*' -6 ,+2& +10&' -'7+.='0(2A

B8

H+,&' -' ,-)).& ,('(/&,&'0 (..+5(0& ,+2& 0-,& 0+ 53-.)5(2& (') 3+=6&*+2:

03(' ,&' -' ,-)).& ,('(/&,&'0

E1-6%-0 1( 9)-(10'&'0 % *)&'&H--'& 1- *%,16$ *&1'-06$ .)6191'( %-0 /#' 9)-*619/( N'/+''-

,)/#'&#))0 %-0 +)&; 61*' #%K' 0'9&'%('0 +1/# /#' 1-/&)0H9/1)- )* 2'-'&)H( 6'%K' %-0

9#1609%&' (9#','( Q^H./% '/ %6LI=>>RSL O)/# /#' *',%6' ',.6)$,'-/ &%/' %-0 -%/1K1/$ 1(

#12# N$ 8H&).'%- (/%-0%&0(I 1,.6$1-2 /#%/ +),'- 1- E1-6%-0 #%K' 2))0 .&'&'TH1(1/'(

*)& 9%&''& ,%;1-2L M#H(I #%K1-2 9#160&'- (#)H60 -)/ .'&,%-'-/6$ %6/'& +),'-X( 9%&''&

2)%6(L M#1( 1( /#' *)9H( )* /#' *1&(/ (HNf#$.)/#'(1( ?L?L

46/#)H2# /#' 2'-'&%6 N'61'* 1( /#%/ #%K1-2 9#160&'- 0)'( -)/ .'&,%-'-/6$ %6/'& '1/#'&2'-0'&X( 9%&''& 2)%6(I N%('0 )- /#' 61/'&%/H&' &'K1'+I 9#160&'- ('', /) 1,.%9/ /#'

9%&''&( )* ,'- %-0 +),'- H-'K'-6$L <HNf#$.)/#'(1( ?L=I ?L@ %-0 ?L\ 6)); *)9H( )- #)+

#%K1-2 9#160&'- 1,.%9/ +),'-X( 9%&''&( 01**'&'-/6$I '1/#'& K)6H-/%&16$ )& 1-K)6H-/%&16$I

/#%- /#' 9%&''&( )* ,'-L "),'- /%;' /#' ,%P)&1/$ )* .%&'-/%6 6'%K' %-0 % 6%&2'&

&'(.)-(1N161/$ *)& 9#1609%&' %-0 #)H('#)60 0H/1'(I .%&/19H6%&6$ /1,' 1-*6'J1N6' +)&; (H9#

%( /%;1-2 9#160&'- /) (9#))6 QF1'//1-'-I =>>R %-0 =>?=SL M#H(I /#' %((H,./1)- 1( /#%/

+),'- ,)&' )*/'- *%9' % 9%&''&f(6)+0)+- +#'- 9#160&'- %&' (,%66 %-0 (HN('TH'-/6$

9),.&),1(' )- /#'1& 9%&''& /%&2'/( 1- )&0'& /) &'%9# +)&; %-0 *%,16$ N%6%-9'L G- /#'

/#1&0 (HNf#$.)/#'(1( 1/ 1( )* 1-/'&'(/ /) 'J%,1-' +#'/#'& /#' 9%&''& (6)+f0)+- #%( N''-

1-K)6H-/%&$ *)& +),'-I +#19# +)H60 (H22'(/ /#%/ (/%/1(/19%6 01(9&1,1-%/1)- +)H60 N'

.&'('-/L M#' *)&/# (HNf#$.)/#'(1( 6));( 1-/) #)+ ,%-%2'&( 01K10' 0),'(/19 +)&; +1/#

/#'1& .%&/-'&(L



@b

Hypothesis 3 – Norms and beliefs4.3.

%-)).& ,('(/&26 3(7& 02()-0-+'(. ;&.-&16 2&/(2)-'/ *+,&'D6 2+.&6 (') 1&,(.&

.&()&263-48 F )-11&2&'5& -' ;&.-&16 2&/(2)-'/ *+,&'D6 2+.&6 5(' ;& +;6&27&) ;&0*&&'

03& A+='/&2 (') +.)&2 /&'&2(0-+' +1 ,-)).& ,('(/&268 G3& A+='/&2 /&'&2(0-+' -6 .&66

5+'6&27(0-7& -' 03&-2 ;&.-&16 2&/(2)-'/ *+,&'D6 5(2&&2 -'0&2&606 (') +44+20='-0-&68

#8

G3& +.)&2 /&'&2(0-+' +1 ,-)).& ,('(/&26 -6 ,+2& .-:&.A 0+ ;&.-&7& 03(0 *+,&'

(2& .&66 -'0&2&60&) -' 4+6-0-+'6 +1 2&64+'6-;-.-0A (') .&66 *-..-'/ 0+ 1-/30 1+2

03&-2 5(2&&2 03(' ,&' 03(' 03& A+='/&2 /&'&2(0-+'

>8

G3& +.)&2 /&'&2(0-+' +1 ,-)).& ,('(/&26 -6 ,+2& .-:&.A 0+ ;&.-&7& 03(0 *+,&'

3(7& .&66 12&&)+, ;&5(=6& +1 03&-2 1(,-.A 2&64+'6-;-.-0-&69 03& ;=6-'&66

5+,,='-0A -6 )+,-'(0&) ;A ,&' *3+ )+ '+0 3(7& 6=11-5-&'0 5+'1-)&'5& -'

*+,&' (') 03(0 *+,&' )+ '+0 (.*(A6 3(7& 03& '&5&66(2A <=(.-0-&6 (') 6:-..6

0+ 1-.. 4+6-0-+'6 +1 2&64+'6-;-.-0A 03(' 03& A+='/&2 /&'&2(0-+'

@8

G3& +.)&2 /&'&2(0-+' +1 ,-)).& ,('(/&26 ,+2& +10&' 03-': 03(0 -0 -6 '+2,(.

03(0 ,&' *+2: ,+2& +=06-)& 03& 3+,& (') 4(20-5-4(0& .&66 -' )+,&60-5 *+2:

03(' *+,&' 03(' 03& A+='/&2 /&'&2(0-+'

C- )-' #%-0 /#1( #$.)/#'(1( %1,( /) 'J%,1-' #)+ +10'(.&'%0 (/'&')/$.19%6 N'61'*( %&'L

C-' /#' )/#'& #%-0 1/ %1,( /) /'(/ +#'/#'& %- %//1/H0' 01**'&'-9' &'2%&01-2 +),'-X(

&)6'( %-0 *',%6' 6'%0'&(#1. 9%- N' )N('&K'0 %,)-2 ,%-%2'&( H-0'& /#' %2' )* @aQm$)H-2'& 2'-'&%/1)- )* ,1006' ,%-%2'&(S %-0 %N)K' a> Qm)60'& 2'-'&%/1)- )* ,1006'

,%-%2'&(SL M#' 6%//'& 1( -)/ 1-*)&,%/1K' 1- &'2%&0( /) +#$ /#'&' %&' 9H&&'-/6$ *'+

+),'- 1- /). .)(1/1)-(V #)+'K'& 1/ ,%$ 21K' 1-/'&'(/1-2 1-(12#/( %N)H/ /#' *H/H&'

0'K'6).,'-/ )* %//1/H0'( %-0 N'61'*( )* *',%6' 6'%0'&(#1. %-0 &)6'(L

FH9# )* /#' 1-(.1&%/1)- *)& /#' /#1&0 #$.)/#'(1( )&121-%/'( *&), /+) 8H&).'%- (/H01'(

/#%/ %//',./ /) H-9)K'& 8H&).'%-(X %//1/H0'( %N)H/ 'TH%61/$I 8H&)N%&),'/'& Q=>?>S

%-0 8H&)N%&),'/'& Q=>?=SL M#' (/H01'( (#)+ /#%/ 1- E1-6%-0 (),'+#%/ (/'&')/$.19%6

N'61'*( &'2%&01-2 +),'-X( &)6'(I 9%&''& 1-/'&'(/( %-0 )..)&/H-1/1'( 9%- N' 0'/'9/'0L C-% 8H&).'%- 6'K'6I /#' )60'& 2'-'&%/1)- QaarS N'61'K'( 'TH%61/$ 1( ,)&' +10'(.&'%0 /#%-

/#' $)H-2'& 2'-'&%/1)- Q=af@bSL M#' $)H-2'& 2'-'&%/1)- %6() N'61'K'( /) % 6%&2'& 'J/'-/

/#%/ 'TH%61/$ 1( 6'(( +10'(.&'%0 /)0%$ /#%- 1/ +%( ?> $'%&( %2)L "#'- %(;'0 %N)H/

+),'-X( 9%&''& 1-/'&'(/(I /#' $)H-2'& 2'-'&%/1)-( )* 8H&).'%-( %&' 6'(( 61;'6$ /)

N'61'K' /#%/ +),'- %&' -)/ %( 1-/'&'(/'0 %( ,'- 1- .)(1/1)-( )* &'(.)-(1N161/$L M#'



\>

%N)K' +)H60 1,.6$ /#%/ /#' $)H-2'& 2'-'&%/1)- )* 8H&).'%-( 1( 6'(( 9)-('&K%/1K' 1-

/#'1& N'61'*( %N)H/ +),'-X( 9%&''& 1-/'&'(/( %-0 )..)&/H-1/1'( /#%- /#' )60'&

2'-'&%/1)-L G/ 1( (%10 /#%/ +1/# '%9# -'+ 2'-'&%/1)- 9),'( 9#%-2'I %-0 /#'&'*)&' /#'

#$.)/#'(1( %1,( /) /'(/ +#'/#'& /#1( #)60( *)& /#' $)H-2'& 2'-'&%/1)- )* ,1006'

,%-%2'&(L "#%/ -''0( /) N' ;'./ 1- ,1-0 1( /#%/ $)H-2'& ,%-%2'&( N'61'*( 9%- 9#%-2'

+#'- /#'$ N'9),' )60'&I #)+'K'& -'J/ &'%()-( +#$ /#' $)H-2'& 2'-'&%/1)- )* ,1006'

,%-%2'&( 9%- N' %((H,'0 /) N' 6'(( 9)-('&K%/1K' 1- /#'1& N'61'*( &'2%&01-2 +),'-X(

9%&''& 1-/'&'(/( %-0 )..)&/H-1/1'( %&' .&'('-/'0L

G- E1-6%-0I *%9/)&( (H9# %( 0%$ 9%&' %K%16%N161/$I /#' 6'-2/# %-0 /#' 9),.'-(%/1)- &%/'

)* 6'%K' .'&1)0( #%K' #%0 % (12-1*19%-/ 1,.%9/ )- +),'-X( ',.6)$,'-/ %-0 9%&''&

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&12#/ /) 9#160 9%&'k +%( 1-/&)0H9'0 1- ?bRaI 21K1-2 .%&'-/( /#' &12#/ /) 9#))(' +#'/#'&

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9#160 9%&' 9'-/'&I +#19# 1( #'%K16$ (HN(101W'0 QF1'//1-'- =>?=SL M#' *%,16$ 6'%K'

9),.'-(%/1)- &%/' #%( 1-9&'%('0 %-0 .%/'&-1/$ 6'%K' #%( %6() N''- .&)6)-2'0 1- /#'

.%(/ 0'9%0' Q1N10LSL M#' %N)K' 9#%-2'( #%K' 21K'- /#' $)H-2'& 2'-'&%/1)- N'//'&

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9%&''& 1-/'&'(/(I )..)&/H-1/1'( %-0 &)6'( %&' .'&9'1K'0L



\?

5

METHODOLOGY

M#1( 9#%./'& 01(9H(('( /#' ,'/#)0)6)2$ *)& /#' ',.1&19%6 &'('%&9#L U'%()-1-2 *)& /#'

9#)19' )* /%&2'/ 2&)H. 1( .&'('-/'0 %( +'66 %( #)+ /#' TH'(/1)--%1&' 1( 0'(12-'0L M#1( 1(

*)66)+'0 N$ % 0'(9&1./1)- )* /#' &'(.)-0'-/( %-0 #)+ /#' 0%/% 1( .&)9'(('0L

Choice of research method: Questionnaire5.1.

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N'-'*1/ )* % TH%-/1/%/1K' ,'/#)0 1( /#%/ 1/ 1( 2'-'&%61W%N6'I ,'%-1-2 /#%/ 1/ 1( .)((1N6' /)

(%$ (),'/#1-2 %N)H/ % 6%&2'& 9)-/'J/ N$ (/H0$1-2 % ,'%-1-2 /#%/ N$ (/H0$1-2 % (,%66'&

(%,.6' Q<%H-0'&( '/ %6LI =>>ZSL 4001/1)-%66$I /#1( ,'/#)0 1( '%(16$ /'(/%N6' %-0 9%- N'

&'.'%/'0 N$ )/#'&( 2'//1-2 /#' (%,' &'(H6/(L [&'K1)H( (/H01'( +1/#1- /#' *1'60I 'L2L

o%-#%6% Q=>>RS %-0 :H0()- Q=>??S #%K' H('0 TH'(/1)--%1&'( +#'- (/H0$1-2 ,1006'

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#%K' %6() H('0 TH'(/1)--%1&'( +#'- 1-K'(/12%/1-2 7%-1(# H-1K'&(1/$ (/H0'-/(X 9%&''&

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0) (/%/1(/19%6 %-%6$(1(I +#19# (H..)&/'0 /#' 9#)19' )* TH'(/1)--%1&'( %( /#' 9#)('-

,'/#)0 )* ',.1&19%6 &'('%&9#L

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TH'(/1)--%1&'L M#' TH'(/1)--%1&' 0'(12- %**'9/( /#' &'(.)-(' &%/'I /#' K%6101/$ %-0

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.16)/ /'(/1-2 %-0 9%&'*H66$ .6%--1-2 %-0 'J'9H/1-2 /#' %0,1-1(/&%/1)- Q1N10SL M#' %N)K'

%(.'9/( +'&' ',.#%(1W'0 +#'- 0'(12-1-2 /#' TH'(/1)--%1&'L E1&(/6$I /#' TH'(/1)-( +'&'

9%&'*H66$ 0'(12-'0I *)9H(1-2 )- 96'%& *)&,H6%/1)-( /#%/ +'&' '%($ /) H-0'&(/%-0L :%K1-2

'%9# TH'(/1)- %-(+'& % (.'91*19 #$.)/#'(1( '-(H&'0 /#1(L <'9)-0I /#' TH'(/1)--%1&'

6%$)H/ +%( 9)-(/&H9/'0 %&)H-0 @ 01**'&'-/ /#','( Q9%&''& %,N1/1)-( %-0 .'&9'./1)-(I

+)&; %-0 *%,16$I %-0 -)&,( %-0 N'61'*(SI +#19# +'&' /#' *)9H( )* '%9# )* /#' @

#$.)/#'('(L M#1&0I /#' .H&.)(' )* /#' TH'(/1)--%1&' +%( -)/ 'J.6%1-'0 /)) ,H9# 1-

0'/%16 1- %0K%-9'I /) %K)10 &'(.)-0'-/( *&), #%K1-2 % N1%('0 ).1-1)- %N)H/ /#' (HNP'9/

+#'- *1661-2 )H/ /#' TH'(/1)--%1&'L A'J/I 1- )&0'& /) ,1-1,1W' )N(9H&1/1'( %-0 /) '-(H&'

/#%/ /#' TH'(/1)-( +'&' 96'%& %-0 /#' &'(.)-(' 9%/'2)&1'( +'&' % 6)219%6 9)-('TH'-9' )*



\=

/#' TH'(/1)-(I % .16)/ 2&)H. /'(/'0 /#' TH'(/1)--%1&'L M#' .16)/ 2&)H. 9)-(1(/'0 )* R

.&)*'((1)-%6( +#) +'&' -)+ /#' /%&2'/ 2&)H. )& #%0 .&'K1)H(6$ N'6)-2'0 /) /#' /%&2'/

2&)H. )* /#1( (/H0$L E1-%66$I /#' TH'(/1)--%1&' +%( ('6*f%0,1-1(/'&'0 )- "'N&).)6I %-

)-61-' (H&K'$ ()*/+%&'L M#' ()*/+%&' &'(/&19/'0 &'(.)-0'-/( /) %-(+'& )-6$ TH'(/1)-(

/#%/ &'2%&0'0 /#',I 'L2L 1* % &'(.)-0'-/ 010 -)/ #%K' 9#160&'-I #'g)& (#' +)H60

%H/),%/19%66$ (;1. /#' k*%,16$ %-0 +)&; ('9/1)-kL

5.1.1. Questionnaire design

M#' TH'(/1)--%1&' 1( 01K10'0 1-/) N%9;2&)H-0 1-*)&,%/1)- %-0 \ /#','(I )* +#19# @ +166

N' /#' *)9H( )* /#1( (/H0$ @L M#' *1&(/ .%&/ 2%/#'&( N%9;2&)H-0 1-*)&,%/1)- )* /#'

&'(.)-0'-/V .'&()-%6 1-*)&,%/1)- Q'L2L 2'-0'&I '0H9%/1)-%6 N%9;2&)H-0SI +)&; &'6%/'0

1-*)&,%/1)- Q'L2L 9H&&'-/ )&2%-1W%/1)-%6 6'K'6 %-0 #)+ 6)-2 /#' &'(.)-0'-/ #%0 N''- %/

/#%/ 6'K'6S %-0 ,%&1/%6 (/%/H( %-0 /#' .%&/-'&X( )&2%-1W%/1)- 6'K'6L G- /#' TH'(/1)- %N)H/

9H&&'-/ )&2%-1W%/1)-%6 6'K'6I 1- %001/1)- /) 6)+'& %-0 H..'& ,1006' ,%-%2','-/ /#'&'

+%( %- )./1)- j)/#'&I +#%/3k 1- 9%(' % &'(.)-0'-/ +#) 010 -)/ N'6)-2 /) /#' /%&2'/

2&)H. %-(+'&'0L G* /#' &'(.)-0'-/ &'.61'0 B8CI N)%&0 ,',N'& )& '-/&'.&'-'H& /#'

&'(.)-0'-/ +%( 0'6'/'0 *&), /#' (%,.6'L G* /#' &'(.)-(' )- /#' )/#'& #%-0 +%(

(.'91%61(/I /#' &'(.)-0'-/ +%( .6%9'0 1- '1/#'& )* /#' ,1006' ,%-%2','-/ 2&)H.( N%('0

)- #1(g#'& +)&;1-2 /1/6' QedbS %-0 %,)H-/ )* *)&,%6 ,%-%2','-/ 'J.'&1'-9' Qed ?>SL

M#' ('9)-0 .%&/ )* /#' TH'(/1)--%1&'I 9)&&'(.)-01-2 /) /#' *1&(/ #$.)/#'(1(I %(;( %N)H/

9%&''& %,N1/1)-( %-0 .'&9'./1)-(L 466 TH'(/1)-( #%K' )-' .)((1N6' %-(+'& 1- /#1( .%&/

+1/# %- 'J9'./1)- )* /#' 6%(/ )-' +#'&' &'(.)-0'-/( %&' %(;'0 /) 1-019%/' /#'1&

%2&'','-/g01(%2&'','-/ /) (/%/','-/( )- % af.)1-/ D19;'&/ (9%6'L M#' 6%(/ )./1)- )-

/#' (9%6' 1( j0) -)/ ;-)+k %-0 /#1( )./1)- 1( 1-96H0'0 /) (H..)&/ /#' H-0'&6$1-2 N'61'*

/#%/ +),'- +)H60 N' ,)&' .&)-' /) 9#))(' /#' )./1)- (1-9' ,%$ N' ,)&' H-(H&' 1-

9%&''& &'6%/'0 (/%/','-/(L

M#' /#1&0 .%&/ *)9H('( )- *%,16$ %-0 +)&; %-0 %1,( /) %-(+'& /#' ('9)-0 #$.)/#'(1(L

G- /#' *1&(/ TH'(/1)- /#' &'(.)-0'-/ 1( %(;'0 #)+ ,%-$ 9#160&'- #' )& (#' 1- 9%(' /#'

%-(+'& +%( W'&)I /#' &'(.)-0'-/ +166 %H/),%/19%66$ (;1. %66 /#' TH'(/1)-( %N)H/ *%,16$L

M#1( .%&/ 9)-(1(/'0 )* N)/# ).'- '-0'0 %-0 96)('0 TH'(/1)-(L M#' ).'-f'-0'0

TH'(/1)-( 1-96H0' %/ +#%/ %2' &'(.)-0'-/( #%K' #%0 /#'1& *1&(/ 9#160 %-0 #)+ ,H9#

@ M#1( &'(/&19/1)- 1( ,%0' 0H' /) &'()H&9' 9)-(/&%1-/(L 46()I ).'-f'-0'0 TH'(/1)-( +'&' &'(.)-0'-/( %&'

%(;'0 %N)H/ /#'1& ).1-1)- %N)H/ 01**'&'-/ .#'-),'-% %&' 'J96H0'0 *&), /#' (/H0$L M#'$ %&' *)& /#' 1-/'&'(/

)* /#' /#'(1( )&0'&'& %-0 ,%$ N' H('0 1- *H&/#'& .&)P'9/(L



\@

6'%K' /#'$ %-0 /#'1& .%&/-'&( #%K' /%;'-L <1-9' /#' 6'%K' .'&1)0 9%- 01**'& TH1/'

(HN(/%-/1%66$ 0'.'-01-2 )- /#' -H,N'& )* 9#160&'-I /#1( TH'(/1)- 1( 6'*/ ).'- '-0'0 *)&

6%/'& &'%&&%-2','-/ 1* % .%//'&- 9%- N' )N('&K'0L U'(.)-0'-/( %&' %6() %(;'0 /)

'(/1,%/' /#'1& /1,' %66)9%/1)- )- #)H('+)&; %-0 9#1609%&' 1- .'&9'-/%2'( %001-2 H. /)

% #H-0&'0 N'/+''- /#'1& .%&/-'& %-0 /#',('6K'(L

M#' *)H&/# .%&/ *)9H('0 )- -)&,( %-0 N'61'*( *)9H('( /) %-(+'& /#' /#1&0 #$.)/#'(1(L

466 /#' TH'(/1)-( 1- /#1( .%&/ %&' 01&'9/6$ /%;'- *&), 8H&)N%&),'/'& Q=>?>I =>?=S %-0

*)9H( )- &'(.)-0'-/(X N'61'*( %N)H/ +),'-X( &)6'I 9%&''& 1-/'&'(/( %-0 )..)&/H-1/1'(L

466 &'(.)-(' %6/'&-%/1K'( 1- /#1( .%&/ %&' )- % af.)1-/ D19;'&/ (9%6'(I +1/# j7) -)/ ;-)+k

%( /#' 6%(/ %6/'&-%/1K'L

5.1.2. Target group

M#' /%&2'/ 2&)H. *)& /#' (H&K'$ 9)-(1(/( )* E1--1(# .&)*'((1)-%6( 1- ,1006'

,%-%2','-/ +1/# % H-1K'&(1/$ N%9;2&)H-0 1- '1/#'& '-21-''&1-2 )& NH(1-'((L F1006'

,%-%2'&( %&' /%&2'/'0 0H' /) /+) ,%1- &'%()-(V /#'$ ,%;' /#' 2&)H. *&), +#19#

'J'9H/1K'( %&' 9#)('- %-0 (1-9' ,1006' ,%-%2','-/ 1( )*/'- 10'-/1*1'0 %( /#' 26%((

9'161-2I +#19# +),'- #%K' 01**19H6/1'( /) (H&.%((L M#' (/H0$ *)9H('( )- 1-01K10H%6( +1/#

/#' #12#'(/ .&)N%N161/$ /) N'9),' 'J'9H/1K'(I ,'%-1-2 % 2&)H. +1/# /#' (%,'

N%9;2&)H-0 %( 'J'9H/1K'(L E1-6%-0 B#%,N'& )* B),,'&9' Q=>??SI 10'-/1*1'0 1- /#'1&

&'.)&/ 9)K'&1-2 %66 61(/'0 9),.%-1'( )- /#' :'6(1-;1 </)9; 8J9#%-2'I /#%/ /#' 96'%&

,%P)&1/$ )* B8CX( #%K' '1/#'& % /'9#-19%6 )& NH(1-'(( N%9;2&)H-0L :'-9'I /#' *)9H( +166

N' )- ,1006' ,%-%2'&( +1/# % N%9;2&)H-0 1- '1/#'& '-21-''&1-2 )& NH(1-'((L

5.1.3.

Data collection

M#' 0%/% +%( 9)66'9/'0 +1/# /#' #'6. )* /+) )&2%-1W%/1)-(I /#' E1--1(# 4(()91%/1)- )*

OH(1-'(( <9#))6 ^&%0H%/'( Q<8E8S %-0 /#' 49%0',19 8-21-''&( %-0 4&9#1/'9/( 1-

E1-6%-0 QM85SL 4- 8f,%16 +1/# % 61-; /) /#' (H&K'$ +%( ('-/ /) ?a>> <8E8 ,',N'&( )-

4.&16 R/# +1/# % *)66)+fH. &',1-0'& )- 4.&16 /#' ?`/#L CH/ )* @bR (H&K'$ &'.61'(I @Rb

+'&' H(%N6' 21K1-2 % &'(.)-(' &%/' )- =aIbhL M85 ,',N'&( +'&' %..&)%9#'0 N$ %

,',N'& 6'//'&I ('-/ )- 4.&16 =@&0I +#19# 1-96H0'0 % 61-; /) /#' )&2%-1W%/1)-( #),'.%2'

+#'&' &'(.)-0'-/( 9)H60 *166 )H/ /#' (H&K'$ %*/'& #%K1-2 6)22'0 1-L M#' ,',N'& 6'//'&

+%( ('-/ /) %&)H-0 \\ >>> ,',N'&(I )* +#), %&)H-0 @=?> +'&' ,1006' ,%-%2'&(L\

\ M#1( 1( %- %..&)J1,%/1)- (1-9' /#' )&2%-1W%/1)-%6 6'K'6 1( N%('0 )- ('6*f&'.)&/'0 6'K'6(



\\

CH/ )* @?@ *166'0 (H&K'$( =à +'&' H(%N6' 21K1-2 % &'(.)-(' &%/' )- RI@hL 499)&01-2 /)

<)H-0'&( '/ %6L Q=>>ZS G-/'&-'/ ,'01/%/'0 TH'(/1)--%1&'( /'-0 /) #%K' % &'(.)-(' &%/'

6)+'& /#%- ?? hI 1,.6$1-2 /#%/ '(.'91%66$ <8E8 ,',N'&( &'(.)-0'0 %9/1K'6$L M) '-(H&'

% #12# &'(.)-(' &%/' &'(.)-0'-/( #%K' %- )./1)- /) *166 )H/ /#' (H&K'$ 1- E1--1(#I

<+'01(# )& 8-261(#L 46()I %( %- 'J/&% 1-9'-/1K' *)& .%&/191.%/1-2I %- 1[%0 F1-1 1( &%**6'0

%,)-2 /#' &'(.)-0'-/(L

Table 2

Summary statistics of background variables gender, age, field of education, maritalstatus and partner’s organizational level

"# $%&' () *+, -./0.12 31.4,./5* 6.1 5./' 6.1 5./' 7./ 6.1 5./' 8+7./

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C%$"3% FDG JFOF

"#9.:.5' *+,1 &-. 1&/-.

>2(%# IG IP NOP NOF MOD

IGIJ PJ HJOF HNOM HFOH

INIP HMI FJON FJOF FNOG

JGJJ HHJ HLOF HDON HNOJ

JNJP HGH HNOF HION HLON

NGNJ DM HIOG HFON HIOM

NN "2( ,*%# ML HGOG HGOJ POL

B,&"3 MMJ HGGOG HGGOG HGGOG

"# 9.:.5' *+,1 ;1(7&1* <(.:0 +< .0,5&'(+/

-7')2%'' IDP NDOM JLOH LJOI

62<)2%%#)2< FLN JHOJ NFOP FJOI


"# =/0(5&'. *+,1 5,11./' +1-&/(>&'(+/

:.?.:

Q,9%# @)((3% $"2"<%$%2& IHG JMOL JJOD JPOI

>11%# @)((3% $"2"<%$%2& INJ NIOI NNOF NGOL


"# =/0(5&'. *+,1 7&1('&: )'&',)

>2$"##)%( DG HFOG HGOF HJOM

@"##)%(R8,S"?)&)2< NIL DGOP DNOL LJOI

T)*,#8%(R9)(,9%( 52,& #%$"##)%(U JL LOH JOF HHOH


"# $%&' +;'(+/ @.)' 0.)51(@.) *+,1 ;&1'/.1A) +1-B :.?.: (/ 5+7;&1()+/ '+ *+,1 +1-B :.?.:

Q,9%# ,#<"2)V"&),2"3 3%*%3 &S"2 $% FMH IPOI JDOF FLOH

W)<S%# ,#<"2)V"&),2"3 3%*%3 &S"2 $% HJG FHOH HPON FIOF

4"$% ,#<"2)V"&),2"3

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HGN HNOD LOI FLON

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A, 1"#&2%# DN HFOD DOM HDOM

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E&), /%N6' ?I 1/ 1( .)((1N6' /) ('' /#%/ aZIRh )* &'(.)-0'-/( +'&' ,%6' %-0 \=I=h +'&'

*',%6'L <8E8 ,'- #%0 % (612#/6$ #12#'& &'(.)-(' &%/' /#%- +),'- %-0 /#' )..)(1/'

#'60 *)& M85 ,',N'&(L 4 ,%P)&1/$ )* /#' &'(.)-0'-/( +'&' N'/+''- @af\b $'%&( )60

%-0 -) )N('&K%N6' 01**'&'-9' 1- /#' 2'-0'&f%2' 01(/&1NH/1)- 9)H60 N' 0'/'9/'0L 4 96'%&

,%P)&1/$ )* b>h #'60 % F%(/'&X( 0'2&''L "#'- 6));1-2 %/ /#' )&2%-1W%/1)-%6 6'K'6

01K10'I 1/ 9%- N' )N('&K'0 /#%/ \ÌZh )* &'(.)-0'-/( N'6)-2'0 /) 6)+'& ,1006'

,%-%2','-/ %-0 a@I@h N'6)-2'0 /) H..'& ,1006' ,%-%2','-/L F'- +'&' (612#/6$

N'//'& &'.&'('-/'0 1- H..'& ,1006' ,%-%2','-/ /#%- +),'- QaaI@h K(L a>IZhSL 4

,%P)&1/$ )* &'(.)-0'-/(I %&)H-0 R>hI +'&' ,%&&1'0 )& 9)#%N1/1-2 4( )N('&K'0 1-

.&'K1)H( (/H01'( Q5%&/)K%%&%I =>>@ %-0 o%-#%6%I =>>RSI +),'- 1- /#1( (/H0$ %&' ,)&'

)*/'- H-,%&&1'0 )& 01K)&9'0g+10)+'0 /#%- ,'-L 46,)(/ \>h )* &'(.)-0'-/( #%0 =

9#160&'-V #)+'K'& ,'- /'-0 /) #%K' ,)&' 9#160&'- /#%- +),'-L

"#'- 9),.%&1-2 /#' .%&/-'&X( )&2%-1W%/1)-%6 6'K'6 )* ,1006' ,%-%2'&(I 96'%&

01**'&'-9'( 9%- N' (''-L 46,)(/ a>h >* ,%6' &'(.)-0'-/( %&' %/ % #12#'& )&2%-1W%/1)-%6

6'K'6 /#%- /#'1& .%&/-'&(I *)& +),'- /#' %,)H-/ +%( =ZI?L E)& +),'- /#' ,)(/

9),,)- %-(+'& +%( /#%/ /#'1& .%&/-'& 1( %/ /#' (%,' )&2%-1W%/1)-%6 6'K'6 %(

/#',('6K'(L E)& ,'- 1/ +%( ,)&' 9),,)- /#%/ /#'1& .%&/-'& 1( -)/ +)&;1-2 /#%- *)&

+),'- Q?Ì\h K(L @I`hSL

Data processing5.2.

M#' *)66)+1-2 ,'/#)0( %&' H('0 1- )&0'& /) /'(/ /#' #$.)/#'(1(d O1-%&$ 6)21(/19

&'2&'((1)-( %-0 (12-1*19%-9' /'(/(

5.2.1.

Binary logistic regression

G- )&0'& /) /'(/ #$.)/#'(1( ? %-0 #$.)/#'(1( =I &'2%&01-2 +#%/ *%9/)&( 9%- 'J.6%1-

,1006' ,%-%2'&( 0'(1&' *)& 9%&''& %0K%-9','-/ %-0 +#'/#'& 9#160&'- #%K'

.'&,%-'-/6$ %6/'&'0 ,%-%2'&(X 9%&''& .&'*'&'-9'(I N1-%&$ 6)21(/19 &'2&'((1)-( %&' H('0L

M#' 0'.'-0'-/ K%&1%N6'I ]I 9%- /%;' /+) .)((1N6' K%6H'(I +#19# &'*6'9/ /#' &'(.)-0'-/(X

0'91(1)-(L M#' /+) )H/9),'( +166 N' 6%N'6'0 %( > Q'+I (') ? Q$'(S 1- N)/# #$.)/#'(1( ?

%-0 =L

M#' &'2&'((1)- ,)0'6 +166 .&'019/ /#' 6)21/I +#19# 1(I /#' -%/H&%6 6)2 )* /#' )00( )*

#%K1-2 ,%0' )-' )& /#' )/#'& 0'91(1)- Q"H'-(9#I =>>bS



\`

"#'&' &'.&'('-/( .&'019/'0 .&)N%N161/$ )* %- 'K'-/ +#19# 1( 9)0'0 ? Q$'(S )99H&(I

%&' '(/1,%/'0 &'2&'((1)- 9)'**191'-/( %-0 %&' .&'019/)&

K%&1%N6'(L M#' '(/1,%/1)- )* /#' 6)21(/19 &'2&'((1)- 1( /#'- .'&*)&,'0 N$ ,%J1,H,

61;'61#))0 '(/1,%/1)-L

5.2.2.

Data processing: Significance tests

G- )&0'& /) /'(/ +#'/#'& /+) K%&1%N6'( %&' 1-0'.'-0'-/I % ['%&()- s /'(/ 1( ,%0' )-

9&)((f/%NH6%/1)-( )* /+) K%&1%N6'(L ['%&()- s /'(/( /#' -H66f#$.)/#'(1( /#%/ /#'&' 1(

1-0'.'-0'-9' N'/+''- /#' /+) )N('&K'0 K%&1%N6'(L M#' K%6H' )* /#' /'(/ (/%/1(/19( 1( %(

*)66)+(d

+#'&' Oi 2( /#' )5('&B'0 *&'GH'-A$I E i, j 2( /#' 'J.'A/'0 *&'GH'-A$I r (/%-0( *)& &)+( %-0

c *)& A)6H,-( 2- % /%56' DK&''-+))0 L M2NH62- 7??<FC 4#H( 2/ /'(/( +#'/#'& /#' &)+(

%-0 A)6H,-( 2- /#' /%56'( %&' 2-0'.'-0'-/I 2- )/#'& +)&0( +#'/#'& /+) )5('&B'0

B%&2%56'( %&' 02**'&'-/ )& -)/C O* /#' -H66 #$.)/#'(2( A%- 5' &'P'A/'0I 2/ A%- 5' %-

2-02A%/2)- /#%/ /#' /+) B%&2%56'( %&' 0'.'-0'-/C

4 .&).)&/1)- /'(/ 6));( %/ +#'/#'& /+) .&).)&/1)-( %&' (12-1*19%-/6$ 01**'&'-/ *&), '%9#

)/#'&L E)& /#1( .H&.)('I % /+)f(10'0 #$.)/#'(1( /'(/ *)& .&).)&/1)-( 1( H('0L M#' -H66f

#$.)/#'(1( 1( /#%/ /#' )N('&K'0 H-1/( 0) -)/ 01**'&I 1L'L

Q42&'(/1 %-0 E&%-;61--I =>>ZSL M#' .&).)&/1)- /'(/ H('( /#' *)66)+1-2 /'(/ (/%/1(/19d

%-0 %&' /#' /+) H-1/( /#%/ %&' /'(/'0 +#'/#'& /#'$ (12-1*19%-/6$ 01**'& *&), '%9#

)/#'&I %-0 %&' /#' 9)&&'(.)-01-2 -H,N'& )* &'(.)-0'-/(L G* -)/ (/%/'0 )/#'&+1('I

% *1K' .'&9'-/ (12-1*19%-9' 6'K'6 1( H('0 1- /#' /'(/(L M#1( 1( /#' /'(/ (/%/1(/19 /#%/ 1( H('0

+#'- 1/ 1( (/%/'0 /#%/ /+) .&).)&/1)-( (12-1*19%-/6$ 01**'& 1- 9#%./'& `L M#' WfK%6H'( %-0

.fK%6H'( %&' .&'('-/'0 1- % *))/-)/' +#'- % (12-1*19%-/ 01**'&'-9' 1( *)H-0L



\Z

6

EMPIRICAL FINDINGS

H 1 – Career ambition and preferences6.1.

M#' *1&(/ #$.)/#'(1( #%( a (HN #$.)/#'('(I +#19# +166 N' 1-01K10H%66$ /'(/'0 %-0 &'(H6/(%&' .&'('-/'0 ('.%&%/'6$L M#1( 1( *)66)+'0 N$ %- )K'&%66 9)-96H(1)- )* %66 (HN #$.)/#'('(

Q0'-)/'0 <: 1- #'%01-2(S

6.1.1.

SH 1.1 – Willingness to consider promotions

M#' *1&(/ (HN #$.)/#'(1( +166 /'(/ +#'/#'& /#'&' 1( % 2'-0'& 01**'&'-9' 1- /#' 0'(1&' *)&

9%&''& %0K%-9','-/ 1L'L % 01**'&'-9' 1- /#' +1661-2-'(( /) 9)-(10'& % .&),)/1)-L E&),

/%N6' @ 1/ 1( .)((1N6' /) ('' /#%/ RZI?h )* /#' &'(.)-0'-/( #%K' %-(+'&'0 /#%/ /#'$ %&'

+1661-2 /) 9)-(10'& % .&),)/1)- %-0 )-6$ ?@I=\h %&' -)/ +1661-2 /) 9)-(10'& )-'L M#1((H22'(/( /#%/ ,1006' ,%-%2'&( #%K' %- 1-/'&'(/ 1- 9%&''& %0K%-9','-/L

Table 3

Percentual division of managers’ will to consider a promotion according togender.

E&), /#' /%N6' )-' 9%- ('' /#%/ /#'&' 1( % 01**'&'-9' N'/+''- /#' .'&9'-/%2' )* ,'-

Qb>I\hS %-0 +),'- QR@IbhS +#) #%K' %-(+'&'0 .)(1/1K'6$L ['%&()-X( s /'(/ (#)+(

/#%/ /#' /+) )N('&K'0 K%&1%N6'( %&' 1-0'.'-0'-/I +#19# 1-019%/'( /#%/ /#'&' 1( %

(/%/1(/19%66$ (12-1*19%-/ 01**'&'-9' N'/+''- /#' +166 )* ,'- %-0 +),'- /) 9)-(10'& %

.&),)/1)-L G- )&0'& /) K'&1*$ /#1( %-0 6)); 1-/) +#%/ K%&1%N6'( ,%$ 1,.%9/ /#' 0'91(1)-

/) 9)-(10'& %-0 -)/ /) 9)-(10'& % .&),)/1)- % N1-%&$ 6)21(/19 &'2&'((1)-I ('' 1- /%N6' aI

1( 9)-(/&H9/'0L M#' &'2&'((1)- 1-96H0'( % -H,N'& )* 'J.6%-%/)&$ K%&1%N6'( /#%/ 9%- N'

(''- 1- /%N6' \L

:%2(%# X%' A, B,&"3

@%2 PGOJ POM HGGOGG

K,$%2 DIOP HMOP HGGOGG

B,&"3 DLOHN HIOFN HGGOGG

Y?'%#*"&),2' MMJ

=S)F MOHPL

!*"37% GOGHI



\R

Table 4 Summary statistics for the explanatory variables used in the binary logisticregression.

@%"2 4&"2("#( (%*)"&),2 @)2)$7$ @"Z)$7$

K,$"2 5GRHU GOJFG GOJPJG G H

[<% 5;%"#'O #"2<%U JOGNG HOLDDG H D

6(78"&),2 5@"'&%#' GRHU GOPIG GOFJPG G H

@"2"<%$%2& 5>11%# GRHU GONIG GOJPPG G H

Y#<"2)V"&),2 3%*%3 &)$% 5;%"#'U JOPLG JOLHMG G FP

G 8S)3( 5GRHU GOFMF GOJJGH G H

H 8S)3( 5GRHU GOHMP GOILJD G H

F 8S)3( 5GRHU GOIPM GOJDPN G H

I 8S)3( 5GRHU GOHLI GOILDL G H

A, 1"#&2%# 5GRHU GOHIG GOIIJG G H

!"#&2%# 3,9%# 5GRHU GOIPG GOJDPG G H

!"#&2%# '"$% 5GRHU GOFHG GOJGDG G H

!"#&2%# S)<S%# 5GRHU GOHMG GOIMNG G H

!"#&2%# 2,& 9,#/)2< 5GRHU GOHHG GOIHIG G H

MMJ ,?'%#*"&),2'

M#' K%&1%N6' *+,(' 1( % 0H,,$ K%&1%N6'I +#19# /%;'( /#' K%6H' ? 1* /#' &'(.)-0'-/ 1( %

+),%- %-0 > 1* 1/ 1( % ,%-L M#' K%&1%N6' (/& 9%- /%;' K%6H'( *&), ? /) RI 9)&&'(.)-01-2

/> a $'%& %2' &%-2'( Q('' /%N6' =SL A'J/I /#' K%&1%N6' &)=5(0-+' /%;'( /#' K%6H' ? 1* /#'

&'(.)-0'-/ #%( % F%(/'&( )& % [#7 0'2&'' %-0 > 1- 9%(' /#' &'(.)-0'-/ #%( %

O%9#'6)&X( 0'2&''L D1;'+1('I ,('(/&,&'0 1( 0H,,$ K%&1%N6'I +#'&' ? 1-019%/'( H..'&

,%-%2','-/ %-0 > 1-019%/'( 6)+'& ,%-%2','-/L o%&1%N6' +2/('-?(0-+' .&7&. 0-,&

1-019%/'( $'%&( %/ 9H&&'-/ )&2%-1W%/1)-%6 6'K'6L E)& /#' -H,N'& )* 9#160&'- \ 0H,,1'(

%&' 9)-(/&H9/'0d J 53-.)9 # 53-.)9 > 53-.) %-0 @ 53-.)8 > 9#160 1( H('0 %( &'*'&'-9'

9%/'2)&$ %-0 %&' /#'&'*)&' -)/ H('0 1- /#' ,)0'6L G- )/#'& +)&0(I +#'- 0H,,$

K%&1%N6'( %&' 1-/'&.&'/'0 1/ 1( 0)-' 1- &'6%/1)- /) &'*'&'-9' 9%/'2)&1'(L <1,16%&6$I a

0H,,1'( %&' -''0'0 /) 0'(9&1N' % .%&/-'&(X +)&; (/%/H( 1- &'6%/1)- /) /#' &'(.)-0'-/(L

M#'(' 1-96H0'd '+ 4(20'&29 4(20'&2 .+*&29 4(20'&2 6(,&9 4(20'&2 3-/3&2 %-0 4(20'&2

'+0 *+2:-'/L [%&/-'& -) +)&; 1( 'J96H0'0 %-0 +166 N' H('0 %( &'*'&'-9' 9%/'2)&$L



\b

Table 5 Binary logistic regression predicting likelihood of desiring career advancement

- 4E6 K"3( (+ 4)<E 6Z15-U

K,$"2 GOMIM GOFDJ NOGGP H GOGFN GONFP

[<% GOIPL GOGDL FGOMJN H GOGGG GOMLF

6(78"&),2 HOJHJ GOJGL HFOGIN H GOGGH JOHH

>11%# $"2"<%$%2& GOFJD GOFLN GODHM H GOIMM HOFDF

Y#<"2)V"&),2 3%*%3

&)$% GOGLF GOGFM LODDI H GOGGN GOPI

H 8S)3( GOJNP GOJMJ GOPD H GOIFF GOMIF

F 8S)3( GOHLP GOJGL GOHPN H GOMNP GODIM

I\ 8S)3( GOD GOJJP IOHDF H GOGLJ GOJJP

A, 1"#&2%# GONGF GONN GODII H GOIMH GOMGN

!"#&2%# 3,9%# GOFFJ GOJLL GOFF H GOMIP HOFNH

!"#&2%# '"$% GOFM GON GOFL H GOMGI GOLLH

!"#&2%# S)<S%# GOHMD GONJ GOGPL H GOLNM HOHDI

M#' 01&'9/ 6)21(/19 &'2&'((1)- .'&*)&,'0 /) %(('(( /#' 61;'61#))0 )* &'(.)-0'-/( 0'(1&1-2

9%&''& %0K%-9','-/ +1/# (.'91%6 1-/'&'(/ /) /#' 9)'**191'-/ 0'.19/1-2 K%&1%N6' *+,('L

CK'&%66I /#' ,)0'6 +%( (/%/1(/19%66$ (12-1*19%-/I s Q?=I Am``\Sm ?>>IàI .t >I>?L 4(

(#)+- 1- /%N6' aI )-6$ *)H& )* /#' 1-0'.'-0'-/ K%&1%N6'( ,%0' % (/%/1(/19%66$ (12-1*19%-/

9)-/&1NH/1)- /) /#' ,)0'6 Q*+,(' .m>I>=aI (/& .m>I>>>I &)=5(0-+' .m>I>>? %-0

+2/('-?(0-+' .&7&. 0-,& .m>I>>aS8 "#%/ 1( (''- *&), /%N6' /#&'' 1( %6() 9)-*1&,'0 1-

/#' N1-%&$ 6)21(/19 &'2&'((1)-d K%&1%N6' +),%- 1( (12-1*19%-/ %-0 (#)+( % -'2%/1K' O

K%6H' Qf>I`@`SL M#' O K%6H' 1-019%/'( /#' 01&'9/1)- )* /#' &'6%/1)-(#1.V 1- /#1( 9%('

+),'- %&' ,)&' 61;'6$ /) %-(+'& -'2%/1K'6$ /) /#' TH'(/1)- +#'/#'& /#'$ %&' +1661-2 /)

9)-(10'& % .&),)/1)-L

o%&1%N6' %2' 9%- N' 1-/'&.&'/'0 %( /#' )60'& )-' 2'/(I /#' 6'(( 61;'6$ )-' 1( /) %-(+'& $'(L

80H9%/1)- %2%1- (#)+( % .)(1/1K' OI ,'%-1-2 /#%/ % &'(.)-0'-/ +1/# % F%(/'&X( )& %

[#7 0'2&'' 1( ,)&' 61;'6$ /) 9)-(10'& .&),)/1)-( .').6' +1/# )-6$ O%9#'6)&X( 0'2&''(L

<1-9' % ,%P)&1/$ )* &'(.)-0'-/( #%K' % #12#'&f6'K'6 0'2&''I /#'&' 1( 61//6' K%&1%N161/$ 1-

/#1( 1-0'.'-0'-/ K%&1%N6'I +#19# 9)H60 %**'9/ /#' &'(H6/(L M#' 6)-2'& % &'(.)-0'-/ #%(

N''- %/ /#'1& 9H&&'-/ )&2%-1W%/1)- 6'K'6 #%( % -'2%/1K' '**'9/ )- /#' .&),)/1)- 0'(1&'L

E1-%66$ )- % ?>h (12-1*19%-9' 6'K'6 Q.m>I>Z\S &'(.)-0'-/( +1/# /#&'' 9#160&'- )& ,)&'

%&' 6'(( 61;'6$ /) %-(+'& $'( 1- 9)-/&%(/ /) &'(.)-0'-/( +1/# -) 9#160&'-L



a>

G- 612#/ )* /#1( %-0 /#' &'(H6/( )* M%N6' @I &'(H6/( (H22'(/ /#%/ /#'&' 1( % 01**'&'-9' 1-

*',%6' %-0 ,%6' ,1006' ,%-%2'&(X 0'(1&' *)& 9%&''& %0K%-9','-/L M#H(I (HNf

#$.)/#'(1( ?L? 1( -)/ 9)-*1&,'0L

6.1.2. SH 1.2 – Organizational level aspirations

O'6)+I % 9&)(( /%N6' N'/+''- K%&1%N6' 2'-0'& %-0 %(.1&'0 )&2%-1W%/1)- 6'K'6 1(

9)-(/&H9/'0L <'-1)& 'J'9H/1K' ,%-%2','-/ &'*'&( /) B8C %-0 o19' [&'(10'-/ .)(1/1)-(I

+#16' 'J'9H/1K' ,%-%2','-/ &'*'&( /) %66 )/#'& 'J'9H/1K' 2&)H. .)(1/1)-(L

Table 6

Percentual divisions of what organizational level managers aspire to achieve. Thetable is divided by gender

:%2(%#

Q,9%# $)((3%

$"2"<%$%2&

>11%# $)((3%

$"2"<%$%2&

6Z%87&)*%

$"2"<%$%2&

4%2),# %Z%87&)*%

$"2"<%$%2& B,&"3

@%2 FOP HJOD JDOL IIOM HGGOG

K,$%2 IOP FJOI NFON HPOI HGGOG

B,&"3 IOI HDOD NGOI FLOM HGGOG

Y?'%#*"&),2' MMJ

=S)F FGOLHN

!*"37% GOGGG

4N)H/ #%6* )* ,1006' ,%-%2'&(I &'2%&06'(( )* 2'-0'& %(.1&' /) 'J'9H/1K' ,%-%2','-/

.)(1/1)-( Q\RIZh )* ,'-I a=IZh )* +),'-SL M#' 2'-0'& 01**'&'-9'( %&' ,)&'

.&)-)H-9'0 1- /#' )&2%-1W%/1)-%6 6'K'6 N'6)+ %-0 %N)K' 'J'9H/1K' ,%-%2','-/L<12-1*19%-/6$ a ,)&' ,'- %(.1&' /) ('-1)& 'J'9H/1K' ,%-%2','-/ .)(1/1)-(L "),'- )-

/#' )/#'& #%-0 #%K' 6)+'& %(.1&%/1)-(V (12-1*19%-/6$ ̀ ,)&' +),'- %(.1&' /) &'%9# H..'&

,1006' ,%-%2','-/ /#%- ,'-L ['%&()-X( s )- /#' +#)6' /%N6' (#)+( % (/%/1(/19%66$

(12-1*19%-/ 01**'&'-9' Q.m >I>>>S N'/+''- 2'-0'& %-0 %(.1&'0 )&2%-1W%/1)- 6'K'6L

<1-9' /#' -H,N'& )* &'(.)-0'-/( +#) %(.1&' /) %9#1'K' ('-1)& 'J'9H/1K' .)(1/1)-(

(12-1*19%-/6$ 01**'&( N'/+''- ,'- %-0 +),'-I 1/ 1( 1-/'&'(/1-2 /) 6)); 1-/) +#%/ &)6' %2'

.6%$( 1- 9%&''& %(.1&%/1)-(L M%N6' ZI (#)+( /#' .'&9'-/%2' )* ,'- %-0 +),'- +#)

%(.1&' /) %9#1'K' ('-1)& 'J'9H/1K' .)(1/1)-( N$ %2' 2&)H.(L

a um\I=@@R .m>I>>>>` um@I>=?a .m>I>>=a



a?

Table 7 Procentage of middle managers who aspire to achieve senior executivemanagement positions. The table is divided by age range and gender

:%2(%# >2(%# IG IGIJ INIP JGJJ JNJP NGNJ Y*%# NN

@%2 JN JG NHOM IH FDOD HFON HFON

K,$"2 IMOD INOI IFOP POI MOH HGON IOL

B,&"3 JGOP ILOL JFOI FGOF HLON HHON DOH

Y?'%#*"&),2' IP PJ HMI HHJ HGH DM ML

=S)F GOFMD GOFGI NOLHN LOHNF DODPN GOGD HONI

!*"37% GOMGN GOMNF GOGHL GOGGL GOGGI GOLLL GOFHM

U'(.)-0'-/( +#) %-(+'&'0 /#%/ /#'$ %1, /) %9#1'K' %-$ )/#'& .)(1/1)- /#%- ('-1)& 'J'9H/1K' ,%-%2','-/ %&' -)/0'.19/'0 1- /#' /%N6'L

M#' /%N6' (#)+( /#%/ %6,)(/ \>h )* &'(.)-0'-/( H-0'& /#' %2' )* @\ %(.1&' /) %9#1'K'

('-1)& 'J'9H/1K' .)(1/1)-(L M#' -H,N'& 1( (612#/6$ 6)+'& *)& +),'-I NH/ -) (12-1*19%-/

2'-0'& 01**'&'-9' 9%- N' )N('&K'0L M#' (%,' #)60( *)& )K'& a> $'%&f)60 ,1006'

,%-%2'&(L 4&)H-0 ?>h %(.1&' /) /#' #12#'(/ .)(1/1)-(L :'&' %2%1-I /#' .'&9'-/%2'( %&'

(612#/6$ 6)+'& *)& +),'- /#%- ,'-L M#' (12-1*19%-/ 01**'&'-9'( Q.t>I>aS %&' 1- /#'

/#&'' %2' 2&)H.( N'/+''- @a %-0 \bL M#' ['%&()-X( s /'(/ (#)+( /#%/ *)& /#' /#&'' %2'

2&)H.( /#'&' 1( (12-1*19%-/ 01**'&'-9' N'/+''- 2'-0'& %-0 %(.1&%/1)-( /> N'9),' ('-1)&

'J'9H/1K'L G- )/#'& +)&0(I (12-1*19%-/6$ ,)&' ,'- 1- /#' %2' &%-2' @af\b %(.1&' /) &'%9#

('-1)& 'J'9H/1K' .)(1/1)-( /#%- +),'-L "),'-X( %(.1&%/1)-( ('', /) 0'9&'%('

0&%(/19%66$ N'/+''- /#'(' %2' 2&)H.(I +#'&'%( ,'- )* %2'( @af@b (#)+ % 96'%& 1-9&'%('

1- %(.1&1-2 /) ('-1)& ,%-%2','-/L B)-(10'&1-2 /#%/ /#' %K'&%2' %2' %/ *1&(/ 9#160N1&/# 1(

@> $'%&( Q('' /%N6' ?RS %-0 aZh )* ,%-%2'&( #%K' = )& ,)&' 9#160&'-I 1/ ,%$ N' /#%/

+#'- 9#160&'- %&' $)H-2 +),'- 6)+'& /#'1& 9%&''& %(.1&%/1)-( %-0 /#H( -) 6)-2'&

%(.1&' /) ('-1)& 'J'9H/1K' ,%-%2','-/L M#1( 1( #)+'K'&I .%&/1%66$ 9)-/&%019/'0 (1-9'

/#'&' 1( -) (12-1*19%-/Z 01**'&'-9' 1- %(.1&1-2 /) ('-1)& 'J'9H/1K' ,%-%2','-/ N'/+''-

-) 01**'&'-9' 1- %(.1&%/1)-( /) &'%9# 'J'9H/1K' ,%-%2','-/ 6'K'6 N'/+''- +),'- +1/#

%-0 +1/#)H/ 9#160&'- Q<'' %..'-01J =SL G- )/#'& +)&0(I /#' &'(H6/( (H22'(/ /#%/ #%K1-2

9#160&'- 0)'( -)/ %**'9/ +#'/#'& +),'- %(.1&' /) &'%9# 'J'9H/1K' )& ('-1)& 'J'9H/1K'

,%-%2','-/ .)(1/1)-(L

O%('0 )- /#' &'(H6/( 1- /%N6' Ì )-' 9%- ('' /#%/ /#' &'(H6/( %&' 1- 61-' +1/# )* :H0()-X(

(/H0$ Q=>?=S )- 4,'&19%- ,1006' ,%-%2'&( %0K%-9','-/ %(.1&%/1)-(L M#H(I (HNf

#$.)/#'(1( ?L= 1( 9)-*1&,'0L

Z um?I>=Z? .m>I@>\\



a=

6.1.3.

SH 1.3 – Confidence in skills and career prospects

G- )&0'& /) /'(/ +#'/#'& ,'- ,1006' ,%-%2','-/ #%K' ,)&' 9)-*10'-9' 1- /#'1& 9%&''&

.&)(.'9/( %-0 (;166( /#%- +),'-I /#' *)9H( 1( *1&(/ 6%10 >- +#%/ 9%&''& .#%(' ,1006'

,%-%2'&( 'K%6H%/' /#',('6K'( /) N' %/ %-0 #)+ %2' %**'9/ /#' 'K%6H%/1)-L M#' &'(H6/(

9%- N' (''- 1- /%N6' R %-0 bL

Table 8

Percentual divisions regarding what phase manager’s currently perceive theircareer to be at. The table is divided by gender

:%2(%# Q,9%#)2< 4&"?3% W,#)V,2&"3" ])')2<

@%2 IOP IGOF JI FFOP

K,$%2 NOJ JHOH IDOF HN

B,&"3 JOMN INOMN JGOM HDOPN

Y?'%#*"&),2' MMJ

=S)F HFOMMM

%F)K1-2 #)&1W)-/%66$ 1- )&0'& /) ,)K' *)&+%&0

Table 9 Percentage of middle managers who perceive their career to currently movinghorizontally or rising. The table is divided by age range and gender

>2(%# IN INJP Y*%# NG

@%2 PG MGOM MNOP

K,$"2 DIOH JNOI NIOF

B,&"3 DMONN NFOPN NPONN

4 ,%P)&1/$ )* &'(.)-0'-/( 9)-(10'& /#',('6K'( /) N' %/ % 60(;.& .#%(' Q@aIàhS )&

,+7-'/ 3+2-?+'0(..A Q\>I`S 1- /#'1& 9%&''&L 4 (12-1*19%-/R 01**'&'-9' 1( )N('&K'0 1- /#'

-H,N'& )* ,'- Q==IbhS %-0 ,'- Q?ahS +#) %-(+'&'0 2-6-'/L M#'&' %&' %6() %

(12-1*19%-/6$ b #12#'& .&).)&/1)- )* +),'- +#) %-(+'&'0 .'&9'1K'0 /) N' %/ % (/%N6'

.#%(' Q\?I?hS 9),.%&'0 /) ,'- Q@RI=hSL CK'&%66I % (12-1*19%-/ 01**'&'-9' Q.m >I>>aS

N'/+''- K%&1%N6'( /&')&2 %-0 .'&9'1K'0 9%&''& .#%(' 1( 0'/'9/'0L M%N6' b *H&/#'&

'J%,1-'( /#' &'6%/1)-(#1. )* ,%-%2'&( +#) .'&9'1K' /#'1& 9%&''& /) 9H&&'-/6$ ,)K'

#)&1W)-/%66$ )& &1(1-2L 4&)H-0 RZ h )* ,%-%2'&( H-0'& /#' %2' )* @aI (/%/' /#%/ /#'1&

9%&''&( %&' ,)K1-2 *)&+%&0L M#1( .'&9'-/%2' 0'9&'%('( +1/# ,)&' /#%- % /#1&0 /)

a=Ibah *)& ,%-%2'&( N'/+''- @af\b $'%&f)60(I +#'&' %( 1/ %2%1- 1-9&'%('( *)&

,%-%2'&( )K'& a>L G/ 1( H-0'&(/%-0%N6' /#%/ 9%&''& %0K%-9','-/ (6)+( 0)+- +1/# %2'

*)& ,%-$ ,%-%2'&( (1-9' /#'&' %&' )-6$ 61,1/'0 %,)H-/ )* .)(1/1)-( %K%16%N6' 1- /#'

#12#'(/ &%-;(L :)+'K'& #%K1-2 %-0 /%;1-2 9%&' )* (,%66 9#160&'- 9)H60 .%&/6$ 'J.6%1-

R um=I`>Z\ .m>I>>b?b um =Ib\R .m>I>>@=



a@

/#' 9)-(10'&%N6' 0&). *)& N)/# ,%6' %-0 *',%6' ,%-%2'&( N'/+''- @af\bL "#'-

9#160&'- 2'/ )60'&I ,%-%2'&( 9%- %2%1- %22&'((1K'6$ .H&(H' /#'1& 9%&''&(I +#19# 9)H60

.%&/6$ 'J.6%1- /#' 1-9&'%(' *)& )K'& a> $'%&f)60( (/%/1-2 /#%/ /#'1& 9%&''&( %&' ,)K1-2

*)&+%&0L

A'J/I *)9H( (#1*/( /) +#'/#'& ,1006' ,%-%2'&( *''6 9)-*10'-/ /#%/ /#'$ +166 %9#1'K' /#'1&

9%&''& /%&2'/L M%N6' R 0'.19/( /#' &'6%/1)-(#1. N'/+''- /#' (/%/','-/ %-0 2'-0'&L

Table 10

Percentual division of middle managers who agree or disagree with thestatement: I am confident that I will achieve my career target. The table is divided

by gender

:%2(%# B,&"33; ()'"<#%% B%2( &, ()'"<#%% B%2( &, "<#%% C733; "<#%% T, 2,& /2,9 B,&"3

@%2 FOH HGOJ NIOH IGOF JOF HGG

K,$%2 HOJ HFOP NHOH IHOH IOM HGG

B,&"3 HOLN HHOMN NFOH IGOMN IOP

Y?'%#*"&),2' MMJ

=S)F HONJI

!*"37% GODHP

4 (HN(/%-/1%6 ,%P)&1/$I ,)&' /#%- R>hI )* &'(.)-0'-/( '1/#'& /'-0 /) %2&'' )& *H66$

%2&'' +1/# /#' (/%/','-/L ^'-0'& 01**'&'-9'( N'/+''- &'(.)-(' %6/'&-%/1K'( %&'

,%&21-%6 %-0 -) (12-1*19%-/ 01**'&'-9'( %&' )N('&K'0L 46/#)H2# -) 2'-0'& 01**'&'-9'(

%&' *)H-0I 1/ 1( 1,.)&/%-/ /) -)/19' /#%/ /#'&' 1( % (12-1*19%-/ 01**'&'-9' 1- /#'

)&2%-1W%/1)-%6 6'K'6 /#%/ ,'- %-0 +),'- %1, /) %9#1'K' (1-9' +),'-I 1- 2'-'&%6I %1,(

/) %9#1'K' %/ % 6)+'& )&2%-1W%/1)- 6'K'6 /#%- ,'-L

G- /%N6' b % 9&)(( /%N6' 1( ('/ H. /) 0'.19/ /#' &'6%/1)-(#1. N'/+''- 2'-0'& %-0 /#'

%2&'','-/ )& 01(%2&'','-/ )* +#'/#'& ,1006' ,%-%2'&( N'61'K' /#%/ /#'$ #%K' /#'

&'TH1&'0 (;166( %-0 %N161/1'( *)& *H&/#'& 9%&''& %0K%-9','-/L



a\

Table 11 Percentual division of middle managers who agree or disagree with the statement: Ihave the needed skills and abilities for further career advancement to senior levelpositions or higher. The table is divided by gender

:%2(%# B,&"33; ()'"<#%% B%2( &, ()'"<#%% B%2( &, "<#%% C733; "<#%% T, 2,& /2,9 B,&"3

@%2 FOH LOD JFOJ JJON IOH HGG

K,$%2 HOJ LON JJOM JJOI FOH HGG

B,&"3 HOLN LOMN JION JJOJ FOM

Y?'%#*"&),2' MMJ

=S)F HOHMI

!*"37% GODDJ

A) (12-1*19%-/ 2'-0'& K%&1'/$ 1- &'(.)-('( N'/+''- 2'-0'&( 9%- N' )N('&K'0 1- /#'

%N)K' /%N6'L F)&' /#%- Rah )* ,1006' ,%-%2'&( 9)-(10'& /#',('6K'( /> #%K' /#'

&'TH1&'0 (;166( %-0 %N161/1'( *)& 9%&''& %0K%-9','-/ /) /#' #12#'(/ 9)&.)&%/' .)(1/1)-(L

D'(( /#%- ?>h /)/%66$ 01(%2&'' )& /'-0 /) 01(%2&'' +1/# /#' (/%/','-/I 1,.6$1-2 /#%/

&'(.)-0'-/( )K'&%66 #%K' 9)-*10'-9' 1- /#'1& (;166(L

M) 9)-96H0'I /#' (HNf#$.)/#'(1( 9%--)/ N' 9)-*1&,'0V -) 01**'&'-9' 1- 9)-*10'-9'

&'2%&01-2 9%&''& .&)(.'9/( %-0 (;166 ('/ +%( *)H-0 N'/+''- &'(.)-0'-/(L 4 96'%&

,%P)&1/$ )* &'(.)-0'-/( N'61'K'0 /#%/ /#'$ #%K' +#%/ 1/ /%;'( /) %0K%-9' /) ('-1)& 6'K'6

.)(1/1)-( )& #12#'& %-0 +'&' 9)-*10'-/ /#%/ /#'$ +)H60 %9#1'K' /#'1& ('/ 9%&''& /%&2'/(L

G-/'&'(/1-26$I (12-1*19%-/6$ ,)&' +),'- 9)-(10'&'0 /#',('6K'( /) 9H&&'-/6$ N' %/ %

(/%N6' .#%(' 1- /#'1& 9%&''& +#'&'%( (12-1*19%-/6$ ,)&' ,'- +'&' %/ % &1(1-2 .#%('L

6.1.4.

SH 1.4 – Career ambition and planning

M#' -'J/ #$.)/#'(1( 9)-9'-/&%/'( )- +#'/#'& % 2'-0'& 01**'&'-9' 'J1(/( 1- 9%&''&

%,N1/1)- %-0 .6%--1-2L O'6)+I &'(.)-0'-/( %&' %(;'0 /) /%;' % (/%-0 /) +#'/#'& /#'$

#%K' % 96'%& 9%&''& /%&2'/L

Table 12

Percentual division of middle managers who agree or disagree with thestatement: I have a clear career target. The table is divided by gender

:%2(%# B,&"33; ()'"<#%% B%2( &, ()'"<#%% B%2( &, "<#%% C733; "<#%% T, 2,& /2,9 B,&"3

@%2 JOJ HDOD JPOL FM H HGG

K,$%2 IOM FMOH JJOI FNOJ GOL HGG

B,&"3 J FFOJN JL FNOL GODN HGG

Y?'%#*"&),2' MMJ

=S)F NONGI

!*"37% GOFIP



aa

E&), /%N6' ?> 1/ 1( .)((1N6' /) ('' /#%/ % ,%P)&1/$ )* &'(.)-0'-/( '1/#'& /'-0 /) %2&''

Q\ZhS )& *H66$ %2&'' Q=aIZS +1/# /#' (/%/','-/L 4 (12-1*19%-/?> 2'-0'& 01**'&'-9' 1(

)N('&K'0 1- &'(.)-(' %6/'&-%/1K' /'-0 /) %2&''I #'&' ,'- (#)+ % #12#'& .'&9'-/%2' /#%-

+),'-L M#1( 2'-0'& 01**'&'-9' %6() .&'K%16( +#'- %001-2 H. /#' /+) .)(1/1K' &'(.)-('

%6/'&-%/1K'( Q,'- ZaIZh K(I `bIZhS #)+'K'& )-6$ %/ % ?>h (12-1*19%-9' 6'K'6 ??L

A'K'&/#'6'((I +#'- 6));1-2 %/ /#' +#)6' /%N6'I /#'&' ('',( /) N' -) (12-1*19%-/

Q.m>I=@bS 01**'&'-9' N'/+''- 2'-0'& %-0 /#' (/%/','-/I +#19# (H22'(/ /#%/ ,%6' %-0

*',%6' ,%-%2'&( 0) -)/ 01**'& 1- #%K1-2 9%&''& 2)%6 /%&2'/(L

M#' -'J/ (/%/','-/ 1( (1,16%& /) /#' .&'K1)H(I #)+'K'& 1-(/'%0 )* 9%&''& /%&2'/( 1/ 6));(

1-/) 0'61N'&%/' 9%&''& .6%--1-2L U'(.)-('( %&' N&)%06$ 01(/&1NH/'0 %,)-2 /#' &'(.)-('

%6/'&-%/1K'(L B),.H/'0 *&), /#' N'6)+ /%N6'I %6,)(/ #%6* )* /#' &'(.)-0'-/( 01(%2&''

%-0 /#' )/#'& #%6* 01(%2&''( +1/# /#' (/%/','-/L A) (12-1*19%-/ 2'-0'& 01**'&'-9'( 9%-

N' >N('&K'0 %,)-2 /#' &'(.)-(' 9%/'2)&1'(L

Table 13

Percentual division of middle managers who agree or disagree with thestatement: I have consciously planned my career. The table is divided by gender

:%2(%# B,&"33; ()'"<#%% B%2( &, ()'"<#%% B%2( &, "<#%% C733; "<#%% T, 2,& /2,9 B,&"3

@%2 HJOD INOJ INOL HIOI GOD HGG

K,$%2 HLOP FPOM IMOD HJOI HOJ HGG

B,&"3 HMOIN IFON IMOFN HIOD HOH

Y?'%#*"&),2' MMJ

=S)F IOIML

!*"37% GOJPD

M#' *1-%6 (/%/','-/ /) /#1( (HN #$.)/#'(1( 6));( %/ %9/1K1/$ 1- &'6%/1)- /) 9%&''&

%0K%-9','-/L M%N6' ?\ .&'('-/( /#' &'(H6/( )- +#'/#'& &'(.)-0'-/( %&' 9)-/1-H)H(6$

)- /#' 6));)H/ *)& 9%&''& %0K%-9','-/ )..)&/H-1/1'(L G/ /H&-( )H/ /#%/ `?I\ah %2&''

Q/'-0 /) %2&'' r /)/%66$ %2&''S +1/# /#' (/%/','-/L "#'- 6));1-2 %/ &'(.)-0'-/( +#)

9#)(' /)/%66$ 01(%2&'' % (12-1*19%-/?= 2'-0'& 01**'&'-9' 1( (.)//'0I ?>h >* +),'- /)/%66$

01(%2&'' /#%/ /#'$ %&' )- /#' 6));)H/ *)& %0K%-9','-/ )..)&/H-1/1'(I 9),.%&'0 /) aI=h

)* ,'-L CK'&%66I /#'&' 1( -) (12-1*19%-/ Q.m>I=@bS 01**'&'-9' N'/+''- /#' (/%/','-/ %-0

2'-0'&L

?> um=I=??= .m>I>=Z?? um?IZ>aZ .m>I>RR?= um=I@àZI .m>L>?R



a`

Table 14 Percentual division of middle managers who agree or disagree with thestatement: I am continuously on the lookout for career advancementopportunities. The table is divided by gender

:%2(%# B,&"33; ()'"<#%% B%2( &, ()'"<#%% B%2( &, "<#%% C733; "<#%% T, 2,& /2,9 B,&"3

@%2 NOF IGOL INOL FLOM GOD HGG

K,$%2 HG IG IIOF FMOJ GOJ HGG

B,&"3 LOM IGOIN IJOJN FL GOM

Y?'%#*"&),2' MMJ

=S)F MOGFH

!*"37% GOHPD

O%('0 )- /#' &'(H6/( 1- /%N6' ??I ?= %-0 ?@ (HNf#$.)/#'(1( ?L\ 9%--)/ N' 9)-*1&,'0L M#'

&'(H6/( (H22'(/ /#%/ /#'&' 1( -) (12-1*19%-/ 2'-0'& 01**'&'-9' 1- 9%&''& .6%--1-2 %-0 #)+

%,N1/1)H(6$ ,1006' ,%-%2'&( (''; 9%&''& %0K%-9','-/ )..)&/H-1/1'(L

6.1.5.

SH 1.5 – Promotion offers and acceptance

M#' *1-%6 (HNf#$.)/#'(1( (/%&/( )** N$ 6));1-2 %/ #)+ %-0 1* &'(.)-0'-/( #%K' %99'./'0

.&),)/1)-( 1- /#'1& 9H&&'-/ )&2%-1W%/1)-

Table 15

Percentual division of middle managers who have accepted promotions in theircurrent organization. The table is divided by gender

:%2(%# A,O ,++%#' X%'O ,28% X%'O $,#% &S"2 ,28%

@%2 IDON FDOM IFOD

K,$%2 JFON IHOJ FMOH

B,&"3 JGON IGOG FPOJN

Y?'%#*"&),2' MMJ

=S)F IONGL

!*"37% GOHLI

M%N6' ?\ (#)+( /#%/ \>Iah )* ,1006' ,%-%2'&( #%K' -)/ N''- )**'&'0 % .&),)/1)- %/

/#'1& 9H&&'-/ )&2%-1W%/1)-L M#'&' 1( -) (12-1*19%-/ 2'-0'& 01**'&'-9' 1- /#' %,)H-/ )*

,1006' ,%-%2'&( /#%/ #%K' -)/ &'9'1K'0 .&),)/1)- )**'&(L 4 (612#/6$I NH/ -)/

(12-1*19%-/6$I #12#'& .'&9'-/%2' )* ,'- #%K' &'9'1K'0 .&),)/1)- )**'&( /#%- +),'-

Q`?I\h K(L aZIaSL M#1( ,'%-( /#%/ ,'- %&' -)/ ,)&' 61;'6$ /) 2'/ (12-1*19%-/6$ ?@ ,)&'

?@ um?I>>RZ .m>I@?@?



aZ

.&),)/1)- )**'&( /#%- +),'-L :)+'K'&I % (12-1*19%-/?\ 2'-0'& 01**'&'-9' 1( *)H-0 +#'-

6));1-2 %/ ,1006' ,%-%2'&( +#) #%K' &'9'1K'0 ,)&' /#%- )-' .&),)/1)- %/ /#'1&

9H&&'-/ )&2%-1W%/1)-L

A'J/I *)9H( (#1*/( /) +#'/#'& ,1006' ,%-%2'&( #%K' 0'961-'0 .&),)/1)-( 1- /#'1&9H&&'-/ )&2%-1W%/1)-

Table 16

Percentual division of middle managers who have declined promotions in theircurrent organization. The table is divided by gender

:%2(%# A, ,++%#' A,O "88%1&%( "33 ,++%#' X%'O ,28% X%'O $,#% &S"2 ,28%

@"2 JGOH NG MOD IOH

K,$%2 JN JMOJ MOD HOD

B,&"3 JFONN JDOF MOD FOJN

Y?'%#*"&),2' MMJ

=S)F FOJDH

!*"37% GOJLP

:'&' /#' /+) 6%(/ 9)6H,-(I +#19# 0'.19/ +#'/#'& ,1006' ,%-%2'&( #%K' 0'961-'0

.&),)/1)- )**'&(I %&' )* 1-/'&'(/L G/ /H&-( )H/ /#%/ bL=ah #%K' 0'961-'0 .&),)/1)-

)**'&(V %- 'TH%6 -H,N'& QÌRhS #%K' 0'961-'0 )-9' %-0 (612#/6$ ,)&' ,'- /#%- +),'-

#%K' 0'961-'0 ,)&' /#%- )-9'L G- )/#'& +)&0(I /#'&' 1( -)/ % (12-1*19%-/ 2'-0'&

01**'&'-9' 1- /H&-1-2 0)+- .&),)/1)- )**'&( %-0 1- 2'//1-2 )**'&'0 .&),)/1)-( %( 9%-

N' (''- *&), /%N6' ?aL O%('0 )- /#'(' &'(H6/(I (HNf#$.)/#'(1( ?La 9%--)/ N' %99'./'0L

6.1.6.

Summary of Hypothesis 1

CH/ )* a (HNf#$.)/#'(1( )-6$ )-' 9)H60 N' 9)-*1&,'0I -%,'6$ /#%/ ,'- 1- 2'-'&%6

%(.1&' /) %9#1'K' % #12#'& )&2%-1W%/1)- 6'K'6 /#%- +),'-L M#H(I /#' *1&(/ #$.)/#'(1(

9%--)/ N' 9)-*1&,'0 %( % +#)6'L G/ /H&-( )H/ /#%/ (12-1*19%-/6$ ,)&' ,'- /#%- +),'-

%&' +1661-2 /) 9)-(10'& % .&),)/1)-I +#19# (H22'(/( /#%/ ,'- #%K' ,)&' .&'*'&'-9'( *)&

9%&''& %0K%-9','-/L G- 9)-/&%(/ /) +#%/ 9)H60 N' 'J.'9/'0 *&), &'K1'+1-2 .&'K1)H(

(/H01'(I /#' &'(H6/( (H22'(/ /#%/ N)/# ,'- %-0 +),'- %&' 9)-*10'-/ /#%/ /#'$ +166 &'%9#

/#'1& 9%&''& /%&2'/I %9/1K'6$ .6%- /#'1& 9%&''&(I #%K' /#' &'TH1&'0 (;166( *)& 9%&''&

%0K%-9','-/ %-0 %99'./ %-0 0'961-' .&),)/1)-( 1- /#' (%,' 'J/'-/L M#' ,%1-

01**'&'-9'(I 1- %001/1)- /) ,'- #%K1-2 ,)&' .&'*'&'-9'( *)& 9%&''& %0K%-9','-/ 1( /#%/

(12-1*19%-/6$ ,)&' ,'- /#%- +),'- %(.1&' /) ('-1)& 'J'9H/1K' .)(1/1)-(L 46()I +),'-

/#',('6K'( .'&9'1K' /) N' %/ % (/%N6' 9%&''& .#%(' ,)&' )*/'- /#%- ,'-I +#'&'%( ,)&'

?\ Wm=IZR`> .m>I>>a@



aR

,'- /#%- +),'- %&' 1- % &1(1-2 9%&''& .#%('L M#' 6)+'(/ -H,N'&( %-0 6%&2'(/ 2'-0'&

01**'&'-9'( 9%- N' )N('&K'0 *)& ,%-%2'&( +#) %&' N'/+''- @a %-0 \b )* %2'L M#'

01**'&'-9'( 1- 9%&''& %(.1&%/1)-( %-0 /#' .'&9'1K'0 9%&''& .#%(' 9)H60 .%&/1%66$ N' 0H'

/) /#' &)6' *%,16$ .6%$( 1- %/ /#'(' %2'( 9)-(10'&1-2 /#%/ ,%-%2'&( %/ /#1( %2' *&%,'

/'-0 /) #%K' (,%66 9#160&'- /) 9%&' *)&?aL M#' &)6' )* *%,16$ )- 9%&''& 2)%6( %-0 /#'

N%6%-91-2 %9/ )* /#' /+) +166 N' *H&/#'& 1-K'(/12%/'0 1- /#' -'J/ #$.)/#'(1(L

Hypothesis 2 – Work and family6.2.

G/ 9%- N' (''- *&), #$.)/#'(1( )-' /#%/ ,'- %-0 +),'- 01**'& 1- /#'1& +166 /) 9)-(10'&

.&),)/1)-( %-0 /#%/ ,'- (/&1K' *)& % #12#'& )&2%-1W%/1)- 6'K'6 Q('' /%N6' @ %-0 /%N6' `S

U'(H6/( %6() (#)+ /#%/ /#1( 1( -)/ 0H' /) 6%9; )* 9%&''& .6%--1-2 )& 9)-*10'-9' 1- (;166(L

M#' ('9)-0 #$.)/#'(1( /#'&'*)&' ('/( /) 1-K'(/12%/' +#'/#'& #%K1-2 9#160&'- %-0

N%6%-91-2 +)&; %-0 *%,16$ %**'9/ ,1006' ,%-%2'&(XI '(.'91%66$ +),'-X(I 9%&''&(

01**'&'-/6$L M#' #$.)/#'(1( +166 9)-9'-/&%/' )- #)+ ,'- %-0 +),'- #%K' )&2%-1W'0

/#'1& *%,16$ 9)-01/1)-( %-0 #)+ /#1( ,%$ %**'9/ .'&9'1K'0 9%&''& .&)(.'9/(L

6.2.1.

SH 2.1 – Children and career goals

G- )&0'& /) /'(/ (HNf#$.)/#'(1( =L? % 9&)(( /%N6' )* 2'-0'& %-0 +#'/#'& #%K1-2 9#160&'-

#%( .'&,%-'-/6$ %6/'&'0 ,1006' ,%-%2'&(X 9%&''& 2)%6(L M#1( 9%- N' (''- 1- /%N6' ?`L

Table 17

Percentual division whether having children has altered middle managers career

goals permanently

:%2(%# A, X%'

@%2 LFOH FLOP

K,$%2 MM IJ

B,&"3 MPOGN IGOPN

Y?'%#*"&),2' MMJ

=S)F FOHGH

!*"37% GOHJL

:'&' )-' 9%- ('' /#%/ #%K1-2 9#160&'- #%( -)/ %6/'&'0 /#' 2)%6( )* /#' ,%P)&1/$I %&)H-0

Z>hI )* ,1006' ,%-%2'&(L M#' .'&9'-/%2' )* +),'- +#)(' 9%&''& 2)%6( #%0 N''-

%6/'&'0 +%( (612#/6$ #12#'& /#%- *)& ,'- Q@\Iba K(L =ZIbSL ['%&()-X( s )- /#' +#)6'

?a 46,)(/ `>h )* ,%-%2'&( #%K' /+) )& ,)&' 9#160&'- %-0 /#' %K'&%2' %2' %/ *1&(/ 9#160N1&/# *)& ,%-%2'&(

1( @>I@



ab

/%N6' (#)+( /#%/ /#' )N('&K'0 K%&1%N6'( %&' 1-0'.'-0'-/ *&), '%9# )/#'& ,'%-1-2 /#%/

#%K1-2 9#160&'- 0)'( -)/ %6/'& /#' 9%&''& 2)%6( )* ,'- %-0 +),'- 01**'&'-/6$L G- )&0'&

/) K'&1*$ /#1( %-0 (/H0$ +#%/ *%9/)&( ,%$ 1,.%9/ +#$ #%K1-2 9#160&'- %6/'& 9%&''& 2)%6(I

% N1-%&$ 6)21(/19 &'2&'((1)- 1( 9)-(/&H9/'0 Q('' /%N6' ?ZSL M#' 'J.6%-%/)&$ K%&1%N6'( %-0

(H,,%&$ (/%/1(/19( %N)H/ /#', 9%- N' (''- 1- /%N6' ?RL

Table 18

Summary statistics for the explanatory variables used in the binary logisticregression.

@%"2 4&"2("#( (%*)"&),2 @)2)$7$ @"Z)$7$

K,$"2 5GRHU GOJF GOJPJ G H

[<% 5;%"#'O #"2<%U JOGN HOLDD H D

H 8S)3( 5GRHU GOHMP GOILN G H

F 8S)3( 5GRHU GOIPM GOJDP G H

I 8S)3( 5GRHU GOHLI GOILP G H

[<% "& +)#'& 8S)3(?)#&S 5;%"#'U IGOIP JONFJ HL JM

C"$)3; 3%"*% 5$,2&S'U HJOGG FGODFF G FHM

C"$)3; 3%"*% 1"#&2%# 5$,2&S'U HPOFP FFOPJ G HFG

=S)3(8"#%RS,7'%S,3( S%31 5GRHU GOJF GOJPJ G H

=S)3(8"#% #%'1,2')?)3)&; 5GHGGU JDOFP FGOMND G HGG

W,7'%S,3( #%'1,2')?)3)&; 5GHGGU NGOMM HDOPP G HGG

M#' *1K' *1&(/ K%&1%N6'( +'&' %6() H('0 1- /#' 6)21(/19 &'2&'((1)- H('0 1- (HNf#$.)/#'(1(

?L?L M#' /%N6' (#)+( /#%/ /#' ,'%- %2' *)& *1&(/ 9#160N1&/# +%( @>I@b $'%&(L C- %K'&%2'I

,1006' ,%-%2'&( /%;' ?\ ,)-/#( )* *%,16$ 6'%K' Q1-96H01-2 ,%/'&-1/$ )& .%/'&-1/$

6'%K'I .%&'-/%6 6'%K' %-0 9%&' 6'%K'S +#16' /#'1& .%&/-'&( )- %K'&%2' /%;' a ,)-/#(

,)&'L M#'&' 1( 6%&2' K%&1%N161/$ 1- /#' &'(.)-('(I ,%1-6$ N'9%H(' ,)/#'&( /%;' /#'

,%P)&1/$ )* /#' 6'%K' .'&1)0L EH&/#'&I \=h )* ,%-%2'&( H(' 'J/'&-%6 #'6. Q'L2L

#)H('#)60 %-0 9#1609%&'SL M#H(I ,1006' ,%-%2'&( )- %K'&%2' ('', /) (#%&' 9#1609%&'

%-0 #)H('#)60 &'(.)-(1N161/1'( TH1/' 'K'-6$ +1/# /#'1& .%&/-'&(L

4 01&'9/ 6)21(/19 &'2&'((1)- .'&*)&,'0 /) %(('(( /#' 61;'61#))0 )* &'(.)-0'-/( #%K1-2

%6/'&'0 /#'1& 9%&''& 2)%6( 0H' /) 9#160&'-L 4( 1- (HNf#$.)/#'(1( ?L=I /#' 9)'**191'-/ )*

,%1- 1-/'&'(/ 1( +),%-L G- )&0'& /) K'&1*$ (HNf#$.)/#'(1( =L?I /#' 9)'**191'-/ -''0( /)

N' 1-(12-1*19%-/L



`>

Table 19 Binary logistic regression predicting likelihood whether having children hasaltered middle managers career goals

- 4E6 K"3( (+ 4)<E

K,$"2 GOGMN GOIMD GOGIH H GODMG

[<% GOGNP GOGLJ GOMIL H GOJFN

F 8S)3( HOINH GOINI HJOMLG H GOGGG

I 8S)3( HOFMM GOJJM DOGJL H GOGGN

[<% "& +)#'& 8S)3(?)#&S GOHIN GOGFP FHOMPP H GOGGG

C"$)3; 3%"*% GOGHH GOGGL FOIJN H GOHFM

C"$)3; 3%"*% 1"#&2%# GOGHH GOGGM IOFPH H GOGJJ

=S)3(8"#%RS,7'%S,3( S%31 GOFFM GOFFP GOPLJ H GOIFJ

=S)3(8"#% #%'1,2')?)3)&; GOGHP GOGGP JOMPJ H GOGIG

W,7'%S,3( #%'1,2')?)3)&; GOGGI GOGGP GOHLF H GOLFH

CK'&%66I /#' ,)0'6 1( (/%/1(/19%66$ (12-1*19%-/I s Q?=I Am``\Sm a@IR\=I .t >I>>>L 4( 9%-

N' (''- 1- /%N6' ?RI /#' 1-0'.'-0'-/ K%&1%N6'( /#%/ ,%0' % (/%/1(/19%66$ (12-1*19%-/

9)-/&1NH/1)- /) /#' ,)0'6 +'&' 0H,,$ = 9#160 Q.m>I>>>SI 0H,,$ @ 9#160 Q.m>I>>aS

%2' %/ *1&(/ 9#160N1&/# Q.m>I>>>SI 9#1609%&' &'(.)-(1N161/$ Q.m>I>@S %-0 9#1609%&' 6'%K'

.%&/-'& %/ % ?>h (12-1*19%-9' 6'K'6L 4( *)& /#' 1-/'&.&'/%/1)- )* /#' K%&1%N6'(I

&'(.)-0'-/( +1/# = )& @r 9#160&'- +'&' ,)&' 61;'6$ +'&' ,)&' 61;'6$ /) %-(+'& /#%/

/#'1& 9%&''& 2)%6( #%0 N''- %6/'&'0 0H' /) 9#160&'- /#%- &'(.)-0'-/( +1/# )-6$ )-'

9#160L M#' )60'& ,%-%2'&( #%K' N''- +#'- #%K1-2 /#'1& *1&(/ 9#160I /#' ,)&' 61;'6$ /#'$

%&' /) (%$ $'(L M#' 6)-2'& *%,16$ 6'%K' % ,%-%2'&X( .%&/-'& #%( /%;'-I /#' ,)&' 61;'6$ %

,%-%2'& 1( /) %-(+'& /#%/ 9#160&'- #%K' -)/ %6/'&'0 /#' ,%-%2'&X( 9%&''& 2)%6(L E1-%66$I/#' ,)&' /1,' % ,%-%2'& %66)9%/'( /) 9#1609%&' 0H/1'(I /#' ,)&' 61;'6$ #'g(#' +166

%-(+'& .)(1/1K'6$L

M#' K%&1%N6' *)& +),'- 0)'( -)/ /H&- )H/ /) N' (12-1*19%-/ Q.m>IR`>SI +#19# 1( %6()

(H..)&/'0 N$ /#' 9&)(( /%N6' ?ZL M#' &'(H6/( (H22'(/ /#%/ /#'&' 1( -) 2'-0'& 01**'&'-9' 1-

+#'/#'& #%K1-2 9#160&'- #%( %6/'&'0 ,%-%2'&(X 9%&''& 2)%6(L M#'&'*)&'I (HNf#$.)/#'(1(

=L? 9%- N' 9)-*1&,'0L

6.2.2.

SH 2.2 – Career goal compromises

46/#)H2# /#' *1&(/ (HNf#$.)/#'(1( +%( 9)-*1&,'0 %-0 /#'&' 1( -) (12-1*19%-/ 2'-0'&

01**'&'-9' 1- +#'/#'& 9#160&'- %6/'& ,%-%2'&(X 9%&''& 2)%6(I /#' *)9H( (#1*/( /) +#'/#'&

,%-%2'&( )& /#'1& .%&/-'&( #%K' ,%0' 9%&''& /%&2'/ 9),.&),1('( 1- )&0'& /) N%6%-9'

*%,16$ %-0 +)&; 61*'L M#1( TH'(/1)- 1( (1,16%& /) /#' )-' (/H01'0 1- (HNf#$.)/#'(1( =L?I

#)+'K'&I /#' +)&01-2 1( 6'(( 0'*1-1/' Q.'&,%-'-/6$ %6/'& K(L 9),.&),1('S %-0 #'&' /#'



̀?

1-/'&'(/ 1( 6));1-2 %/ #)+ ,1006' ,%-%2'&( #%K' 9#)('- /) N%6%-9' *%,16$ %-0 +)&;L

<),' 9%H/1)- 1( -''0'0 +#'- 6));1-2 %/ /#' &'(H6/(I (1-9' (),' &'(.)-0'-/( ,%$ -)/

*1-0 %-$ )* /#' %6/'&-%/1K'( (H1/%N6' /) 0'(9&1N' /#'1& (1/H%/1)-?`L

Table 20

Percentual division of whether career target compromises have been made inorder to balance family and work life. The table is divided by gender.

B;1% H B;1% F B;1% I B;1% J

@"2 JMOI JOF FIOI FMOH

K,$"2 JDOD FNOM NOP HPOL

B,&"3 JLONN HJOP HJOM FFOP

Y?'%#*"&),2' MJJ

=S)F MMOJD

!*"37% GOGGG

M$.' ?d A) 9%&''& 9),.&),1('M$.' =d [%&/-'&X( 9%&''& #%( /%;'- *1&(/ .&1)&1/$ +#16' /#' &'(.)-0'-/ #%( #%0

/) ,%;' 9%&''& /%&2'/ 9),.&),1('(M$.' @d U'(.)-0'-/( 9%&''& #%( /%;'- *1&(/ .&1)&1/$ +#16' /#' .%&/-'& #%( #%0/) ,%;' 9%&''& /%&2'/ 9),.&),1('(M$.' \d O)/# &'(.)-0'-/ %-0 .%&/-'& #%K' #%0 /) ,%;' 9%&''& /%&2'/ 9),.&),1('(

"#%/ 9%- N' (''- *&), /%N6' ?b 1( /#%/ %6,)(/ a>h )* &'(.)-0'-/( (/%/' /#%/ /#'$ #%K'

-)/ #%0 /) 9),.&),1(' )- /#'1& 9%&''& 2)%6(L C- /#' )/#'& #%-0I %6,)(/ =@h )*

&'(.)-0'-/( (/%/'0 /#%/ N)/# /#',('6K'( %-0 /#'1& .%&/-'&( #%K' #%0 /) 9),.&),1('

#%0 ,%0' 9),.&),1('(L M#%/ 6'%K'( )-6$ (612#/6$ 6'(( /#%- % /#1&0I =bIah (/%/1-2 /#%/

/#'$ #%K' 9),.&),1('0 )- 9%&''& 2)%6(L <12-1*19%-/ 01**'&'-9'( 9)H60 N' *)H-0 1- +#)

#%0 ,%0' 9%&''& 9),.&),1('(L "),'- +'&' *1K' /1,'( ,)&' 61;'6$ /#%- ,'- /) %-(+'&

/#%/ /#'$ #%0 ,%0' 9),.&),1('( +#16' /#'1& .%&/-'&X( 9%&''& /)); *1&(/ .&1)&1/$I +#19#

1( % (12-1*19%-/ 01**'&'-9'?ZL F'- )- /#' )/#'& #%-0I +'&' %6,)(/ /#&'' /1,'( ,)&' 61;'6$

/) (/%/' /#%/ /#'1& 9%&''& #%0 /%;'- *1&(/ .&1)&1/$ +#16' /#'1& .%&/-'&( #%0 ,%0'

9),.&),1('(I +#19# %6() (12-1*19%-/6$ 01**'&( N'/+''- 2'-0'&(L ?RL 4( 'J.'9/'0I (HNf

#$.)/#'(1( =L= 9%- N' 9)-*1&,'0I *',%6' ,1006' ,%-%2'&( %&' ,)&' 61;'6$ /)

9),.&),1(' )- /#'1& 9%&''& /%&2'/( /#%- ,'- 1- ,1006' ,%-%2'&(L :)+'K'&I %( (/%/'0

%N)K'I 1/ 1( 1,.)&/%-/ /) H-0'&61-' /#%/ %6,)(/ #%6* )* &'(.)-0'-/( #%K' -)/ #%0 /)

,%;' %-$ 9%&''& 2)%6 9),.&),1('(L

?` 466 &'(.)-0'-/( +1/# 9#160&'- +'&' &'TH1&'0 /) /%;' % (/%-0 /) /#' TH'(/1)-I %6/#)H2# /#'&' +'&'

&'(.)-0'-/( +#) +'&' (1-26' .%&'-/( %-0 /#H( -)-' )* /#' &'(.)-(' %6/'&-%/1K'( +'&' %..619%N6'L?Z umZIab`b .m >I>>>?R umÌ`?ZZ .m>I>>>



`=

6.2.3.

SH 2.3 – Temporary career slowdowns

M#' /#1&0 (HNf#$.)/#'(1( *)9H('( )- +#%/ '**'9/ 9#160&'- #%K' #%0 )- ,1006' ,%-%2'&(

9%&''&( % 9)H.6' $'%&( %*/'& #%K1-2 #%0 /#',L <.'91%6 %//'-/1)- 1( 21K'- /) +#'/#'& /#'&'

1( % #12#'& .&).)&/1)- )* +),'- +#) (/%/' /#%/ #%K1-2 9#160&'- #%( &'(H6/'0 1- %-

1-K)6H-/%&$ 9%&''& (6)+0)+-I (1-9' /#1( 9)H60 1-019%/' /#%/ (/%/1(/19%6 01(9&1,1-%/1)-

#%( .6%$'0 % .%&/ 1- /#' (6)+0)+-L

Table 21 Percentual division of how middle managers perceive their career to having beeneffected up to a couple years after having had children. The table is divided bygender.

^,372&"#; 8"#%%#

'3,9(,92

_2*,372&"#; 8"#%%#

'3,9(,92

A, 8"#%%#

'3,9(,92

@%2 FLOP HOJ LGOL

K,$"2 IPOP POP NGOF

B,&"3 IFOP JOP MFOF

Y?'%#*"&),2' MMJ

=S)F IGOMHP

!*"37% GOGGG

E&), /#' %N)K' /%N6'I )-' 9%- ('' /#%/ % ,%P)&1/$I Z>IZh )* ,'- %-0 a>I=h )* +),'-

0) -)/ N'61'K' /#%/ #%K1-2 9#160&'- #%( &'(H6/'0 1- % 9%&''& (6)+0)+-L <12-1*19%-/6$

,)&' ,'- #%K' -)/ '-9)H-/'&'0 % 9%&''& (6)+0)+- 9),.%&'0 /) +),'-?bL D1;'+1('I

/#'&' %&' (12-1*19%-/ 2'-0'& 01**'&'-9'( 1- +#'/#'& /#' 9%&''& (6)+0)+- +%( K)6H-/%&$ =>

)& 1-K)6H-/%&$ =?L 4( 'J.'9/'0I +),'- %&' ,)&' 61;'6$ /) *%9' 9%&''& (6)+0)+-( +#'-

#%K1-2 9#160&'- 9),.%&'0 /) ,'-I 6%&2'6$ 0H' /) +),'- /%;1-2 /#' .&1,%&$

&'(.)-(1N161/$ )* 9#160&'- 1- /#'1& *1&(/ $'%& )& $'%&(L 46/#)H2# +),'- %&' Z /1,'( ,)&'

61;'6$ /#%- ,'- /) N' %**'9/'0 N$ %- 1-K)6H-/%&$ 9%&''& (6)+0)+-I )-6$ )-' )H/ )* /'-

*''6 61;' /#' 9%&''& (6)+0)+- #%( N''- 1-K)6H-/%&$L 46,)(/ \>h )* +),'- 9),.%&'0 /)

=Rh ,'- #%K' K)6H-/%&16$ (6)+'0 0)+- /#'1& 9%&''& %0K%-9','-/ % 9)H.6' )* $'%&(

%*/'& #%K1-2 #%0 9#160&'-L M#' &'(H6/( (H22'(/ /#%/ /#' 9%&''& (6)+0)+- ,'- %-0

+),'- *%9' +#'- #%K1-2 9#160&'- 1( /) % 6%&2' 'J/'-/ % K)6H-/%&$ 0'91(1)-L

[%/'&-1/$ 6'%K' %-0 /#' #)H&( +)&;'0 % +''; %&' &'*6'9/'0 1- 9%&''& (6)+0)+-(L 4(

9)K'&'0 1- /#' 9#%./'& @L@ )- (12-%61-2 1-/'-(1/$I .%&'-/%6 6'%K' %-0 +'';6$ +)&;1-2

#)H&( #%K' %- '**'9/ )- /#' (12-%61-2 )..)&/H-1/1'(L M#H(I 1/ 1( )* 1-/'&'(/ /) 6)); 1-/)

?b umaI\>R> .m>I>>>=> um@I==\R .m>I>>?@=? um\Ia>`` .m>I>>>



`@

#)+ ,H9# .%&'-/%6 6'%K' ,1006' ,%-%2'&( %-0 /#'1& .%&/-'&( /%;'I NH/ %6()I #)+ ,%-$

#)H&( ,1006' ,%-%2'&( #%K' +)&;'0 N'*)&' %-0 %*/'& #%K1-2 #%0 9#160&'-L M#' N'6)+

/%N6' (#)+( #)+ ,%-$ ,)-/#( )* .%&'-/%6 6'%K' ,1006' ,%-%2'&( #%K' /%;'-L "#%/

-''0( /) N' )N('&K'0 1( /#%/ /#' *12H&'( 0) -)/ %99)H-/ *)& #)+ ,%-$ 9#160&'- ,1006'

,%-%2'&( #%K'L

Table 22

Percentual divisions of how many months of parental leave middle managers havetaken in total during their careers. The table is divided by gender

>2(%# H HF IN MHF HIFJ FNIM IL

@%2 IIOI JIOI HNON JOL FOI GOD GOJ

K,$"2 GON FON I HFOJ IMOH FPOF HMOI

Y?'%#*"&),2' JDN

=S)F IJDOHNH

!*"37% GOGGG

4( 'J.'9/'0I /%N6' =? (#)+( 6%&2' 2'-0'& K%&1'/$ 1- #)+ ,H9# .%&'-/%6 6'%K'

&'(.)-0'-/( #%K' /%;'-L <12-1*19%-/== 2'-0'& 01**'&'-9'( 9%- N' *)H-0 1- %66 &'(.)-('

%6/'&-%/1K'(L M#' ,)(/ 9),,)- %-(+'& *)& ,'- 1( ?f= ,)-/#( Q\@I@hS %-0 @@I@h )*

,%6' &'(.)-0'-/( #%K' /%;'- -) 6'%K' %/ %66L E)& +),'- /#' ,)(/ 9),,)- &'(.)-(' 1(

?@f=\ ,)-/#( Q@Ì?hS %-0 =af@` ,)-/#( Q=bI=hSL <1,16%&6$I 2'-0'& 01**'&'-9'( 9%- N'

(''- 1- /#' N'6)+ /%N6'( == %-0 =@ +#19# 0'.19/ /#' +'';6$ #)H&( ,%-%2'&( #%K'

+)&;'0 N'*)&' %-0 % 9)H.6' )* $'%&( %*/'& #%K1-2 9#160&'-L

Table 23 Percentual division of how many hours middle managers have worked a week before having children. The table is divided by gender.

Q%'' &S"2 IL

S,7#'

-%&9%%2 IL

JJ S,7#'

-%&9%%2

JNMG S,7#'

@,#% &S"2 MG

S,7#'

@%2 HOL MHOL IIOH ION

K,$"2 I MJON IF GON

B,&"3 FOIN MIOH IFONN F

Y?'%#*"&),2' JPG

=S)F NOLHD

!*"37% GOHFM

== > ,)-/#(d Wm??I>>>Z .m>I>>> ?f= ,)-/#(d Wm?>I`\bZ .m>I>>> IN $,2&S' d WmÌ\abb .m>I>>> MHF

$,2&S' Wm=IRR>= .m>I>>>\ HIFJ $,2&S' WmbI`?Z` .m >I>>> =af@` ,)-/#( WmRIZ=a@ .m>I>>> @Zf

,)-/#( WmÌ>@\\ .m >I>>>



`\

Table 24 Percentual division of how many hours middle managers have worked 0-5 yearsafter having had children. The table is divided by gender.

Q%'' &S"2 IL

S,7#'

-%&9%%2 IL

JJ S,7#'

-%&9%%2

JNMG S,7#'

@,#% &S"2 MG

S,7#'

@%2 L LION HDON H

K,$"2 HNOD LGOJ HIOI GON

B,&"3 HHOJ LHOPN HNOP GOLN

Y?'%#*"&),2' JPG

=S)F HHOFHH

!*"37% GOGHH

G/ 9%- N' (''- *&), /#' %N)K' /%N6' =@ /#%/ % ,%P)&1/$I %&)H-0 `@ h )* ,%-%2'&(I #%(

+)&;'0 N'/+''- @Z %-0 \\ #)H&( % +''; N'*)&' #%K1-2 9#160&'-L 4&)H-0 % /#1&0I @=hI

+)&;'0 N'/+''- \a /) `> #)H&( % +'';L C-6$ (,%66 2'-0'& 01**'&'-9'( 9%- N' )N('&K'0

)* +#19# -)-' %&' (12-1*19%-/L "#'- ,)K1-2 *)9H( /) /%N6' =\ 96'%& 2'-0'& 01**'&'-9'(

%..'%&L O)/# ,'- %-0 +),'- /'-0 /) +)&; 6'(( >fa $'%&( %*/'& #%K1-2 #%0 9#160&'-L 4/

/#1( .)1-/I /#' -H,N'& )* ,%-%2'&( +#) +)&; \af`> #)H&( #%( 0&)..'0 +1/# %6,)(/

?ah *)& ,'- %-0 *)& +),'- +1/# ,)&' /#%- ?RIZhL M#' -H,N'& )* &'(.)-0'-/( +#)

+)&; 6'(( /#%- @Z #)H&( %-0 /#)(' +#) #%K' +)&; @Zf\\ #)H&( #%K' 96'%&6$ 1-9&'%('0L

"),'- %-(+'& j6'(( /#%- @Z #)H&(k (12-1*19%-/6$ =@ ,)&' )*/'- /#%- ,'-L CK'&%66I

['%&()-X( s /'(/ (#)+( /#%/ /#' /+) )N('&K'0 K%&1%N6'( %&' 1-0'.'-0'-/I +#19#

1-019%/'( /#%/ /#'&' 1( % (/%/1(/19%66$ (12-1*19%-/ 01**'&'-9' N'/+''- /&')&2 %-0 #)H&(

+)&;'0 >fa $'%&( %*/'& #%K1-2 #%0 9#160&'-L M#' &'(H6/( *&), /%N6' =@ %-0 =\ (H22'(/

/#%/ #%K1-2 9#160&'- #%( #%0 0'9&'%('0 /#' %,)H-/ )* #)H&( +)&;'0 % +''; *)& N)/#2'-0'&(I #)+'K'& /#' 0'961-' #%( N''- 6%&2'& *)& *',%6' ,%-%2'&( /#%- ,%6' ,%-%2'&(L

M) 9)-96H0'I (HNf#$.)/#'(1( =L@ 9%- N' 9)-*1&,'0L "),'- %&' ,)&' 61;'6$ /#%- ,'- /)

'-9)H-/'& % 9%&''& (6)+0)+-I N)/# K)6H-/%&$ %-0 1-K)6H-/%&$I %*/'& #%K1-2 #%0

9#160&'-L M#1( 9%&''& (6)+f0)+- 1( ,)&' )*/'- % K)6H-/%&$ 9#)19' N$ +),'- %-0 9%- N'

(''- %( +),'- /%;1-2 /#' 96'%& ,%P)&1/$ )* .%&'-/%6 6'%K' %-0 +)&;1-2 (#)&/'& #)H&(

+#'- 9#160&'- %&' $)H-2L

6.2.4.

SH 2.4 – Time allocation on childcare and housework

M#' *1-%6 (HNf#$.)/#'(1( (/%&/( )** N$ 6));1-2 %/ #)+ ,H9# 9#1609%&' %-0 #)H('+)&;

,1006' ,%-%2'&( 0) 1- 9),.%&1()- /) /#'1& .%&/-'&(L <1-9' 1/ 1( #%&0 /) '(/1,%/'

.&'91('6$ #)+ ,H9# /1,' ,1006' ,%-%2'&( %66)9%/' /) /#'(' /%(;( % 0%$g+'';I

=@ um=Iba`> .m>L>>@?



à

,%-%2'&( +'&' %(;'0 /) '(/1,%/' #)+ ,H9# )* /#'(' /%(; /#'$ %-0 /#'1& .%&/-'& 0)

%001-2 H. /) % #H-0&'0L G- /#1( +%$I /#' *%9/ /#%/ &'(.)-0'-/( #%0 01**'&'-/ %2'0

9#160&'- -''01-2 01**'&'-/ %,)H-/ )* 9%&'/%;1-2 010 -)/ -''0 /) N' %99)H-/'0 *)&L

:)+'K'&I 9%H/1)- 1( -''0'0 +#'- 9),.%&1-2 /#' &'(H6/( )* ,%-%2'&( %-0 /#' -H,N'&(

*&), /#' E%,16$ E'0'&%/1)- )* E1-6%-0X( (/H0$ QF1'//1-'-I =>>RS (1-9' 1/ 9)-/&)66'0 *)&

/#' 9#160&'-X( %2'(L

Table 25

Precentages representing middle managers proportion of childcare andhousework.

=S)3(8"#% W,7'%9,#/ @%"2

@"3% $"2"<%#' ILON JF IPOLN

C%$"3% @"2"<%#' MJON MION MJ

M%N6' =@ (#)+( /#%/ ,%6' ,%-%2'&( 1- 2'-'&%6 /%;' )- \>h )* /#' 9#1609%&' %-0

#)H('+)&;I +#'&'%( /#' -H,N'& *)& +),'- 1( `\hL M#'&' 1( % (12-1*19%-/=\ 01**'&'-9'

1- #)+ ,H9# /1,' ,%6' %-0 *',%6' ,%-%2'&( %66)9%/' /) 9#1609%&' %-0 #)H('+)&;L

"),'- /%;' )- % 6%&2'& .%&/ )* /#'(' 0H/1'(L EH&/#'&I =Zh )* *',%6' ,%-%2'&( (/%/'

/#%/ /#'$ 0) R>f?>>h )* /#' 9#1609%&' 0H/1'( %-0 =?h (/%/' /#%/ /#'$ 0) R>f?>>h )* /#'

#)H('+)&;L D'(( /#%- =h )* ,'- 96%1, /) 0) R>f?>>h )* 9#1609%&' %-0 #)H('+)&;

0H/1'(L M#' H-'K'- 6%N)& 01K1(1)- )* -)-f,%&;'/ +)&; 1( *H&/#'& ',.#%(1W'0 +#'-

6));1-2 %/ #)+ ,%6' %-0 *',%6' ,%-%2'&( &%/' /#' 1,.)&/%-9' )* 0),'(/19 #'6. +1/#

&'2%&0( /) N%6%-91-2 *%,16$ %-0 +)&;L 46,)(/I \ah )* +),'- *1-0 0),'(/19 #'6. /) N'

'1/#'& 1,.)&/%-/ )& K'&$ 1,.)&/%-/ *)& N%6%-91-2 *%,16$ %-0 +)&; 9),.%&'0 /) ?bh )*

,'-L

A'J/ /#' *)9H( (#1*/( /) +#) -)&,%66$ /%;'( &'(.)-(1N161/$ *)& /%;1-2 9#160&'- /) 0%$

9%&'I (9#))6 '/9L M#' &'(H6/( )* ,1006' ,%-%2'&( %&' %6() 9),.%&'0 /) %- 'TH%61/$

N%&),'/'&I 'J'9H/'0 N$ /#' E1--1(# ,1-1(/&$ )* <)91%6 4**%1&( %-0 :'%6/#I (H&K'$1-2

E1--( +#) 61K' +1/# /#'1& (.)H(' %-0 #%K' 9#160&'- H-0'& /#' %2' )* ?RL M#1( (/H0$ #%0

%- %001/1)-%6 &'(.)-(' %6/'&-%/1K' j0)'( -)/ %..6$ ,$ *%,16$kI +#19# #%( N''- 12-)&'0

1- /#' N'6)+ /%N6'L

=\ B#1609%&'d umÌ?>ba .m >I>>> :)H('+)&;d um\IR>Ra .m>I>>>



``

Table 26 Percentual division of who is normally responsible for taking children to daycare,school etc.

:%2(%# $% $; 1"#&2%# NGRNG &S)#( 1%#',2R,&S%#

@%2 FFOP IFOI JIOI FOJ

K,$%2

JGOP

HMOH

ILOP

NOF

B,&"3 IHOP FJOF JGOM IOD

M#' H..'& .%&/ )* /%N6' =` (#)+( /#%/ +),'- %&' %6,)(/ /+19' ,)&' 61;'6$ /) N'

&'(.)-(1N6' *)& /%;1-2 9#160&'- /) 0%$9%&' %-0 (9#))6 Q\>h K(L ==hSI +#19# %99)H-/(

*)& % (12-1*19%-/=a 2'-0'& 01**'&'-9'L <1,16%&6$I /#' .%&/-'&( )* *',%6' ,%-%2'&( %&' 6'((

61;'6$ /) N' /#' )-'( +#) %&' -)&,%66$ &'(.)-(1N6' *)& /%;1-2 9#160&'- /) 0%$ 9%&' %-0

(9#))6L 4&)H-0 \>h )* ,%-%2'&(X (/%/' /#%/ /#'$ 01K10' /#' &'(.)-(1N161/$ 'TH%66$ %-0

9)H-/1-2 )- % /#1&0 .'&()- 1( &%&'L

M#' *)H&/# (HNf#$.)/#'(1( 9%- %6() N' 9)-*1&,'0L M#' &'(H6/( (H22'(/ /#%/ +),'- 1-

,1006' ,%-%2','-/ %&' 61;' E1--( 1- 2'-'&%6 %-0 #%K' /#' .&1,%&$ &'(.)-(1N161/$ *)&

9#1609%&' %-0 #)H('#)60 0H/1'(L F%6' ,%-%2'&( /%;' )- %&)H-0 % /#1&0 )* 9#1609%&'

0H/1'( %-0 (612#/6$ ,)&' )* /#' #)H('#)60 0H/1'(L

6.2.5.

Summary Hypothesis 2

466 *)H& (HNf#$.)/#'(1( 9%- N' 9)-*1&,'0I +#19# ,'%-( /#%/ /#' ('9)-0 #$.)/#'(1( 1(

%99'./'0L O'9),1-2 % .%&'-/ 0)'( -)/ .'&,%-'-/6$ %6/'& /#' 9%&''& 2)%6( )* +),'-

,)&' /#%- *)& ,'-I $'/ 1/ (6)+( 0)+- +),'-X( %0K%-9','-/ ,)&'L E',%6' ,%-%2'&

%&' ,)&' 61;'6$ ,%;' 9%&''& /%&2'/ 9),.&),1('( 1- )&0'& /) N%6%-9' *%,16$ %-0 +)&; N$

+)&;1-2 6'(( #)H&( %-0 /%;1-2 ,)&' &'(.)-(1N161/$ *)& 9#1609%&' %-0 #)H('#)60 /%(;(L

Hypothesis 3 – Norms and beliefs6.3.

M#' /#1&0 #$.)/#'(1( 'J%,1-'( ,1006' ,%-%2'&(X N'61'*( &'2%&01-2 +),'-X( &)6'(I

9%&''& 1-/'&'(/( %-0 )..)&/H-1/1'(L C- )-' #%-0 /#' #$.)/#'(1( %1,( /) 'J%,1-' #)+

+10'(.&'%0 (/'&')/$.19%6 N'61'*( %&'L C-' /#' )/#'& #%-0 1/ %1,( /) /'(/ +#'/#'& /#'&'

%&' %2' 0'.'-0'-/ 01**'&'-9'( %,)-2 ,1006' ,%-%2'&(X N'61'*(I N$ *)9H(1-2 )-

,%-%2'&( H-0'& /#' %2' )* @a %-0 %N)K' a>L M#' &'(H6/( %&' %6() 9),.%&'0 +1/#

8H&)N%&),'/'&X( Q=>?>I =>?=S &'(H6/( )* E1--( 1- /#' (%,' %2'( %-0 8H&).'%-( 1-

=a F'd Wm\I?\>R .m>I>>> ,$ .%&/-'&d Wm\I?a?= .m>I>>>



`Z

2'-'&%6L M#' 6%//'& 1( -)/ 1-*)&,%/1K' 1- &'2%&0( /) +#$ /#'&' %&' 9H&&'-/6$ *'+ +),'-

1- /). .)(1/1)-(I #)+'K'& 1/ ,%$ 21K' 1-(12#/( %N)H/ /#' *H/H&' 0'K'6).,'-/ )* %//1/H0'(

%-0 N'61'*( )* *',%6' 6'%0'&(#1. %-0 &)6'(L

G- )&0'& /) (1,.61*$I E1--1(# ,1006' ,%-%2'&( H-0'& /#' %2' )* @a %&' 9%66'0 $)H-2'&,%-%2'&( %-0 ,%-%2'&( )K'& /#' %2' )* a> %&' 9%66'0 )60'& ,%-%2'&(L M#' (%,'

(1,.61*19%/1)-( %&' ,%0' *)& /#' E1--( (H&K'$'0 N$ 8H&)N%&),'/'&I +#) %&' 9%66'0

$)H-2'& %-0 )60'& E1--(L

6.3.1. SH 3.1 - Women’s career interests

M#' *1&(/ (HN #$.)/#'(1( 6));( %/ +#'/#'& /#'&' %&' %2' 0'.'-0'-/ 01**'&'-9'( %,)-2

,1006' ,%-%2'&( &'2%&01-2 +),'-X( 1-/'&'(/ %-0 +166 /) *12#/ *)& 6'%0'&(#1. .)(1/1)-(

9),.%&'0 /) ,'-L G- /#' *1&(/ /%N6' )-' 9%- ('' /#' ).1-1)-( &'2%&01-2 +),'-X(.'&9'1K'0 1-/'&'(/ *)& &'(.)-(1N6' .)(1/1)-(

Table 27 Percentual division of middle managers who agree and disagree with thestatement: Women are less interested than men in positions of responsibility. Thepercentages in the lower part of the table are from Special Eurobarometer 376, aEuropean study on gender inequality

C+'&::*

0()&-1..

C./0 '+

0()&-1..

C./0 '+

&-1..

C+'&::*

&-1..

D+ /+'

E /+8 D( )&-1.. F-1..

@"2"<%#'O 72(%# IN " HFOG IPOH JHOJ JON IOG NHOH JNOP

@"2"<%#'O NG` " FFOP IFOG JHOD HOI FOG NJOP JIOH

C)22'O

72(%#

IN ?

LFOL FMOL

C)22'O NG` ? NPOP IDOM

67#,1%"2' ? MP FD

"BS% +)<7#%' #%1#%'%2& B6a ,# 46C6 $%$?%#' 9S, 9,#/ )2 $)((3% $"2"<%$%2&E Y7& ,+ MMJ #%'1,2(%2&'O HII 9%#%

72(%# &S% "<% ,+ IN "2( HNI 9%#% NG "2( ,*%# -BS% 1%#8%2&"<%' "#% +#,$ 67#,?"#,$%&%# FGHFE C#,$ "33 JL 6> $%$?%# '&"&%'O FM DNM 67#,1%"2 8)&)V%2'

1"#&)8)1"&%( ,+ 9S,$ HGGL 9%#% C)22)'SE Y7& ,+ &S% #%'1,2(%2&'O FGD 9%#% 72(%# IN ;%"#' "2( NPD 9%#% NG ;%"#'

"2( ,*%#

E&), /%N6' =` 1/ 1( .)((1N6' /) ('' /#%/ % 6)+'& .'&9'-/%2' )* )60'& ,%-%2'&( %2&'' +1/#

/#' (/%/','-/ 9),.%&'0 /) $)H-2'& ,%-%2'&( Q\@I?h K(L \aIbhSL EH&/#'& +#'- 6));1-2

,)&' 96)('6$ %/ /#' 01K1(1)- N'/+''- 01**'&'-/ &'(.)-(' %6/'&-%/1K'(I )60'& ,%-%2'&( %&'

%6,)(/ /+19' %( 61;'6$ /) 9#))(' /#' %6/'&-%/1K' 0+0(..A )-6(/2&& /#%- $)H-2'& ,%-%2'&(L

M#' &'(H6/( (H22'(/ /#%/ /#'&' %&' -) 01**'&'-9'( 1- $)H-2'& %-0 )60'& ,%-%2'&( N'61'*(

&'2%&01-2 +),'-X( 1-/'&'(/ 1- &'(.)-(1N6' .)(1/1)-(L EH&/#'&I /#'(' &'(H6/( N$

8H&)N%&),'/'&I (#)+ /#' )..)(1/'I )60'& E1--( %2&'' +1/# /#' (/%/','-/ ,)&' )*/'-

/#%- $)H-2'& E1--( Q=ÌZ K(L @RI`SL C-6$ =Rh )* 8H&).'%-( %2&'' /#%/ +),'- %&' 6'((

1-/'&'(/'0 1- &'(.)-(1N6' .)(1/1)-(L



`R

Table 28 Percentual division of middle managers who agree and disagree with thestatement: Women are less willing than men to fight to make a career forthemselves. The percentages in the lower part of the table are from SpecialEurobarometer 376, a European study on gender inequality

C+'&::*

0()&-1..

C./0 '+

0()&-1..

C./0 '+

&-1..

C+'&::*

&-1..

D+ /+'

E/+8

D()&-1..

F-1..

@"2"<%#'O 72(%# IN " HNOG ILOM IPOH MOG FOI NFOM JNOH

@"2"<%#'O NG` " HPOG IFOL JIOH IOI FOG NHOL JMOJ

C)22'O 72(%# IN ? MNOP IIOG

C)22'O NG` ? NIOI JNOL

67#,1%"2' ? MD FP


72(%# &S% "<% ,+ IN "2( HNI 9%#% NG "2( ,*%#E -BS% 1%#8%2&"<%' "#% +#,$ 67#,?"#,$%&%# FGHFE C#,$ "33 JL 6> $%$?%# '&"&%'O FM DNM 67#,1%"2 8)&)V%2'


"2( ,*%#

M%N6' =Z 6));( 1-/) +#%/ &'(.)-0'-/( /#1-; %N)H/ +),'-X( +166 /) ,%;' % 9%&''& *)&

/#',('6K'(L <612#/6$ 6'(( /#%- a>h )* $)H-2'& %-0 )60'& ,1006' ,%-%2'&( %2&'' /#%/

+),'- %&' 6'(( +1661-2 /#%- ,'- /) *12#/ *)& % 9%&''&L M#' 01**'&'-9'( %&' ,)&'

.&)-)H-9'0 1- /#' 6)+'& .%&/ )* /#' /%N6'd $)H-2'& E1--( %2&'' +1/# /#' (/%/','-/ 6'((

/#%- )60'& E1--( Q@@I>h K(L \aIZhSL C- % 2'-'&%6 6'K'6I 8H&).'%-( /'-0 /) N' ,)&'

9)-('&K%/1K' 1- /#'1& ).1-1)-( %N)H/ +),'-X( +166 /) *12#/ *)& /#'1& 9%&''&(I )-6$ =bh

%2&'' +1/# /#' (/%/','-/L

G- N&)%0 /'&,(I N)/# )* /#' %N)K' /%N6'( (#)+ /#%/ /#'&' %&' %2' 0'.'-0'-/ 01**'&'-9'(

%,)-2 E1--( (H&K'$'0 N$ 8H&)N%&),'/'& &'2%&01-2 +),'-X( 1-/'&'(/ %-0 +166 /) ,%;'

9%&''&( #%( /%;'- .6%9'L G-/'&'(/1-26$I /#1( 9%--)/ N' )N('&K'0 %,)-2 ,1006'

,%-%2'&(L G- &'2%&0( /) +),'- %-0 /#'1& 1-/'&'(/ /) ,%;' 9%&''&( /#' $)H-2'&

2'-'&%/1)- %2&''( +1/# /#' (/%/','-/ % 61//6' 6'(( /#%- /#' )60'& 2'-'&%/1)-L C- /#'

)/#'& #%-0I 1- /#' 9%(' )* +),'-X( +166 /) *12#/ *)& /#'1& 9%&''&(I /#' .'&9'-/%2' )*

$)H-2'& ,%-%2'&( +#) %2&'' +1/# /#' (/%/','-/ 1( )-6$ ,%&21-%66$ #12#'& /#%- *)&

)60'& ,%-%2'&(L M#'(' &'(H6/( (H22'(/ /#%/ /#' )N('&K'0 01**'&'-9'( 1- N'61'*( %,)-2

E1--( 1- 2'-'&%6 0) -)/ #)60 *)& E1--1(# ,1006' ,%-%2'&(L M#H(I /#' *1&(/ (HN

#$.)/#'(1( 9%--)/ N' 9)-*1&,'0L

6.3.2.

SH 3.2 – Women’s freedom, skills, and male confidence in women

G- )&0'& /) /'(/ (HN #$.)/#'(1( @L= *)9H( 1( *1&(/ .H/ )- /%N6' =RI +#19# 0'.19/( ,1006'

,%-%2'&( N'61'*( %N)H/ +),'- #%K1-2 6'(( *&''0), N'9%H(' )* /#'1& *%,16$

&'(.)-(1N161/1'(L



`b

Table 29 Percentual division of middle managers who agree and disagree with thestatement: Women have less freedom because of their family responsibilities. Thepercentages in the lower part of the table are from Special Eurobarometer 376, aEuropean study on gender inequality

C+'&::*

0()&-1..

C./0

'+

0()&-1..

C./0

'+

&-1..

C+'&::*

&-1..

D+

/+'

E/+8 D()&-1.. F-1..

@"2"<%#'O 72(%# IN " MOG HPON NHOP HLOI NOI FNON MPOF

@"2"<%#'O NG` " IOP HLOG NDOD HDOI FOG FGOP LLOH

C)22'O 72(%# IN ? IFOJ MLOM

C)22'O NG` ? FFOH LLOI

67#,1%"2' ? IG MD




"2( ,*%#

M#' %N)K' /%N6' (#)+( /#%/ %9&)(( %66 )N('&K'0 2&)H.(I /#' ,%P)&1/$ )* &'(.)-0'-/(

%2&'' /#%/ +),'- #%K' 6'(( *&''0), N'9%H(' )* *%,16$ &'(.)-(1N161/1'(L C60'& ,1006'

,%-%2'&( QZZI?hSI %2&'' (),'+#%/ ,)&' +1/# /#' (/%/','-/ /#%- $)H-2'& )-'(

Q`ZI`hSL M#' (%,' 9%- N' )N('&K'0 1- 8H&)N%&),'/'&X( (/H0$V ZZI@h )* )60'& E1--(

%2&'' +1/# /#' (/%/','-/I +#'&'%( /#' &'(.'9/1K' .'&9'-/%2' *)& $)H-2'& E1--( 1(

`ZIahL CK'&%66 8H&).'%-( %&' 96)('& /) /#' %-(+'&( )* $)H-2'& E1--( %-0 $)H-2'&

,%-%2'&(I `Rh %2&'' +1/# /#' (/%/','-/L 4 ('',1-26$ (,%66 9#%-2' 1- N'61'*( N)/#

%,)-2 ,%-%2'&( %-0 E1--( (H&K'$'0 N$ /#' 8H&)N%&),'/'&I 9%- %6() N' )N('&K'0L

Table 30

Percentual division of middle managers who agree and disagree with thestatement: The business community is dominated by men who do not havesufficient confidence in women. The percentages in the lower part of the table arefrom Special Eurobarometer 376, a European study on gender inequality

C+'&::*

0()&-1..

C./0 '+

0()&-1..

C./0 '+

&-1..

C+'&::*

&-1..

D+ /+'

E/+8 D()&-1.. F-1..

@"2"<%#'O 72(%# IN " HJOI IMOH FPOI HGON POD NGOJ IPOD

@"2"<%#'O NG` " LOD FMOH IDOM FJOF IOI IIOP MFOD

C)22'O 72(%# IN ? IGOL MDOF

C)22'O NG` ? FLOF LGOI

67#,1%"2' ? FG LM




"2( ,*%#

E&), /#' %N)K' /%N6' 1/ 1( .)((1N6' /) 01(/1-2H1(# % 96'%& 01**'&'-9' 1- ,%-%2'&(X

%2&'','-/ /) /#' (/%/','-/d /#' NH(1-'(( 9),,H-1/$ 1( 0),1-%/'0 N$ ,'- +#) 0) -)/



Z>

#%K' (H**191'-/ 9)-*10'-9' 1- +),'-L C-6$ @bIRh )* $)H-2'& ,%-%2'&( %2&'' +1/# /#'

(/%/','-/ 1- 9),.%&1()- /) `=IRh )* )60'& ,%-%2'&(L C60'& ,%-%2'&( %&' ,)&' /#%-

/+19' %( 61;'6$ /) 0+0(..A (/2&& +1/# /#' (/%/','-/ %( $)H-2'& )-'(L "#'- 9),.%&1-2 %66

2&)H.( (1,H6/%-')H(6$I $)H-2'& ,%-%2'&( %2&'' ,)&' /#%- =>h 6'(( +1/# /#'

(/%/','-/ /#%- %-$ )/#'& 2&)H.L M#'&' 1( -) 96'%& 01**'&'-9' N'/+''- /#' 6'K'6 )*

%2&'','-/ /) /#' (/%/','-/ N'/+''- $)H-2'& Q`RI=hS %-0 )60'& E1--( QZ>I@hSL C-

%K'&%2' 8H&).'%-( %&' (),'+#%/ ,)&' 61;'6$ /) %2&'' +1/# /#' (/%/','-/ /#%- E1--( 1-

2'-'&%6L 4,)-2 ,%-%2'&( 1/ 1( .)((1N6' /) ('' 01(/1-9/ 01**'&'-9'( 1- .'&9'./1)-(

&'2%&01-2 /#' (/%/','-/I (1-9' @bh )* $)H-2'& ,%-%2'&( %2&'' 1,.6$1-2 /#%/ /#'

0),1-%-9' )* ,'- +#) 0) -)/ #%K' 9)-*10'-9' *)& +),'- 1( *'6/ 6'(( N$ $)H-2'&

,%-%2'&(L M#' (%,' 01**'&'-9'( 9%--)/ N' -)/'0 %,)-2 E1--( 1- 2'-'&%6L

Table 31 Percentual division of middle managers who agree and disagree with thestatement: Women do not always have the necessary qualities and skills to fillpositions of responsibility. The percentages in the lower part of the table are fromSpecial Eurobarometer 376, a European study on gender inequality

C+'&::*

0()&-1..

C./0

'+

0()&-1..

C./0

'+

&-1..

C+'&::*

&-1..

D+

/+'

E/+8

D()&-1..

F-1..

@"2"<%#'O 72(%# IN" NMOJ IIOH MOD GOG IOD DPON MOD

@"2"<%#'O NG` MGOH FLON POD GOG FOM DLOM POD

C)22'O 72(%# IN DDOH HHOP

C)22'O NG` DGOD HDOH

67#,1%"2' LM FH


72(%# &S% "<% ,+ IN "2( HNI 9%#% NG "2( ,*%#E -

BS% 1%#8%2&"<%' "#% +#,$ 67#,?"#,$%&%# FGHFE C#,$ "33 JL 6> $%$?%# '&"&%'O FM DNM 67#,1%"2 8)&)V%2' 1"#&)8)1"&%( ,+ 9S,$ HGGL 9%#% C)22)'SE Y7& ,+ &S% #%'1,2(%2&'O FGD 9%#% 72(%# IN ;%"#' "2( NPD 9%#% NG ;%"#'

"2( ,*%#

M#' 6%(/ /%N6' )* (HN #$.)/#'(1( @L= 6));( 1-/) +#'/#'& &'(.)-0'-/( /#1-; /#%/ +),'-

0) -)/ %6+%$( #%K' /#' -'9'((%&$ TH%61/1'( %-0 (;166( /) *166 .)(1/1)-( )* &'(.)-(1N161/$L

M%N6' @? (#)+( 61//6' K%&1%N161/$ %9&)(( /#' )N('&K'0 2&)H.(I )-6$ % (,%66 ,1-)&1/$ 1- %66

2&)H.( %2&''( +1/# /#' (/%/','-/L M#' .'&9'-/%2' )* %2&'','-/ 1( (),'+#%/ #12#'& *)&

E1--( 1- 2'-'&%6d ??Ibh )* $)H-2'& K'&(H( ?RL?h )* )60'& E1--( %2&'' +1/# /#'

(/%/','-/L 42%1- )- % 8H&).'%- 6'K'6I &'(.)-0'-/( %&' ,)&' (;'./19%6 &'2%&01-2

+),'-X( (;166( 9)-(10'&1-2 /#%/ =?h %2&''0 +1/# /#' (/%/','-/ /#%/ +),'- 0) -)/-'9'((%&16$ #%K' /#' -''0'0 (;166( *)& %0K%-9','-/L G- /#1( 9%(' -) 96'%& 01**'&'-9'( 9%-

N' (''- N'/+''- $)H-2'& %-0 )60'& ,%-%2'&(L

G- /#' *1&(/ /+) (/%/','-/(I 01**'&'-9'( 9%- ,)&' )& 6'(( N' )N('&K'0L M#' -)/'0

01**'&'-9' 1- ,1006' ,%-%2'&(X N'61'*( %N)H/ +),'- #%K1-2 6'(( *&''0), N'9%H(' )*



Z?

/#'1& *%,16$ &'(.)-(1N161/1'( 1( &%/#'& (,%66L 4 6%&2'& 01**'&'-9' 1( )N('&K'0 1- &'2%&0( /)

/#' (/%/','-/ /#%/ /#' NH(1-'(( 9),,H-1/$ 1( 0),1-%/'0 N$ ,'- +#) 0) -)/ #%K'

(H**191'-/ 9)-*10'-9' 1- +),'-L :'&'I )60'& ,%-%2'&( %2&'' +1/# /#' (/%/','-/ )K'&

=>h ,)&' )*/'- /#%- /#' $)H-2'& )-'(L G- /#' *1-%6 (/%/','-/ 9)-9'&-1-2 +),'-

6%9;1-2 TH%61/1'( %-0 (;166(I -) 01(/1-9/ 01**'&'-9' 9)H60 N' )N('&K'0 %-0 % ,%&21-%6

.'&9'-/%2' %2&''0 +1/# /#' (/%/','-/L O'9%H(' )* /#'(' (),'+#%/ K%2H' &'(H6/(I 'J9'./

*)& /#' ('9)-0 (/%/','-/I (HN #$.)/#'(1( @L= 9%- )-6$ .%&/1%66$ N' 9)-*1&,'0L

6.3.3. SH 3.3 – Men’s role at work and at home

M#' *1-%6 (HN #$.)/#'(1( 6));( %/ +#'/#'& &'(.)-0'-/( N'61'K' /#%/ 1/ 1( -)&,%6 /#%/

,'- +)&; ,)&' )H/(10' /#' #),' %-0 .%&/191.%/' 6'(( 1- 0),'(/19 +)&; /#%- +),'-L

M#' *1&(/ /%N6' *)9H('( )- +)&; )H/(10' )* #),'L

Table 32

Percentual division of middle managers who agree and disagree with thequestion: Do you think it is normal that men work more than women? Thepercentages in the lower part of the table are from Special Eurobarometer 376, aEuropean study on gender inequality

C+'&::*

0()&-1..

C./0 '+

0()&-1..

C./0 '+

&-1..

C+'&::*

&-1..

D+ /+'

E/+8 D()&-1.. F-1..

@"2"<%#'O 72(%# IN " FNOM FLOH IIOD MOG LON NFOL IPOD

@"2"<%#'O NG` " FION IDOM FMOH NOP NOP MFOH IFOG

C)22'O 72(%# IN ? JHOG NNOP

C)22'O NG` ? MGOM ILOJ

67#,1%"2' ?

NG JD "BS% +)<7#%' #%1#%'%2& B6a ,# 46C6 $%$?%#' 9S, 9,#/ )2 $)((3% $"2"<%$%2&E Y7& ,+ MMJ #%'1,2(%2&'O HII 9%#%

72(%# &S% "<% ,+ IN "2( HNI 9%#% NG "2( ,*%#E -

BS% 1%#8%2&"<%' "#% +#,$ 67#,?"#,$%&%# FGHGE C#,$ "33 JL 6>

$%$?%# '&"&%' FM JLG 67#,1%"2 8)&)V%2' 1"#&)8)1"&%( ,+ 9S,$ HGIF 9%#% C)22)'SE Y7& ,+ &S% #%'1,2(%2&'O HPN

9%#% 72(%# IN ;%"#' "2( MGJ 9%#% NG ;%"#' "2( ,*%#

E&), /#' %N)K' /%N6'I )-' 9%- ('' /#%/ % #12#'& .'&9'-/ )* $)H-2'& ,%-%2'&( Q@bIRhS

%2&'' /#%/ 1/ 1( -)&,%6 /#%/ ,'- +)&; ,)&' /#%- )60'& ,%-%2'&( Q@=I=hSL M#' (%,'

01**'&'-9' 9%- N' (''- %,)-2 E1--( 1- 2'-'&%6I #)+'K'& E1--( %2&'' +1/# /#' (/%/','-/

(612#/6$ ,)&' /#%- ,%-%2'&(L 8H&).'%-( %&' ,)&' 01K10'0 1- /#'1& N'61'*(I %6,)(/ %(

,%-$ &'(.)-0'-/( %2&'' %( 01(%2&'' +1/# /#' (/%/','-/L M#' -'J/ /%N6' +166 *)9H( )-

+#'/#'& 1/ 1( 9)-(10'&'0 -)&,%6 /#%/ ,'- .%&/191.%/' 6'(( 1- 0),'(/19 +)&;L



Z=

Table 33 Percentual division of middle managers who agree and disagree with thestatement: Do you think it is normal that men participate less in domestic workthan women? The percentages in the lower part of the table are from SpecialEurobarometer 376, a European study on gender inequality

C+'&::*

0()&-1..

C./0

'+

0()&-1..

C./0

'+

&-1..

C+'&::*

&-1..

D+

/+'

E/+8

D()&-1..

F-1..

@"2"<%#'O 72(%# IN " IFOI IPOI FHOD FOI NOI LHOM FJOH

@"2"<%#'O NG` " IJOG IMOM FFOP IOI IOI LGOM FMOF

C)22'O 72(%# IN ? FFOH LNOP

C)22'O NG` ? HPOF LPOD

67#,1%"2' ? NG JD


72(%# &S% "<% ,+ IN "2( HNI 9%#% NG "2( ,*%#E -BS% 1%#8%2&"<%' "#% +#,$ 67#,?"#,$%&%# FGHGE C#,$ "33 JL 6> $%$?%# '&"&%' FM JLG 67#,1%"2 8)&)V%2'

1"#&)8)1"&%( ,+ 9S,$ HGIF 9%#% C)22)'SE Y7& ,+ &S% #%'1,2(%2&'O HPN 9%#% 72(%# IN ;%"#' "2( MGJ 9%#% NG ;%"#'

"2( ,*%#

G- /%N6' @= 1/ 1( .)((1N6' /) ('' /#%/ %&)H-0 % TH%&/'& )* ,%-%2'&( %2&'' /#%/ 1/ 1( -)&,%6

/#%/ ,'- .%&/191.%/' 6'(( 1- 0),'(/19 +)&; /#%- +),'-L E1--( (H&K'$'0 N$

8H&)N%&),'/'& (#)+ /#' )..)(1/' &'(H6/(V ,)&' /#%- Zah )* $)H-2'& E1--( %-0 %6,)(/

R>h )* )60'& E1--( %2&'' +1/# /#' (/%/','-/L 8H&).'%-( %&' %2%1- ,)&' 01K10'0 1-

/#'1& ).1-1)-(L

O%('0 )- /#' %N)K' &'(H6/(I #$.)/#'(1( @L@ 9%--)/ N' 9)-*1&,'0L 46/#)H2# 1- N)/# 9%('(

6'(( /#%- #%6* )* ,1006' ,%-%2'&( %2&''0 +1/# /#' (/%/','-/(I /#'&' +%( -)

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6.3.4.

Summary of hypothesis 3

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Z@

7

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

G- /#1( 9#%./'& *)9H( (#1*/( /) +#%/ &'%()-( ,%$ 61' N'#1-0 /#' *1-01-2(L U'(H6/( *&),

'%9# )-' )* /#' #$.)/#'('( %&' 01(9H(('0 ('.%&%/'6$ %-0 1- &'*'&'-9' /) +#%/ '**'9/ /#'$

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Career ambition and perceptions7.1.

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Family and work7.2.

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1-(/1/H/1)-%6 *%9/)&(L

M#' &'(H6/( 1-019%/' /#%/ #%K1-2 9#160&'- 0)'( -)/ 1- 2'-'&%6 1,.%9/ /#' 0'(1&' *)&

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7.2.1.

Implications for the proportion of women in senior management

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Norms and beliefs7.3.

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(/'&')/$.19%6 N'61'*( &'2%&01-2 +),'-X( &)6'(I 9%&''& 1-/'&'(/( %-0 )..)&/H-1/1'(L G-



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1- /#' 9%(' ,%/'&-1/$ 6'%K' 1( .&)6)-2'0I +),'- /'-0 /) /%;' 6)-2'& 6'%K'(L M#1( 1- /H&-

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7.3.1. Implications for the proportion of women in senior management

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Suggestions for further research7.4.

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Conclusions7.5.

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/). ,%-%2','-/ .)(1/1)-(L M) &'%9# /#' %1, )* /#' (/H0$I &'6'K%-/ 61/'&%/H&' &'2%&01-2

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&'K1'+'0L 4 *&%,'+)&; %&)H-0 (/%/1(/19%6 01(9&1,1-%/1)- +%( 0'K'6).'0 N%('0 )-

OP'&;X( .&),)/1)- ,)0'6I +#19# (/%/'( /#%/ 1- 9%(' /#'&' 1( % 2'-0'& 01**'&'-9' 1-

%N161/1'(I (12-%61-2 %99H&%9$ )& (12-%61-2 )..)&/H-1/1'(I 1/ ,%$ 6'%0 /) )-' 2&)H. N'1-2

6'(( 61;'6$ /) &'%9# /). ,%-%2','-/ .)(1/1)-(I %6/#)H2# -) 9),.'/'-9' 01**'&'-9'(

'J1(/L G- &'*'&'-9' /) /#'(' /#&'' 2&)H.(I .%&%,'/'&(I +#19# ,%$ 1,.%9/ ,'-X(

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'J%,1-'0L E%9/)&( /#%/ %&' 10'-/1*1'0 /) %**'9/ (;166 (12-%61-2 1-96H0' '0H9%/1)- %-0

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-'/+)&;1-2 %-0 %99'(( /) -'/+)&;(I ()91'/%6 (/&H9/H&'I /1,' %66)9%/1)-I -)&,( %-0

.&'*'&'-9'(L

G- /#' ',.1&19%6 .%&/ E1--1(# ,'- %-0 +),'- 1- ,1006' ,%-%2','-/ +'&' TH'(/1)-'0

%N)H/ 9%&''& %-0 *%,16$ &'6%/'0 .&'*'&'-9'( %-0 (/'&')/$.19%6 N'61'*(L M#'

9)-96H(1)-( )* /#' (/H0$ %&' .&'('-/'0 N'6)+L

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